Scaling-up of Improved Groundnut Varieties
through Established Seed System in Various
Cropping Systems of Smallholder Farmers
in Odisha
Cultural Management Practices
of Groundnut
P Janila and MG Mula
2015
Supported by RKVY sub-scheme
Government of Odisha
Science with a human face
IMOD Inclusive Market-Oriented Development • Innovate • Grow • Prosper
Introduction
Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) is a self-pollinated, allotetraploid (2n=4x=40)
with a genome size of 2891 Mbp, and was most likely domesticated and
cultivated in the valleys of Paraguay. It is an annual herbaceous plant
growing 30 to 50 cm (1.0 to 1.6 ft) tall. The leaves are opposite, pinnate with four
leaflets (two opposite pairs; no terminal leaflet), each leaflet 1 to 7 cm (⅜ to
2¾ inch) long and 1 to 3 cm (⅜ to 1 inch) broad. Groundnut are known by many
other local names such as peanut, earthnut, goober peas, monkey nut, pygmy
nut and pignut. Despite its name and appearance, groundnut is not a nut, but
rather a species in the legume or “bean” family. Groundnuts are rich in
essential nutrients which are potential to provide health benefits. Groundnut
gives 570 calories per 100 g serving and are an excellent source of several
B vitamins; vitamin E; dietary minerals, such as manganese (95% DV),
magnesium (52% DV), phosphorous (48% DV); and dietary fiber (right table).
They also contain about 25% protein per 100 g serving, a higher proportion
than in many tree nuts.
Groundnut is grown on nearly 23.95 million ha worldwide with the total
production of 36.45 million tons and an average yield of 1520 kg/ha in 2009
(FAOSTAT 2011). China, India, Nigeria, USA and Myanmar are the major
groundnut growing countries. However, the low groundnut productivity in
many developing countries remains a cause of concern to the scientific
community and policy makers. Good crop agronomy is crucial in harnessing
the full potential of the crop in addition to appropriate variety and quality
seed in order to facilitate a synergistic effect on crop productivity. This farmer-
friendly booklet provides information on improved cultural practices in
groundnut cultivation which will empower smallholder farmer to make his/her
own decision on various components of integrated crop management
technology. Although generalized agronomic recommendations are often
made, they need to be customized to meet the requirements of specific fields
and be compatible with the socio-economic conditions under which
smallholder farmers function. Information on harvest and post-harvest
operations will help ensure that smallholder farmers produce high quality
groundnuts fetching them a higher price in the market.
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Cropping Season
Groundnut can be grown in both rainy (kharif) and post-rainy (rabi/summer/
spring) seasons. The optimum air temperature for growth and development of
groundnut is between 25°C and 30°C. Moreover, groundnut yield in the rainy
season is lower than in the post-rainy season due to cloudy weather and the
presence of diseases and insect pests.
Selection of Field and Land Preparation
Groundnut after groundnut in the same field is not advisable as it leads to
build-up of diseases and insect pests in the soil. Groundnut should be
rotated with a well-fertilized cereal crop. Ideal groundnut soil is well drained,
light color with sand, loamy sand or sandy loam texture and pH ranging
between 6.0 and 6.3. Maintaining soil pH is important as it affects the availability
of nutrients to plants. In case the pH is <5, lime (Ca CO3) in appropriate form and
quantity should be mixed thoroughly into the soil before land preparation or at
the time of land preparation so as to bring it into the optimal range. The rate of
application of lime depends upon the type of lime, soil type and depth of
application. As a general recommendation, it would require 1.5 t/ha of lime to
raise the soil pH from 5.0 to 6.5.
The field should be cleared of all
stubble and plant residues of the
previous crop. Un-decomposed plant
residues promote growth of disease
causing soil borne fungi. For land
Ridges
preparation, ploughing to a depth of
15-20 cm (very deep ploughing should
be avoided) and several passes of the
harrow to obtain a fine texture are
required. Groundnut can be sown
on flat beds or ridges or raised beds
separated by furrows. Sowing on Flat beds
raised beds with 0.4-0.8% slope allows
easy drainage of excess water, avoids compaction of seed beds and facilitates
field operations as all movements are restricted to furrows.
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Selection of Variety
Improved, trade-preferred cultivar recommended for the location and
cropping season should be selected for sowing. It should also have resistance/
tolerance to diseases and insect pests prevailing in the locality. Some varieties
may do well only in a specific growing season.
Rajasthan Karnataka Gujarat Maharashtra
Quality of Seed
Certified seed purchased from a reliable source or owner saved seed, which
is pure (true to type), graded (medium-size), undamaged, fully developed and
healthy (free from discoloration and fungal infection) with germination above
90% should be used. Germination test on seeds should be carried out one
week before sowing and the seed rate should be adjusted accordingly. Gap
filling after 8-10 days of sowing does not help much.
Cultural Practices
Manure and fertilizers
Groundnut responds to residual soil fertility better than the direct
application of fertilizers. The crop(s) preceding groundnut should be well
fertilized to build up soil fertility particularly for phosphorus (P) and
potassium (K). Application of fertilizers and their dose should be based on
the nutrient status of the soil as determined by the soil test and the targeted
yield. However, general recommendations for groundnut are as follows:
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Manure
Farm yard manure (FYM) or Compost: 10-12 t/ha; 25-30 days before sowing
Introducing green manure in crop rotation also helps to increase the organic
matter content of the soil and improve its structure.
Macronutrients
Nitrogen (N), P and K: 8-20 N, 16-80 P2O5, 0-75 K2O kg/ha; as basal
application
Calcium (Ca): 200-400 kg/ha of gypsum at the peak flowering stage as side
placement. Calcium is essential for good seed development.
Micronutrients
Many fields are deficient in micronutrients – boron, zinc and sulphur. If soil test
shows deficiency of these micronutrients, remedial measures should be taken
as follows:
Boron (B): Apply 3-4 kg/ha borax to the soil at the time of land preparation.
The residual effect of borax should last several seasons. Alternately, 0.1% borax
can be sprayed on the crop early in the season to ensure boron uptake before
flowering.
Zinc (Zn): Apply 10-20 kg/ha zinc sulphate to the soil once in three years at the
time of land preparation.
Sulphur (S): Application of gypsum provides adequate sulphur to the crop.
Sulphur deficiency is most likely on very sandy soils, which possess little anion
exchange capacity.
Iron (Fe): In many calcareous soils, groundnut plants show iron deficiency
symptoms (interveinal chlorosis in young leaves followed by full chlorosis
(whitish yellow) of entire leaves). Iron chlorosis can be alleviated by applying
ferrous sulphate @ 10 kg/ha to the soil or spraying the affected crop with 0.5%
ferrous sulphate + 0.2% urea solution. If required, the spray treatment could be
repeated at 10-14 days interval.
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Zinc deficiency Sulphur deficiency Iron deficiency
Seed treatments
Rhizobium inoculation: Rhizobium inoculation could be beneficial in newly
cleared fields, rice fallows, fields with eroded soils and low fertility. Seeds
should be treated just before sowing with Rhizobium culture.
For soil borne diseases: Seeds should be treated with captan (1.5 g) + thiram
(1.5 g), carbendazim (2.0 g) or mancozeb (3.0 g) per kg of seed or other
locally recommended fungicide(s). Seed treatment with Trichoderma viride
or T. harzianum @ 4-5 g/kg seed also helps in managing seed and soil borne
diseases.
For soil insect pests: In white grub and termite endemic areas, seed should be
treated with chlorpyriphos 20 EC @ 12.5 ml/kg seed.
For sucking insect pests: Seed treatment with imidacloprid (17.8 SC) @ 2 ml/
kg seed gives protection against sucking insect pests (thrips, jassids and aphids)
and leaf miner at early stages of plant growth.
Seed dormancy: Virginia varieties have postharvest seed dormancy, which
may last for 5-6 months. If such varieties are to be sown immediately after
harvest, the seeds should be thinly spread over a tarpaulin or plastic sheet and
sprayed thoroughly with etherel 39 EC @ 5 ml/L water and air dried just
before sowing.
Seed treatment with fungicide/insecticide gives protection up to 30 days
after sowing. It should be carried out one or two days prior to sowing. Seeds
should be treated first with liquid chemicals and after drying with powder/
dust chemicals. If the Rhizobium strain is not compatible with
fungicide/ insecticide, the culture can be applied in sowing rows following
slurry method.
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Spacing, sowing depth and seed rate
Spacing: Row to row 30–45 cm and plant to plant within a row 10–15 cm or as
recommended for the location; one seed/hill.
A closer spacing for Spanish/Valencia (bunch) cultivars and a wider spacing for
Virginia (semi-spreading or spreading) cultivars are recommended.
Sowing depth: 5 cm
Optimum plant population: 330,000 plants/ha for Spanish/Valencia cultivars
and 148,000 plants/ha for Virginia cultivars.
Seed rate: The seed rate will vary depending on seed weight, germination %
and row to row and seed to seed spacing adopted. Normally, it may range from
100 kg to 160 kg/ha.
Sowing method
The use of seed drill (bullock-drawn or tractor-mounted) is recommended as
it results in faster sowing, quicker emergence and uniform plant stand. There
should be enough moisture in the soil before sowing to ensure quick and
uniform germination. In case of dry sowing, irrigation should be provided soon
after, preferably with sprinklers. Flood irrigation should be avoided.
Intercultivation and weed management
It is essential to keep groundnut fields weed free
for up to 45 days after crop emergence. Even at
later stages it is desirable not to have weeds
in the field as they interfere with harvesting.
Application of pre-emergence herbicides
such as pendimethalin @ 1.0 -1.5 kg a.i./ha as
spray or fluchloralin @ 1.0 -1.5 kg a.i./ha as
pre-plant soil incorporation followed by 1-2 hand
weeding, as and when needed, effectively reduces weed competition. The last
hand weeding can be done along with gypsum application so as to incorporate
it in the soil. The plant should not be disturbed once the pegs enter the soil.
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Interculture in a rainfed crop helps to reduce weeds and also encourages
infiltration of rainwater.
Many farmers practice earthing up (mounting soil around the plant), which is
not recommendable, to allow pegs from higher nodes to enter the soil. This
practice may promote growth of stem rot causing fungus (Sclerotium rolfsii).
It also deteriorates the quality of earlier set mature pods while waiting for the
later set pods to mature.
Water management
Rainfed crop: Proper arrangements for
drainage should be made so that excess
rain water does not stagnate in the field. If
supplementary irrigation is available, it should
be given at critical stages such as flowering,
pegging and pod and seed development.
Irrigated crop: Except for crops grown on residual moisture, rabi/summer/
spring season crops are fully irrigated. Generally, 600-650 mm water is
sufficient to raise a full groundnut crop. A 2-3 week moisture stress soon
after crop emergence followed by regular irrigation, often helps in inducing
profuse flowering and uniform pod maturity. At pegging and pod and seed
development stages, light but frequent irrigation is required. Excessive
irrigation at later stages of crop growth may promote pod and seed diseases
at maturity. The preferred method of irrigation is sprinkler irrigation. Flood
irrigation, often practiced in flat sowing in south Asia, is not a good method of
irrigation as it wastes water, results in over watering and trampling of plants in
the field by workers engaged in irrigation.
Plant Protection
There are a number of disease/insect pest management measures, including
use of resistant cultivars, cultural, chemical and biological. Growing resistant/
tolerant cultivars is the most economic and efficient measure. In case the
level of resistance in a preferred cultivar is not high enough, other approaches
should be combined to obtain better protection against diseases and insect
pests.
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For high volume sprayers, 450-500 L and for low volume sprayers 225-250 L
water is required to cover 1 ha. While using chemicals, protective clothing
should be worn and proper care should be taken to dispose empty bottles/
cartons of chemicals in a safe manner.
Diseases
Rust and early- and late-leaf spots
If both rust and leaf spots occur together, chlorothalonil 75 WP @ 750 g a.i./
ha should be sprayed on the crop. If only leaf spots appear, use carbendazim
50 WP @ 250 g a.i./ha or mancozeb 50 WP @ 500 g a.i./ha. If only rust is seen,
use calixin 80 EC @ 250 ml a.i./ha. For effective control, fungicides should be
applied immediately after the appearance of symptoms. Further applications
should be made at 10-15 days interval until 2-3 weeks before harvest. A close
monitoring of the crop can help to reduce the number of sprays to the
minimum.
Rust Early leaf spots Late leaf spots
Collar rot/stem rot
These diseases can be managed by treating seeds with seed dressing
fungicides or T. viride or T. harzianum (Please see ‘Seed treatments’) or soil
application of T. viride or T. harzianum @ 2.5 kg (incorporated in 50 kg FYM or
castor cake) per ha at the time of sowing.
Aflatoxin
Aflatoxin, a carcigenic toxin, is produced in groundnut seed by Aspergillus
group of fungi. The fungus can infect the pods in the field when they are
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developing, during harvesting and curing and in
storage. End-of-season drought influences pods
to fungal infection. It is essential to minimize
aflatoxin contamination of the produce as it
affects human and livestock health and restricts
the international trade of the commodity. The
following precautions can be taken to
minimize aflatoxin contamination: growing tolerant varieties, applying
Trichoderma viride @ 1 kg (mixed with 50 kg FYM) per ha to the soil at the time
of sowing and gypsum at peak flowering, light but frequent irrigation (if
available) during pod and seed development stages, avoiding mechanical
damage to pods during weeding, harvesting, curing, threshing and storage,
control of soil insects, harvesting at optimum maturity (in case of
severe drought, the crop should be harvested early), drying the pods to <8%
moisture content, removal of immature, discolored and damaged pods from
the produce, not mixing the gleanings (leftover pods collected from the soil)
with main produce and protection from storage insect pests. Immature pods
should be removed from the haulms before feeding them to livestock.
Peanut bud necrosis disease (PBND) and peanut stem necrosis disease
(PSND)
Seed treatment with imidacloprid provides initial
protection for 30 days after sowing through control
of thrips vectors. Field sanitation, removal of weed
hosts and cultural practices such as timely sowing,
optimum plant population and intercropping and
border cropping with fast growing tall cereal crops
offer best solution to contain these diseases.
Insect pests
Tobacco caterpillar (Spodoptera), Gram pod borer (Helicoverpa) and
Red hairy caterpillar (Amsacta)
These defoliators inflict economic losses only when the foliage damage
exceeds 25%.
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Tobacco caterpillar Gram pod borer Red hairy caterpil-lar
Integrated pest management (IPM): Includes growing of resistant/tolerant
cultivar, growing of trap crop such as sunflower and castor bean on borders or
in groundnut field (1 plant 20/m), destroying of egg masses on trap crops and
groundnut plants by hand, encouraging larvae predation by birds by providing
perches in the field (10-15/ha) and application of nuclear polyhedrosis virus
(NPV) @ 250 LE/ha, obtained from a reliable source and neem seed kernel
extract @ extract obtained from 10 kg neem seed powder/ha.
Chemical control: Chemical control
should be followed as a last resort
when there is absolute necessity.
Apply endosulfan @ 350 mL a.i./ha,
or monocrotophos @ 300 mL a.i./ha
or fenvalerate @ 100 mL a.i./ha or
indoxacarb @ 70 mL a.i./ha or spinosad
@ 45 mL a.i./haif defoliation exceeds
25%, or if one or more larvae per plant
is observed during the first 50 days
after seedling emergence (DAE).
For red hairy caterpillars, digging a 15-20 cm deep trench all around the field
and placing Ipomea or some other plant twigs in them can restrict the
migrating caterpillars to the trench, where they could be destroyed manually
or by spraying fenvalerate @ 1 ml/L water. Alternately, a short barricade of
polythene fence (10 cm high) across the migrating route can prevent their
entry into the field and they can be collected manually and destroyed.
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Groundnut leaf miner
Chemical control is recommended if 5 or
more active larvae/plant are found up to
30 DAE, 10 larvae/plant between 30-50
DAE, or 15 larvae/plant at 51 DAE or later.
Apply dimethoate @ 200-250 ml a.i./ha or
monochrotophos @ 150-200 ml a.i./ha or
imidacloprid @ 25 ml a.i./ha.
Aphids, Thrips and Jassids
For aphids, apply dimethoate @ 200-250 ml a.i./ha when all the terminal buds
in a young plant are infested. Only when five thrips per terminal leaf (folded)
are observed before 20 DAE, apply imidacloprid @ 25 ml a.i./ha or dimethoate
@ 200-250 ml a.i./ha. If 10% of the total leaves show hopper burn (‘V’ shaped
yellowing at the leaf tip), imidacloprid @ 25 ml a.i./ha or dimethoate @ 100-
200 ml a.i./ha should be sprayed for control of jassids.
Aphids Thrips Jassid
White grub
Apply thimet 10 G or carbofuran 3 G @ 1 kg a.i./ha in
seed furrows just before sowing or treat seeds with
chlorpyriphos 20 EC @ 12.5 ml/kg seed.
Termites
Seed treatment with chlorpyriphos provides protection up to 30 days
after sowing. Chemical control in rainfed crop at later stages is difficult and
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expensive. However, some cultural practices such
as destroying the termite mounds in the vicinity
of the field, removal of plant residues and debris
from the field and timely harvest can help to
minimize the damage.
Harvest and Postharvest Operations
Harvest at maturity
Optimum harvest time is determined by
uprooting a few representative plants
from different spots in the field around
the expected time of maturity and
checking the inner side of the pod shell,
which shows black color when mature.
When 75-80% pods in case of Spanish/
Valencia cultivars and 70-75% pods in
case of Virginia cultivars show internal
pericarp darkening, the crop is ready for
harvest. If sprouting of seeds is observed in Spanish/Valencia cultivars (due to
rains at harvest time in cultivars lacking fresh seed dormancy), the crop should
be harvested as soon as the conditions permit without waiting for 75-80% of
pods to mature. Over maturity or delay in harvesting can result in greater pod
loss in the soil and deterioration in pod quality.
Drying and curing
Lift the plants, and invert them with the
pods uppermost in windrows for about
2-3 days. Pick the pods (preferably by
thresher) and spread them out in a thin
layer to sun-dry for a further 3-4 days.
The seeds in well-dried pods should have
less than 10% moisture content. In the
post-rainy season, when temperatures
at the time of harvesting are high, the Inverted windrows
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harvested plants should be assembled in
circular heaps with pods facing inside so
as to avoid their direct exposure to the
sun. The pods should be shade-dried to
maintain seed viability.
Storage Circular heaps
It is important to remove all damaged, discolored, rotted, immature and
sprouted pods, other plant materials and soil from the produce before storage.
Under unfavorable conditions, groundnut seed loses viability quickly.
Commercial produce
Well cleaned, dried, mature pods free from plant
debris, soil and other inert materials should
be stored in gunny bags in a well-ventilated
rodent free room for marketing. The bags should
be placed on wooden planks and should not be
stacked very high. If longer storage is needed for
marketing reasons, proper care should be taken
to avoid storage insect pest infestation. Only safe
chemicals, if needed, should be used.
Seed purpose
Only sound, mature, clean and well filled pods from ‘true to type’ plants should
be selected for seed purpose. Well-dried pods with about 5% moisture content
should be stored to avoid fungal and insect pests attack in storage. The pods
should be stored in polythene-lined gunny bags or in some other safe storage
structure in a well-ventilated and rodent free room, which is not in general use
and out of bounds to children. The bags should be placed on wooden planks
(not more than five in a stack) and away from walls to avoid damage from
dampness and should be protected from storage pests by dusting the bags
with 5% lindane or 5% malathion dust. In case of pest outbreak in storage, the
bags should be fumigated with celphos (tablets) @ 3 g/bag (40 kg bag) and
under cover with polythene sheet for 4-5 days.
(Adapted in ICRISATs ‘Improved Cultivation Practices for Groundnut)
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