History of agriculture

Agriculture began independently in different parts of

the globe, and included a diverse range of taxa. At
least eleven separate regions of the Old and New
World were involved as independent centers of origin.
The development of agriculture about 12,000 years
ago changed the way humans lived. They switched
from nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyles to permanent
settlements and farming.[1]

Wild grains were collected and eaten from at least

104,000 years ago.[2] However, domestication did not Ploughing with a yoke of horned cattle in Ancient
occur until much later. The earliest evidence of small- Egypt. Painting from the burial chamber of
scale cultivation of edible grasses is from around Sennedjem, c. 1200 BC.
21,000 BC with the Ohalo II people on the shores of
the Sea of Galilee.[3] By around 9500 BC, the eight
Neolithic founder crops – emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch,
chickpeas, and flax – were cultivated in the Levant.[4] Rye may have been cultivated earlier, but this
claim remains controversial.[5] Regardless, rye's spread from Southwest Asia to the Atlantic was
independent of the Neolithic founder crop package.[6] Rice was domesticated in China by 6200 BC[7]
with earliest known cultivation from 5700 BC, followed by mung, soy and azuki beans. Rice was also
independently domesticated in West Africa and cultivated by 1000 BC.[8][9] Pigs were domesticated in
Mesopotamia around 11,000 years ago, followed by sheep. Cattle were domesticated from the wild
aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey and India around 8500 BC. Camels were domesticated late,
perhaps around 3000 BC.

In subsaharan Africa, sorghum was domesticated in the Sahel region of Africa by 3000 BC, along with
pearl millet by 2000 BC.[10][11] Yams were domesticated in several distinct locations, including West
Africa (unknown date), and cowpeas by 2500 BC.[12][13] Rice (African rice) was also independently
domesticated in West Africa and cultivated by 1000 BC.[8][9] Teff and likely finger millet were
domesticated in Ethiopia by 3000 BC, along with noog, ensete, and coffee.[14][15] Other plant foods
domesticated in Africa include watermelon, okra, tamarind and black eyed peas, along with tree crops
such as the kola nut and oil palm.[16] Plantains were cultivated in Africa by 3000 BC and bananas by
1500 BC.[17][18] The helmeted guineafowl was domesticated in West Africa.[19] Sanga cattle was likely
also domesticated in North-East Africa, around 7000 BC, and later crossbred with other species.[20][21]

In South America, agriculture began as early as 9000 BC, starting with the cultivation of several species
of plants that later became only minor crops. In the Andes of South America, the potato was domesticated
between 8000 BC and 5000 BC, along with beans, squash, tomatoes, peanuts, coca, llamas, alpacas, and
guinea pigs. Cassava was domesticated in the Amazon Basin no later than 7000 BC. Maize (Zea mays)
found its way to South America from Mesoamerica, where wild teosinte was domesticated about 7000
BC and selectively bred to become domestic maize. Cotton was domesticated in Peru by 4200 BC;
another species of cotton was domesticated in Mesoamerica and became by far the most important
species of cotton in the textile industry in modern times.[22] Evidence of agriculture in the Eastern United
States dates to about 3000 BCE. Several plants were cultivated, later to be replaced by the Three Sisters
cultivation of maize, squash, and beans.

Sugarcane and some root vegetables were domesticated in New Guinea around 7000 BC. Bananas were
cultivated and hybridized in the same period in Papua New Guinea. In Australia, agriculture was invented
at a currently unspecified period, with the oldest eel traps of Budj Bim dating to 6,600 BC[23] and the
deployment of several crops ranging from yams[24] to bananas.[25]

The Bronze Age, from c. 3300 BC, witnessed the intensification of agriculture in civilizations such as
Mesopotamian Sumer, ancient Egypt, ancient Sudan, the Indus Valley civilisation of the Indian
subcontinent, ancient China, and ancient Greece. From 100 BC to 1600 AD, world population continued
to grow along with land use, as evidenced by the rapid increase in methane emissions from cattle and the
cultivation of rice.[26] During the Iron Age and era of classical antiquity, the expansion of ancient Rome,
both the Republic and then the Empire, throughout the ancient Mediterranean and Western Europe built
upon existing systems of agriculture while also establishing the manorial system that became a bedrock
of medieval agriculture. In the Middle Ages, both in Europe and in the Islamic world, agriculture was
transformed with improved techniques and the diffusion of crop plants, including the introduction of
sugar, rice, cotton and fruit trees such as the orange to Europe by way of Al-Andalus. After the voyages
of Christopher Columbus in 1492, the Columbian exchange brought New World crops such as maize,
potatoes, tomatoes, sweet potatoes, and manioc to Europe, and Old World crops such as wheat, barley,
rice, and turnips, and livestock including horses, cattle, sheep, and goats to the Americas.

Irrigation, crop rotation, and fertilizers were introduced soon after the Neolithic Revolution and
developed much further in the past 200 years, starting with the British Agricultural Revolution. Since
1900, agriculture in the developed nations, and to a lesser extent in the developing world, has seen large
rises in productivity as human labour has been replaced by mechanization, and assisted by synthetic
fertilizers, pesticides, and selective breeding. The Haber-Bosch process allowed the synthesis of
ammonium nitrate fertilizer on an industrial scale, greatly increasing crop yields. Modern agriculture has
raised social, political, and environmental issues including overpopulation, water pollution, biofuels,
genetically modified organisms, tariffs and farm subsidies. In response, organic farming developed in the
twentieth century as an alternative to the use of synthetic pesticides.

Origins

Origin hypotheses
Scholars have developed a number of hypotheses to explain the historical origins of agriculture. Studies
of the transition from hunter-gatherer to agricultural societies indicate an antecedent period of
intensification and increasing sedentism; examples are the Natufian culture in the Levant and the Early
Chinese Neolithic in China. Current models indicate that wild stands that had been harvested previously
started to be planted, but were not immediately domesticated.[27][28]
Localised climate change is the favoured explanation for the
origins of agriculture in the Levant.[1] When major climate change
took place after the last ice age (c. 11,000 BC), much of the earth
became subject to long dry seasons.[29] These conditions favoured
annual plants which die off in the long dry season, leaving a
dormant seed or tuber. An abundance of readily storable wild
grains and pulses enabled hunter-gatherers in some areas to form Indigenous Australian camp by
[1]
the first settled villages at this time. Across Western Eurasia it Skinner Prout, 1876
was not until approximately 4,000 BC that farming societies
completely replaced hunter-gatherers. These technologically
advanced societies expanded faster in areas with less forest, pushing hunter-gatherers into denser
woodlands. Only the middle-late Bronze Age and Iron Age societies were able to fully replace hunter-
gatherers in their final stronghold located in the most densely forested areas. Unlike their Bronze and Iron
Age counterparts, Neolithic societies couldn't establish themselves in dense forests, and Copper Age
societies had only limited success. [30]

Early development
Early people began altering communities of flora and fauna for
their own benefit through means such as fire-stick farming and
forest gardening very early.[31][32][33] Wild grains have been
collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago, and possibly
much longer.[2] Exact dates are hard to determine, as people
collected and ate seeds before domesticating them, and plant
characteristics may have changed during this period without
human selection. An example is the semi-tough rachis and larger
seeds of cereals from just after the Younger Dryas (about 9500 Sumerian harvester's sickle, 3000
BC) in the early Holocene in the Levant region of the Fertile BC, made from baked clay
Crescent. Monophyletic characteristics were attained without any
human intervention, implying that apparent domestication of the
cereal rachis could have occurred quite naturally.[34]

Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe and

included a diverse range of taxa. At least 11 separate regions of the
Old and New World were involved as independent centers of
origin.[35] Some of the earliest known domestications were of
animals. Domestic pigs had multiple centres of origin in Eurasia,
including Europe, East Asia and Southwest Asia,[36] where wild
boar were first domesticated about 10,500 years ago.[37] Sheep
were domesticated in Mesopotamia between 11,000 BC and 9000
BC.[38] Cattle were domesticated from the wild aurochs in the An Indian farmer with a rock-
areas of modern Turkey and India around 8500 BC.[39] Camels weighted scratch plough pulled by
were domesticated relatively late, perhaps around 3000 BC.[40] two oxen. Similar ploughs were
used throughout antiquity.
It was not until after 9500 BC that the eight so-called founder
crops of agriculture appear: first emmer and einkorn wheat, then
hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and flax. These eight crops occur more or less
simultaneously on Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB)
sites in the Levant, although wheat was the first to be
grown and harvested on a significant scale. At around
the same time (9400 BC), parthenocarpic fig trees
were domesticated.[42][43]

Domesticated rye occurs in small quantities at some

Neolithic sites in (Asia Minor) Turkey, such as the
Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (c. 7600 – c. 6000 BC) Can
Hasan III near Çatalhöyük,[44] but is otherwise absent
Centres of origin identified by Nikolai Vavilov in
until the Bronze Age of central Europe, c. 1800–1500 the 1930s. Area 3 (grey) is no longer recognised
BC.[45] Claims of much earlier cultivation of rye, at as a centre of origin, and Papua New Guinea
the Epipalaeolithic site of Tell Abu Hureyra in the (red, 'P') was identified more recently.[41]
Euphrates valley of northern Syria, remain
controversial.[46] Critics point to inconsistencies in
the radiocarbon dates, and identifications based solely on grain, rather than on chaff.[47]

By 8000 BC, farming was entrenched on the banks of the Nile. About this time, agriculture was
developed independently in the Far East, probably in China, with rice rather than wheat as the primary
crop. Maize was domesticated from the wild grass teosinte in southern Mexico by 6700 BC.[48] The
potato (8000 BC), tomato,[49] pepper (4000 BC), squash (8000 BC) and several varieties of bean (8000
BC onwards) were domesticated in the New World.

Agriculture was independently developed on the island of New Guinea.[50] Banana cultivation of Musa
acuminata, including hybridization, dates back to 5000 BC, and possibly to 8000 BC, in Papua New
Guinea.[51][52]

Bees were kept for honey in the Middle East around 7000 BC.[53] Archaeological evidence from various
sites on the Iberian peninsula suggest the domestication of plants and animals between 6000 and 4500
BC.[54] The Céide Fields, located in Ireland consist of extensive tracts of land enclosed by stone walls,
these walls date to 3500 BC and is the oldest known field systems in europe.[55][56] The horse was
domesticated in the Pontic steppe around 4000 BC In Siberia.[57] Cannabis was in use in China in
Neolithic times and may have been domesticated there; it was in use both as a fibre for ropemaking and
as a medicine in Ancient Egypt by about 2350 BC.[58]

In northern China, millet was domesticated by early Sino-Tibetan

speakers at around 8000 to 6000 BC, becoming the main crop of
the Yellow River basin by 5500 BC.[59][60] They were followed by
mung, soy and azuki beans.

In southern China, rice was domesticated in the Yangtze River

basin at around 11,500 to 6200 BC, along with the development of
wetland agriculture, by early Austronesian and Hmong-Mien-
Clay and wood model of a bull cart speakers. Other food plants were also harvested, including acorns,
carrying farm produce in large pots,
water chestnuts, and foxnuts.[7][59][62][63] Rice cultivation was
Mohenjo-daro. The site was
abandoned in the 19th century BC.
later spread to Maritime Southeast Asia by the Austronesian
expansion, starting at around 3,500 to 2,000 BC. This migration
event also saw the introduction of cultivated and domesticated
 food plants from Taiwan, Maritime Southeast
Asia, and New Guinea into the Pacific Islands as
canoe plants. Contact with Sri Lanka and
Southern India by Austronesian sailors also led to
an exchange of food plants which later became
the origin of the valuable spice trade.[64][65][66]
In the 1st millennium AD, Austronesian sailors
Chronological dispersal of Austronesian peoples also settled Madagascar and the Comoros,
across the Indo-Pacific[61] bringing Southeast Asian and South Asian food
plants with them to the East African coast,
including bananas and rice.[67][68] Rice was also
spread southwards into Mainland Southeast Asia by around 2000 to 1500 BC by the migrations of the
early Austroasiatic and Kra-Dai-speakers.[62]

In the Sahel region of Africa, sorghum was domesticated by 3000 BC in Sudan[69] and pearl millet by
2500 BC in Mali.[70] Kola nut and coffee were also domesticated in Africa.[71] In New Guinea, ancient
Papuan peoples began practicing agriculture around 7000 BC, domesticating sugarcane and taro.[72] In
the Indus Valley from the eighth millennium BC onwards at Mehrgarh, 2-row and 6-row barley were
cultivated, along with einkorn, emmer, and durum wheats, and dates. In the earliest levels of Merhgarh,
wild game such as gazelle, swamp deer, blackbuck, chital, wild ass, wild goat, wild sheep, boar, and
nilgai were all hunted for food. These are successively replaced by domesticated sheep, goats, and
humped zebu cattle by the fifth millennium BC, indicating the gradual transition from hunting and
gathering to agriculture.[73]

Maize and squash were domesticated in Mesoamerica; potatoes in South America, and sunflowers in the
Eastern Woodlands of North America.[74]

Civilizations

Sumer
Sumerian farmers grew the cereals barley and wheat, starting to
live in villages from about 8000 BC. Given the low rainfall of the
region, agriculture relied on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
Irrigation canals leading from the rivers permitted the growth of
cereals in large enough quantities to support cities. The first
ploughs appear in pictographs from Uruk around 3000 BC; seed-
ploughs that funneled seed into the ploughed furrow appear on
Domesticated animals on a
seals around 2300 BC. Vegetable crops included chickpeas, lentils,
Sumerian cylinder seal, 2500 BC
peas, beans, onions, garlic, lettuce, leeks and mustard. They grew
fruits including dates, grapes, apples, melons, and figs. Alongside
their farming, Sumerians also caught fish and hunted fowl and gazelle. The meat of sheep, goats, cows
and poultry was eaten, mainly by the elite. Fish was preserved by drying, salting and smoking.[75][76]
Ancient Egypt
The civilization of Ancient Egypt was indebted to the Nile River and its
dependable seasonal flooding. The river's predictability and the fertile soil
allowed the Egyptians to build an empire on the basis of great agricultural
wealth. Egyptians were among the first peoples to practice agriculture on
a large scale, starting in the pre-dynastic period from the end of the
Paleolithic into the Neolithic, between around 10,000 BC and 4000
BC.[77] This was made possible with the development of basin
irrigation.[78] Their staple food crops were grains such as wheat and
barley, alongside industrial crops such as flax and papyrus.[77]
Archaeological evidence also suggests that the spread of agriculture in
Egypt was facilitated by farming communities associated with the playa
lakes of the Sahara some 6,500 years ago.[79] Agricultural scenes of
threshing, a grain store,
harvesting with sickles,
Indian Subcontinent digging, tree-cutting and
ploughing from Ancient
Jujube was domesticated in the Indian subcontinent by 9000 BC.[80] Egypt. Tomb of Nakht, 15th
Barley and wheat cultivation – along with the domestication of cattle, century BC.
primarily sheep and goats – followed in Mehrgarh culture by 8000–6000
BC.[81][82][83] This period also saw the first domestication of the
elephant.[80] Pastoral farming in India included threshing, planting crops in rows – either of two or of
six – and storing grain in granaries.[82][84] Cotton was cultivated by the 5th–4th millennium BC.[85] By
the 5th millennium BC, agricultural communities became widespread in Kashmir.[82] Irrigation was
developed in the Indus Valley Civilisation by around 4500 BC.[86] The size and prosperity of the Indus
civilization grew as a result of this innovation, leading to more thoroughly planned settlements which
used drainage and sewers.[86] Archeological evidence of an animal-drawn plough dates back to 2500 BC
in the Indus Valley Civilization.[87]

Ancient China
Records from the Warring States, Qin dynasty, and Han dynasty
provide a picture of early Chinese agriculture from the 5th century
BC to 2nd century AD which included a nationwide granary
system and widespread use of sericulture. An important early
Chinese book on agriculture is the Qimin Yaoshu of AD 535,
written by Jia Sixie.[88] Jia's writing style was straightforward and
lucid relative to the elaborate and allusive writing typical of the
Ancient rice terraces in Yuanyang time. Jia's book was also very long, with over one hundred
County, Yunnan thousand written Chinese characters, and it quoted many other
Chinese books that were written previously, but no longer
survive.[89] The contents of Jia's 6th century book include sections
on land preparation, seeding, cultivation, orchard management, forestry, and animal husbandry. The book
also includes peripherally related content covering trade and culinary uses for crops.[90] The work and the
style in which it was written proved influential on later Chinese agronomists, such as Wang Zhen and his
groundbreaking Nong Shu of 1313.[89]
For agricultural purposes, the Chinese had innovated the
hydraulic-powered trip hammer by the 1st century BC.[91]
Although it found other purposes, its main function to pound,
decorticate, and polish grain that otherwise would have been done
manually. The Chinese also began using the square-pallet chain
pump by the 1st century AD, powered by a waterwheel or oxen
pulling an on a system of mechanical wheels.[92] Although the
chain pump found use in public works of providing water for
urban and palatial pipe systems,[93] it was used largely to lift water A Northern Song era (960–1127 AD)
Chinese watermill for dehusking
from a lower to higher elevation in filling irrigation canals and
grain with a horizontal waterwheel
channels for farmland.[94] By the end of the Han dynasty in the
late 2nd century, heavy ploughs had been developed with iron
ploughshares and mouldboards.[95][96] These slowly spread west, revolutionizing farming in Northern
Europe by the 10th century. (Thomas Glick, however, argues for a development of the Chinese plough as
late as the 9th century, implying its spread east from similar designs known in Italy by the 7th
century.)[97]

Asian rice was domesticated 8,200–13,500 years ago in China, with a single genetic origin from the wild
rice Oryza rufipogon,[7] in the Pearl River valley region of China. Rice cultivation then spread to South
and Southeast Asia.[98]

Ancient Greece and Hellenistic world

The major cereal crops of the ancient Mediterranean region were
wheat, emmer, and barley, while common vegetables included
peas, beans, fava, and olives, dairy products came mostly from
sheep and goats, and meat, which was consumed on rare occasion
for most people, usually consisted of pork, beef, and lamb.[99]
Agriculture in ancient Greece was hindered by the topography of
An ear of barley, symbol of wealth in
mainland Greece that only allowed for roughly 10% of the land to
the city of Metapontum in Magna
be cultivated properly, necessitating the specialised exportation of Graecia (i.e. the Greek colonies of
oil and wine and importation of grains from Thrace (centered in southern Italy), stamped stater,
what is now Bulgaria) and the Greek colonies of Pontic Greeks c. 530–510 BC
near the Black Sea. During the Hellenistic period, the Ptolemaic
Empire controlled Egypt, Cyprus, Phoenicia, and Cyrenaica,
major grain-producing regions that mainland Greeks depended on for subsistence, while the Ptolemaic
grain market also played a critical role in the rise of the Roman Republic. In the Seleucid Empire,
Mesopotamia was a crucial area for the production of wheat, while nomadic animal husbandry was also
practiced in other parts.[100]

Roman Empire
In the Greco-Roman world of Classical antiquity, Roman agriculture was built on techniques originally
pioneered by the Sumerians, transmitted to them by subsequent cultures, with a specific emphasis on the
cultivation of crops for trade and export. The Romans laid the groundwork for the manorial economic
system, involving serfdom, which flourished in the Middle Ages. The farm sizes in Rome can be divided
into three categories. Small farms were from 18 to 88 iugera (one iugerum is equal to about 0.65 acre).
Medium-sized farms were from 80 to 500 iugera (singular
iugerum). Large estates (called latifundia) were over 500 iugera.
The Romans had four systems of farm management: direct work
by the owner and his family; slaves doing work under the
supervision of slave managers; tenant farming or sharecropping in
which the owner and a tenant divide up a farm's produce; and
situations in which a farm was leased to a tenant.[101]

The Americas Roman harvesting machine, a

vallus, from a Roman wall in
Agricultural history took a different path from the Old World as Belgium, which was then part of the
the Americas lacked large-seeded, easily domesticated grains province of Gallia Belgica
(such as wheat and barley) and large domestic animals that could
be used for agricultural labor. Rather than the practice which
developed in the Old World of sowing a field with a single crop, pre-historic American agriculture usually
consisted of cultivating many crops close to each other utilizing only hand labor. Moreover, agricultural
areas in the Americas lacked the uniformity of the east–west area of Mediterranean and semi-arid
climates in southern Europe and southwestern Asia, but instead had a north–south pattern with a variety
of different climatic zones in close proximity to each other. This fostered the domestication of many
different plants.[102]

At the time of first contact between the Europeans and the Americans, the Europeans practiced "extensive
agriculture, based on the plough and draught animals," with tenants under landlords, but also forced labor
or slavery, while the Indigenous peoples of the Americas practiced "intensive agriculture, based on
human labour."[103] Europeans wanted control of land for the grazing of their livestock and property
rights for the control of production. Though they were impressed with the productivity of traditional
farming techniques, they saw no connection to their system and were dismissive of Native American
practices as "gardening" rather than a commercializable enterprise.[103][104] Due to several thousand
years of selective breeding, maize, the hemisphere's most important crop, was more productive than Old
World grain crops. Maize produced two and one-half times more calories per acre than wheat and
barley.[105]

South America
The earliest known areas of possible agriculture in the
Americas dating to about 9000 BC are in Colombia, near
present-day Pereira, and by the Las Vegas culture in Ecuador
on the Santa Elena peninsula. The plants cultivated (or
manipulated by humans) were lerén (Calathea allouia),
arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea), squash (Cucurbita
species), and bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria). All are
plants of humid climates and their existence at this time on
the semi-arid Santa Elena peninsula may be evidence that Agriculture terraces were (and are)
they were transplanted there from more humid common in the austere, high-elevation
environments.[106][107] In another study, this area of South environment of the Andes.
America was identified as one of the four oldest places of
origin for agriculture, along with the Fertile Crescent, China, and
Mesoamerica, dated between 6200 BC and 10000 BC.[108] (To facilitate
comprehension by readers, Radiocarbon calibrated BP dates in the above
sources have been converted to BC.)

In the Andes region, with civilizations including the Inca, the major crop
was the potato, domesticated between 8000 and 5000 BC.[109][110][111]
Coca, still a major crop to this day, was domesticated in the Andes, as
were the peanut, tomato, tobacco, and pineapple.[72] Cotton was
domesticated in Peru by 4200 BC.[112][113] Animals were also
domesticated, including llamas, alpacas, and guinea pigs.[114] The people
of the Inca Empire of South America grew large surpluses of food which
Inca farmers using a
they stored in buildings called Qullqas.[115]
human-powered foot plough
The most important crop domesticated in the Amazon Basin and tropical
lowlands was probably cassava, (Manihot esculenta), which was
domesticated before 7000 BCE, likely in the Rondônia and Mato Grosso states of Brazil.[116] The
Guaitecas Archipelago in modern Chile was the southern limit of Pre-Hispanic agriculture near 44° South
latitude,[117] as noted by the mention of the cultivation of Chiloé potatoes by a Spanish expedition in
1557.[118]

Mesoamerica
In Mesoamerica, wild teosinte was transformed through human
selection into the ancestor of modern maize, about 7,000 BC. It
gradually spread across North America and to South America and
was the most important crop of Native Americans at the time of
European exploration.[119] Other Mesoamerican crops include
hundreds of varieties of locally domesticated squash and beans,
while cocoa, also domesticated in the region, was a major crop.[72]
The turkey, one of the most important poultry birds, was probably The creation of maize from teosinte
(top), maize-teosinte hybrid
domesticated in Mexico or the U.S. Southwest.[120]
(middle), to maize (bottom)

In Mesoamerica, the Aztecs were active farmers and had an

agriculturally focused economy. The land around Lake Texcoco was fertile, but not large enough to
produce the amount of food needed for the population of their expanding empire. The Aztecs developed
irrigation systems, formed terraced hillsides, fertilized their soil, and developed chinampas or artificial
islands, also known as "floating gardens". The Mayas between 400 BC to 900 AD used extensive canal
and raised field systems to farm swampland on the Yucatán Peninsula.[121][122]

North America
The indigenous people of the Eastern U.S. domesticated numerous crops. Sunflowers, tobacco,[123]
varieties of squash and Chenopodium, as well as crops no longer grown, including marsh elder and little
barley.[124][125] Wild foods including wild rice and maple sugar were harvested.[126] The domesticated
strawberry is a hybrid of a Chilean and a North American species, developed by breeding in Europe and
North America.[127] Two major crops, pecans and Concord grapes, were used extensively in prehistoric
times but do not appear to have been domesticated until the 19th century.[128][129]
The indigenous people in what is now California and the Pacific
Northwest practiced various forms of forest gardening and fire-stick
farming in the forests, grasslands, mixed woodlands, and wetlands,
ensuring that desired food and medicine plants continued to be
available. The natives controlled fire on a regional scale to create a
low-intensity fire ecology which prevented larger, catastrophic fires
Wichita village of grass houses
and sustained a low-density agriculture in loose rotation; a sort of
surrounded by maize fields in the
"wild" permaculture.[130][131][132][133] United States.

A system of companion planting called the Three Sisters was

developed in North America. Three crops that complemented each other were planted together: winter
squash, maize (corn), and climbing beans (typically tepary beans or common beans). The maize provides
a structure for the beans to climb, eliminating the need for poles. The beans provide the nitrogen to the
soil that the other plants use, and the squash spreads along the ground, blocking the sunlight, helping
prevent the establishment of weeds. The squash leaves also act as a "living mulch".[134][135]

Sub-Saharan Africa
In the Sahel region, civilizations such as the Mali and Songhai
empires cultivated sorghum and pearl millet, which were
domesticated between 3000 and 2500 BC.[69][70] The donkey was
domesticated in Nubia at approximately 5000 BC.[136][137]
Archaeological evidence suggests that Sanga cattle may have been
independently domesticated in East Africa at around 1600 BC.[138]

In the tropical region of West Africa, crops such as black-eyed

Yam festival in the Ashanti Empire.
peas, Sea Island red peas, yams, kola nuts, Jollof rice and kokoro Thomas E. Bowdich – 1817.
were domesticated between 3000 and 1000 BC.[71] The coastal
region of West Africa is often referred to as the "Yam Belt", due to
its high production of yams.[139] The guineafowl is a poultry bird that was domesticated in West Africa,
and while the time of the guineafowl's domestication remains unclear, there is evidence that it was present
in Ancient Greece during the 5th century BC.[140]

Several species of coffee were also domesticated throughout Sub-Saharan Africa, with Coffea arabica
originating in Ethiopia and serving as the main production of modern-day coffee since the late 15th
century.[141]

Oceania

Australia
Indigenous Australians were predominately nomadic hunter-gatherers. Due to the policy of terra nullius,
Aboriginals were regarded as not having been capable of sustained agriculture. However, the current
consensus is that various agricultural methods were employed by the indigenous people.[24][142][25]
In two regions of Central Australia, the central west coast and eastern
central Australia, forms of agriculture were practiced. People living in
permanent settlements of over 200 residents sowed or planted on a large
scale and stored the harvested food. The Nhanda and Amangu of the
central west coast grew yams (Dioscorea hastifolia), while various groups
in eastern central Australia (the Corners Region) planted and harvested
bush onions (yaua – Cyperus bulbosus), native millet (cooly, tindil –
Panicum decompositum) and a sporocarp, ngardu (Marsilea
drummondii).[31]: 281–304 [28]

Indigenous Australians used systematic burning, fire-stick farming, to Native millet, Panicum
decompositum, was planted
enhance natural productivity.[143] In the 1970s and 1980s archaeological
and harvested by
research in south west Victoria established that the Gunditjmara and other Indigenous Australians in
groups had developed sophisticated eel farming and fish trapping systems eastern central Australia.
over a period of nearly 5,000 years. [144] The archaeologist Harry
Lourandos suggested in the 1980s that there was evidence of
'intensification' in progress across Australia,[145] a process that appeared to have continued through the
preceding 5,000 years. These concepts led the historian Bill Gammage to argue that in effect the whole
continent was a managed landscape.[31]

Torres Strait Islanders are now known to have planted bananas.[25]

Pacific Islands
In New Guinea, archaeological evidence suggests that agriculture independently emerged around 7,000
years ago with the domestication of crops such as bananas and taro. Pigs and chickens were imported to
New Guinea, which were later innovated by other Pacific Island nations, such as those in Polynesia.[146]

Middle Ages and Early Modern period

Europe
The Middle Ages saw further improvements in agriculture. Monasteries spread throughout Europe and
became important centers for the collection of knowledge related to agriculture and forestry. The
manorial system allowed large landowners to control their land and its laborers, in the form of peasants or
serfs.[147] During the medieval period, the Arab world was critical in the exchange of crops and
technology between the European, Asia and African continents. Besides transporting numerous crops,
they introduced the concept of summer irrigation to Europe and developed the beginnings of the
plantation system of sugarcane growing through the use of slaves for intensive cultivation.[148]

By AD 900, developments in iron smelting allowed for increased production in Europe, leading to
developments in the production of agricultural implements such as ploughs, hand tools and horse shoes.
The carruca heavy plough improved on the earlier scratch plough, with the adoption of the Chinese
mouldboard plough to turn over the heavy, wet soils of northern Europe. This led to the clearing of
northern European forests and an increase in agricultural production, which in turn led to an increase in
population.[149][150] At the same time, some farmers in Europe moved from a two field crop rotation to a
 three-field crop rotation in which one field of three was left fallow
every year. This resulted in increased productivity and nutrition, as
the change in rotations permitted nitrogen-fixing legumes such as
peas, lentils and beans.[151] Improved horse harnesses and the
whippletree further improved cultivation.[152]

Watermills were introduced by the Romans, but were improved

throughout the Middle Ages, along with windmills, and used to
grind grains into flour, to cut wood and to process flax and
wool.[153]
Agricultural calendar, c. 1470, from
a manuscript of Pietro de Crescenzi Crops included wheat, rye, barley and oats. Peas, beans, and
vetches became common from the 13th century onward as a
fodder crop for animals and also for their nitrogen-fixation
fertilizing properties. Crop yields peaked in the 13th century, and stayed more or less steady until the 18th
century.[154] Though the limitations of medieval farming were once thought to have provided a ceiling for
the population growth in the Middle Ages, recent studies have shown that the technology of medieval
agriculture was always sufficient for the needs of the people under normal circumstances,[155][156] and
that it was only during exceptionally harsh times, such as the terrible weather of 1315–17, that the needs
of the population could not be met.[157][158]

Arab world
From the 8th century to the 14th century, the Islamic world underwent a
transformation in agricultural practice, described by the historian Andrew
Watson as the Arab agricultural revolution.[159] This transformation was
driven by a number of factors including the diffusion of many crops and
plants along Muslim trade routes, the spread of more advanced farming
techniques, and an agricultural-economic system which promoted
increased yields and efficiency. The shift in agricultural practice changed
the economy, population distribution, vegetation cover, agricultural
production, population levels, urban growth, the distribution of the labour
force, cooking, diet, and clothing across the Islamic world. Muslim traders
covered much of the Old World, and trade enabled the diffusion of many
crops, plants and farming techniques across the region, as well as the
adaptation of crops, plants and techniques from beyond the Islamic Noria wheels to lift water for
world.[159] This diffusion introduced major crops to Europe by way of Al- irrigation and household
Andalus, along with the techniques for their cultivation and cuisine. Sugar use were among the
cane, rice, and cotton were among the major crops transferred, along with technologies introduced to
citrus and other fruit trees, nut trees, vegetables such as aubergine, spinach Europe via Al-Andalus in
the medieval Islamic world.
and chard, and the use of imported spices such as cumin, coriander,
nutmeg and cinnamon. Intensive irrigation, crop rotation, and agricultural
manuals were widely adopted. Irrigation, partly based on Roman technology, made use of noria water
wheels, water mills, dams and reservoirs.[159][160][161]
Columbian exchange
After 1492, a global exchange of previously local crops and livestock breeds occurred. Maize, potatoes,
sweet potatoes and manioc were the key crops that spread from the New World to the Old, while varieties
of wheat, barley, rice and turnips traveled from the Old World to the New. There had been few livestock
species in the New World, with horses, cattle, sheep and goats being completely unknown before their
arrival with Old World settlers. Crops moving in both directions across the Atlantic Ocean caused
population growth around the world and a lasting effect on many cultures in the Early Modern
period.[162]

Maize and cassava were introduced from Brazil into Africa by

Portuguese traders in the 16th century,[163] becoming staple foods,
replacing native African crops.[164] After its introduction from
South America to Spain in the late 1500s, the potato became a
staple crop throughout Europe by the late 1700s. The potato
allowed farmers to produce more food, and initially added variety
to the European diet. The increased supply of food reduced
disease, increased births and reduced mortality, causing a
population boom throughout the British Empire, the US and The Harvesters. Pieter Bruegel –
Europe. [165] The introduction of the potato also brought about the 1565
first intensive use of fertilizer, in the form of guano imported to
Europe from Peru, and the first artificial pesticide, in the form of
an arsenic compound used to fight Colorado potato beetles. Before the adoption of the potato as a major
crop, the dependence on grain had caused repetitive regional and national famines when the crops failed,
including 17 major famines in England between 1523 and 1623. The resulting dependence on the potato
however caused the European Potato Failure, a disastrous crop failure from disease that resulted in
widespread famine and the death of over one million people in Ireland alone.[166]

Modern agriculture

British agricultural revolution

Between the 17th century and the mid-19th century, Britain saw a large increase in agricultural
productivity and net output. New agricultural practices like enclosure, mechanization, four-field crop
rotation to maintain soil nutrients, and selective breeding enabled an unprecedented population growth to
5.7 million in 1750, freeing up a significant percentage of the workforce, and thereby helped drive the
Industrial Revolution. The productivity of wheat went up from 19 US bushels (670 L; 150 US dry gal;
150 imp gal) per acre in 1720 to around 30 US bushels (1,100 L; 240 US dry gal; 230 imp gal) by 1840,
marking a major turning point in history.[167]

Advice on more productive techniques for farming began to appear in England in the mid-17th century,
from writers such as Samuel Hartlib, Walter Blith and others.[168] The main problem in sustaining
agriculture in one place for a long time was the depletion of nutrients, most importantly nitrogen levels,
in the soil. To allow the soil to regenerate, productive land was often let fallow and, in some places, crop
rotation was used. The Dutch four-field rotation system was popularised by the British agriculturist
Charles Townshend in the 18th century. The system (wheat, turnips, barley and clover) opened up a
 fodder crop and grazing crop allowing
livestock to be bred year-round. The use of
clover was especially important as the
legume roots replenished soil nitrates.[169]
The mechanisation and rationalisation of
agriculture was another important factor.
Robert Bakewell and Thomas Coke
introduced selective breeding and initiated
a process of inbreeding to maximise
desirable traits from the mid 18th century,
such as the New Leicester sheep. Machines
The agriculturalist Charles
were invented to improve the efficiency of
'Turnip' Townshend
introduced four-field crop
various agricultural operation, such as
rotation and the cultivation Jethro Tull's seed drill of 1701 that
Jethro Tull's seed drill,
of turnips. mechanised seeding at the correct depth
invented in 1701
and spacing and Andrew Meikle's
threshing machine of 1784. Ploughs were
steadily improved, from Joseph Foljambe's Rotherham iron plough in 1730[170] to James Small's
improved "Scots Plough" metal in 1763. In 1789 Ransomes, Sims & Jefferies was producing 86 plough
models for different soils.[171] Powered farm machinery began with Richard Trevithick's stationary steam
engine, used to drive a threshing machine, in 1812.[172] Mechanisation spread to additional farm uses
throughout the 19th century. The first petrol-driven tractor was built in America by John Froelich in
1892.[173]

John Bennet Lawes began the scientific investigation of fertilization at the Rothamsted Experimental
Station in 1843. He investigated the impact of inorganic and organic fertilizers on crop yield and founded
one of the first artificial fertilizer manufacturing factories in 1842. Fertilizer, in the shape of sodium
nitrate deposits in Chile, was imported to Britain by John Thomas North as well as guano (birds
droppings). The first commercial process for fertilizer production was the obtaining of phosphate from
the dissolution of coprolites in sulphuric acid.[174]

20th century
Dan Albone constructed the first commercially successful
gasoline-powered general-purpose tractor in 1901, and the 1923
International Harvester Farmall tractor marked a major point in
the replacement of draft animals (particularly horses) with
machines. Since that time, self-propelled mechanical harvesters
(combines), planters, transplanters and other equipment have been
developed, further revolutionizing agriculture.[175] These
inventions allowed farming tasks to be done with a speed and on a
Early 20th-century image of a tractor
scale previously impossible, leading modern farms to output much
ploughing an alfalfa field
greater volumes of high-quality produce per land unit.[176]

The Haber-Bosch method for synthesizing ammonium nitrate

represented a major breakthrough and allowed crop yields to overcome previous constraints. It was first
patented by German chemist Fritz Haber. In 1910 Carl Bosch, while working for German chemical
company BASF, successfully commercialized the process and secured further
patents. In the years after World War II, the use of synthetic fertilizer increased
rapidly, in sync with the increasing world population.[178]

Collective farming was widely practiced in the Soviet Union, the Eastern Bloc
countries, China, and Vietnam, starting in the 1930s in the Soviet Union; one
result was the Soviet famine of 1932–33.[179] Another consequence occurred
during the Great Leap Forward in China initiated by Mao Tse-tung that resulted
in the Great Chinese Famine from 1959 to 1961 and ultimately reshaped the
thinking of Deng Xiaoping.

In the past century agriculture has been characterized by increased productivity,

the substitution of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides for labour, water Bt-toxins in
pollution,[180] and farm subsidies.[181] Other applications of scientific research genetically modified
since 1950 in agriculture include gene manipulation,[182][183] hydroponics,[184] peanut leaves
and the development of economically viable biofuels such as ethanol.[185] (bottom) protect from
damage by corn
The number of people involved in farming in industrial countries fell radically borers (top).[177]
from 24 percent of the American population to 1.5 percent in 2002. The number
of farms also decreased, and their ownership became more concentrated; for
example, between 1967 and 2002, one million pig farms in America consolidated into 114,000, with 80
percent of the production on factory farms.[186] According to the Worldwatch Institute, 74 percent of the
world's poultry, 43 percent of beef, and 68 percent of eggs are produced this way.[186][187]

Famines however continued to sweep the globe through the 20th century. Through the effects of climatic
events, government policy, war and crop failure, millions of people died in each of at least ten famines
between the 1920s and the 1990s.[188]

Green Revolution
The Green Revolution was a series of research, development, and
technology transfer initiatives between the 1940s and the late
1970s. It increased agriculture production around the world,
especially from the late 1960s. The initiatives, led by Norman
Borlaug and credited with saving over a billion people from
starvation, involved the development of high-yielding varieties of
cereal grains, expansion of irrigation infrastructure, modernization
of management techniques, distribution of hybridized seeds,
synthetic fertilizers, and pesticides to farmers.[189]
Norman Borlaug, father of the
Green Revolution of the 1970s, is Synthetic nitrogen, mined rock phosphate, pesticides, and
credited with saving over a billion mechanization have greatly increased crop yields in the early 20th
people worldwide from starvation. century. Increased supply of grains has also led to cheaper
livestock. Further, global yield increases were experienced later in
the 20th century when high-yield varieties of common staple
grains such as rice, wheat, and corn were introduced as a part of the Green Revolution. The Green
Revolution exported the technologies (including pesticides and synthetic nitrogen) of the developed
world to the developing world. Thomas Malthus famously predicted that the Earth would not be able to
support its growing population. Still, technologies such as the Green Revolution have allowed the world
to produce a food surplus.[190]

Although the Green Revolution significantly increased rice yields in Asia, yield leveled off. The genetic
"yield potential" has increased for wheat, but the yield potential for rice has not increased since 1966, and
the yield potential for maize has "barely increased in 35 years". It takes only a decade or two for
herbicide-resistant weeds to emerge, and insects become resistant to insecticides within about a decade,
delayed somewhat by crop rotation.[191]

Organic agriculture
For most of its history, agriculture has been organic, without
synthetic fertilisers or pesticides, and without GMOs. With the
advent of chemical agriculture, Rudolf Steiner called for farming
without synthetic pesticides, and his Agriculture Course of 1924
laid the foundation for biodynamic agriculture.[192] Lord
Northbourne developed these ideas and presented his manifesto of
An organic farmer, California, 1972
organic farming in 1940. This became a worldwide movement,
and organic farming is now practiced in many countries.[193]

See also
Agricultural expansion
Effects of climate change on agriculture
Farming/language dispersal hypothesis
Green Revolution
Historical hydroculture
History of cotton
History of fertilizer
History of gardening
History of sugar
History of the potato
Rural history

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188. "Ten worst famines of the 20th century" (http://www.smh.com.au/world/ten-worst-famines-of-
the-20th-century-20110815-1iu2w.html). Sydney Morning Herald. 15 August 2011.
189. Hazell, Peter B.R. (2009). The Asian Green Revolution (https://books.google.com/books?id=
frNfVx-KZOcC&pg=PA1). IFPRI Discussion Paper. International Food Policy Research
Institute. GGKEY:HS2UT4LADZD.
190. Barrionuevo, Alexei; Bradsher, Keith (8 December 2005). "Sometimes a Bumper Crop Is Too
Much of a Good Thing" (https://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/08/business/worldbusiness/08far
mers.html). The New York Times.
191. Tilman, D.; Cassman, K.G.; Matson, P.A.; Naylor, R.; Polasky, S. (August 2002).
"Agricultural sustainability and intensive production practices" (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0110716085832/http://cedarcreek.umn.edu/biblio/fulltext/t1860.pdf) (PDF). Nature. 418
(6898): 671–677. Bibcode:2002Natur.418..671T (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002Nat
ur.418..671T). doi:10.1038/nature01014 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature01014).
PMID 12167873 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12167873). S2CID 3016610 (https://api.s
emanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3016610). Archived from the original (http://cedarcreek.umn.e
du/biblio/fulltext/t1860.pdf) (PDF) on 2011-07-16. Retrieved 2013-11-28.
192. Paull, John (2011). "Attending the First Organic Agriculture Course: Rudolf Steiner's
Agriculture Course at Koberwitz, 1924" (http://orgprints.org/18809/1/Paull2011KoberwitzEJS
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193. Paull, John (2014). "Lord Northbourne, the man who invented organic farming, a biography"
(http://orgprints.org/26547/12/26547.pdf) (PDF). Journal of Organic Systems. 9 (1): 31–53.

Further reading

Surveys
Civitello, Linda. Cuisine and Culture: A History of Food and People (Wiley, 2011) excerpt (htt
ps://www.amazon.com/Cuisine-Culture-History-Food-People/dp/0470403713/)
Federico, Giovanni. Feeding the World: An Economic History of Agriculture 1800–2000
(Princeton UP, 2005) highly quantitative
Grew, Raymond. Food in Global History (https://www.questia.com/read/99923753?title=Foo
d%20in%20Global%20History) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110604193653/http
s://www.questia.com/read/99923753?title=Food%20in%20Global%20History) 2011-06-04 at
the Wayback Machine (1999)
Heiser, Charles B. Seed to Civilization: The Story of Food (W.H. Freeman, 1990)
Herr, Richard, ed. Themes in Rural History of the Western World (Iowa State UP, 1993)
Kiple, Kenneth F., and Kriemhild Coneè Ornelas, eds. The Cambridge world history of food
(2 vol Cambridge University Press, 2000) online (http://ktp.isam.org.tr/pdficn/098209ic.pdf).
Mazoyer, Marcel, and Laurence Roudart. A History of World Agriculture: From the Neolithic
Age to the Current Crisis (Monthly Review Press, 2006) Marxist perspective.
Pilcher, Jeffrey M. Food in world history (Routledge, 2023).
Prentice, E. Parmalee. Hunger and History: The Influence of Hunger on Human History (http
s://archive.today/20121214194357/http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;cc
=chla;q1=history;rgn=title;view=toc;idno=2727319) (Harper, 1939)
Tauger, Mark. Agriculture in World History (Routledge, 2008)
Toussaint-Samat, Maguelonne. A history of food ( John Wiley & Sons, 2009), 800+ pp.
online (https://books.google.com/books?id=QmevzbQ0AsIC&dq=+%27%27Food+in+world+
history%27%27+&pg=PR13)
Whayne Jeannie, ed. (2024). The Oxford Handbook of Agricultural History (https://academi
c.oup.com/edited-volume/56212). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-092416-4. ;
covers historiographical traditions within geographic regions across the world.

Premodern
Bakels, C.C. The Western European Loess Belt: Agrarian History, 5300 BC – AD 1000
(Springer, 2009)
 Barker, Graeme, and Candice Goucher, eds. The Cambridge World History: Volume 2, A
World with Agriculture, 12000 BCE–500 CE. (Cambridge UP, 2015)
Bowman, Alan K. and Rogan, Eugene, eds. Agriculture in Egypt: From Pharaonic to Modern
Times (Oxford UP, 1999)
Cohen, M.N. The Food Crisis in Prehistory: Overpopulation and the Origins of Agriculture
(Yale UP, 1977)
Crummey, Donald and Stewart, C.C., eds. Modes of Production in Africa: The Precolonial
Era (Sagem 1981)
Diamond, Jared. Guns, Germs, and Steel (W.W. Norton, 1997)
Duncan-Jones, Richard. Economy of the Roman Empire (Cambridge UP, 1982)
Habib, Irfan. Agrarian System of Mughal India (Oxford UP, 3rd ed. 2013)
Harris, D.R., ed. The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia,
(Routledge, 1996)
Isager, Signe and Jens Erik Skydsgaard. Ancient Greek Agriculture: An Introduction
(Routledge, 1995)
Lee, Mabel Ping-hua. The economic history of china: with special reference to agriculture (ht
tps://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.227) (Columbia University, 1921)
Murray, Jacqueline. The First European Agriculture (Edinburgh UP, 1970)
Oka, H-I. Origin of Cultivated Rice (Elsevier, 2012)
Price, T.D. and A. Gebauer, eds. Last Hunters – First Farmers: New Perspectives on the
Prehistoric Transition to Agriculture (1995)
Srivastava, Vinod Chandra, ed. History of Agriculture in India (5 vols., 2014). From 2000 BC
to present.
Stevens, C.E. "Agriculture and Rural Life in the Later Roman Empire" in Cambridge
Economic History of Europe, Vol. I, The Agrarian Life of the Middle Ages (Cambridge UP,
1971)
Teall, John L. (1959). "The grain supply of the Byzantine Empire, 330–1025". Dumbarton
Oaks Papers. 13: 87–139. doi:10.2307/1291130 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1291130).
JSTOR 1291130 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1291130).
Yasuda, Y., ed. The Origins of Pottery and Agriculture (SAB, 2003)

Modern
Collingham, E.M. The Taste of War: World War Two and the Battle for Food (Penguin, 2012)
Kerridge, Erik. "The Agricultural Revolution Reconsidered." Agricultural History ( 1969) 43:4,
463–475. JSTOR 4617724 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/4617724), in Britain, 1750–1850
Ludden, David, ed. New Cambridge History of India: An Agrarian History of South Asia (http
s://www.questia.com/library/book/an-agrarian-history-of-south-asia-by-david-ludden.jsp)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110604193046/https://www.questia.com/library/boo
k/an-agrarian-history-of-south-asia-by-david-ludden.jsp) 2011-06-04 at the Wayback
Machine (Cambridge, 1999).
McNeill, William H. (1999). "How the Potato Changed the World's History". Social Research.
66 (1): 67–83. JSTOR 40971302 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/40971302). PMID 22416329
(https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22416329).
Manning, Richard (2005). Against the Grain: How Agriculture Has Hijacked Civilization (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=woam4BS6TaYC). Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 978-1-
4668-2342-6.
Mintz, Sidney. Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History (Penguin,
1986)
 Reader, John. Propitious Esculent: The Potato in World History (Heinemann, 2008) a
standard scholarly history
Salaman, Redcliffe N. The History and Social Influence of the Potato (Cambridge, 2010)

Europe
Ambrosoli, Mauro. The Wild and the Sown: Botany and Agriculture in Western Europe,
1350–1850 (Cambridge UP, 1997)
Brassley, Paul, Yves Segers, and Leen Van Molle, eds. War, Agriculture, and Food: Rural
Europe from the 1930s to the 1950s (Routledge, 2012)
Brown, Jonathan. Agriculture in England: A Survey of Farming, 1870–1947 (Manchester UP,
1987)
Clark, Gregory (2007). "The long march of history: Farm wages, population, and economic
growth, England 1209–1869" (https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/31320/1/50512257
X.pdf) (PDF). Economic History Review. 60 (1): 97–135. doi:10.1111/j.1468-
0289.2006.00358.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-0289.2006.00358.x).
S2CID 154325999 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154325999).
Dovring, Folke, ed. Land and labor in Europe in the twentieth century: a comparative survey
of recent agrarian history (Springer, 1965)
Gras, Norman. A history of agriculture in Europe and America (http://chla.library.cornell.edu/
cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2845579) (Crofts, 1925)
Harvey, Nigel. The Industrial Archaeology of Farming in England and Wales (HarperCollins,
1980)
Hoffman, Philip T. Growth in a Traditional Society: The French Countryside, 1450–1815
(Princeton UP, 1996)
Hoyle, Richard W., ed. The Farmer in England, 1650–1980 (Routledge, 2013) online review
(http://ehr.oxfordjournals.org/content/130/544/757.short)
Kussmaul, Ann. A General View of the Rural Economy of England, 1538–1840 (Cambridge
University Press, 1990)
Langdon, John. Horses, Oxen and Technological Innovation: The Use of Draught Animals in
English Farming from 1066 to 1500 (Cambridge UP, 1986)
McNeill, William H. (1948). "The Introduction of the Potato into Ireland". Journal of Modern
History. 21 (3): 218–221. doi:10.1086/237272 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F237272).
JSTOR 1876068 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1876068). S2CID 145099646 (https://api.sem
anticscholar.org/CorpusID:145099646).
Moon, David. The Plough that Broke the Steppes: Agriculture and Environment on Russia's
Grasslands, 1700–1914 (Oxford UP, 2014)
Slicher van Bath, B.H. The Agrarian History of Western Europe, AD 500–1850 (Edward
Arnold, reprint, 1963)
Thirsk, Joan, et al. The Agrarian History of England and Wales (Cambridge University
Press, 8 vols., 1978)
Williamson, Tom. Transformation of Rural England: Farming and the Landscape 1700–1870
(Liverpool UP, 2002)
Zweiniger-Bargielowska, Ina, Rachel Duffett, and Alain Drouard, eds. Food and war in
twentieth century Europe (Ashgate, 2011)

North America
Bidwell, Percy Wells, and John I. Falconer. History of agriculture in the northern United
States, 1620–1860 (1925), massive scholarly history. online (https://archive.org/details/histor
 yofagricul00bidw/page/n8/mode/2up)
Cochrane, Willard W. The Development of American Agriculture: A Historical Analysis
(University of Minnesota P, 1993)
Fite, Gilbert C. (1983). "American Farmers: The New Minority" (https://doi.org/10.17077%2F
0003-4827.8923). Annals of Iowa. 46 (7): 553–555. doi:10.17077/0003-4827.8923 (https://d
oi.org/10.17077%2F0003-4827.8923).
Gras, Norman. A History of Agriculture in Europe and America (http://chla.library.cornell.edu/
cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2845579), (F.S. Crofts, 1925)
Gray, L.C. History of Agriculture in the Southern United States to 1860 (P. Smith, 1933)
Volume I online (http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;cc=chla;q1=gray;rgn=
book%20author;view=toc;idno=2944804_1944); Vol. 2 (http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/tex
t/text-idx?c=chla;cc=chla;q1=gray;rgn=book%20author;view=toc;idno=2944804_1945)
Hart, John Fraser. The Changing Scale of American Agriculture. (University of Virginia
Press, 2004)
Hurt, R. Douglas. American Agriculture: A Brief History (Purdue UP, 2002)
Mundlak, Yair (2005). "Economic Growth: Lessons from Two Centuries of American
Agriculture". Journal of Economic Literature. 43 (4): 989–1024. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.582.8537
(https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.582.8537).
doi:10.1257/002205105775362005 (https://doi.org/10.1257%2F002205105775362005).
O'Sullivan, Robin. American Organic: A Cultural History of Farming, Gardening, Shopping,
and Eating (University Press of Kansas, 2015)
Rasmussen, Wayne D., ed. Readings in the history of American agriculture (University of
Illinois Press, 1960)
Robert, Joseph C. The story of tobacco in America (http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/te
xt-idx?c=chla;idno=3136323) (University of North Carolina Press, 1949)
Russell, Howard. A Long Deep Furrow: Three Centuries of Farming In New England (UP of
New England, 1981)
Russell, Peter A. How Agriculture Made Canada: Farming in the Nineteenth Century (McGill-
Queen's UP, 2012)
Schafer, Joseph. The social history of American agriculture (http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cg
i/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2712484) (Da Capo, 1970 [1936])
Schlebecker John T. Whereby we thrive: A history of American farming, 1607–1972 (Iowa
State UP, 1972)
Weeden, William Babcock. Economic and Social History of New England, 1620–1789 (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=JUJaNzIMr44C&pg=PA1) (Houghton, Mifflin, 1891)

External links
"The Core Historical Literature of Agriculture" (http://chla.library.cornell.edu/) from Cornell
University Library

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