JOURNAL OF AMERICAN COLLEGE HEALTH

2022, VOL. 70, NO. 7, 2143–2151

https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2020.1845183

MAJOR ARTICLE

Relationship satisfaction and sleep problems among college students: Serial

indirect effects via relationship mindfulness and negative emotional symptoms
Matthew E. Jaurequi, PhDa , Jonathan G. Kimmes, PhDb, Thomas Ledermann, PhDb, Gregory Seibert, PhDc,
Kinsey Pocchio, MAb, and Dania Tawfiq, MSb
a
Department of Family and Consumer Sciences, California State University Long Beach, Long Beach, California, USA; bDepartment of Family
and Child Sciences, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, USA; cDepartment of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla,
California, USA

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Objective: This study examined relationship mindfulness and negative emotional symptoms as Received 30 July 2020
serial mediators between relationship satisfaction and sleep problems. Participants: Participants Accepted 25 October 2020
were 242 college students currently in a romantic relationship recruited from a large southeastern
KEYWORDS
university. Methods: Participants completed self-report measures of relationship satisfaction, rela-
Mindfulness; negative
tionship mindfulness, negative emotional symptoms and sleep disturbances. Serial mediation anal- emotion; relationship
yses were conducted, covarying age and attachment orientations. Results: Students who reported satisfaction; sleep
higher relationship satisfaction experienced lower sleep problems. Helping explain this association
a significant serial mediation model was supported by which relationship mindfulness and subse-
quent negative emotional symptoms mediated relationship satisfaction and sleep problems.
Conclusions: The degree to which a person is more mindful during interactions with a romantic
partner appears to play a key role in how relationship satisfaction and negative emotional symp-
toms are linked to sleep problems.

Introduction Recent research has focused on how cultivating higher

nonjudgmental attention and awareness of present moment
There exists a strong link between being a college student
experiences—an ability to be mindful—reduces sleep prob-
and sleep problems.1,2 Multiple studies have demonstrated
lems.8,9 This tendency to observe experiences without judg-
sleep problems among college students largely include prob-
ment leads to an ability to achieve the relaxation and down-
lems which pose increased risk for the insomnia-related
regulation of negative affect (eg, stress, anxiety) critical to fall-
class of sleep disorders.3 Sleep problems that pose increased
risk for the development and maintenance of insomnia ing and staying asleep. In fact, this process helps change the
include problems initiating sleep or maintaining sleep, early relationship persons have with attentional biases for negative
morning awakening, or poor quality of sleep which impairs thoughts (eg, excessive worry) which create difficulty achiev-
daytime functioning.4,5 Importantly, there are studies that ing the down regulation of stress and feelings of safety and
have shown college students experience problems initiating security necessary to achieve optimal sleep. For instance,
and maintaining sleep, poor sleep quality and excessive research has shown higher levels of an ability to be mindful
sleepiness during the day.1,3 Estimates on sleep among col- results in a lower tendency to focus on perceived internal or
lege students reveal 60% experience poor sleep quality, 26% external threats, which, in turn, predicts fewer sleep prob-
report difficulty maintaining sleep, 15% report difficulties lems.8 In fact, one study demonstrated an increased tendency
falling asleep and 8% meet criteria for insomnia.6 This is to be mindful related to lower depression and anxiety and, in
particularly problematic considering sleep problems during turn, fewer sleep problems.10 Quite simply, an ability to be
emerging adulthood—18–25 years old—predict poor quality mindful lowers the risk for sleep problems.
of life, increased risk for depression and attempted suicide That said, the life of college students includes contexts
later in life.6 It is also important then to note college stu- critical to psychological functioning and health. In fact,
dents make up nearly half of the U.S. population transition- romantic relationships may be a key context for understand-
ing from adolescence to emerging adulthood (i.e., 45% of ing the experience of sleep problems among college students.
persons aged 18–24 years have attended some college).7 The This is because, romantic relationships are central to the
high prevalence and lasting negative consequences have cre- lives of college students.11,12 The prevalent role romantic
ated the need to address sleep problems among col- relationships play in day-to-day life is important to note as
lege students. romantic relationships can be a source of happiness and

CONTACT Matthew E. Jaurequi Matthew.Jaurequi@csulb.edu Department of Family and Consumer Sciences, California State University Long Beach, 1250
Bellflower Blvd. Long Beach, CA 90840-0501, USA.
ß 2020 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
2144 M. E. JAUREQUI ET AL.

security.13 This is particularly relevant and gives sense hap- partners.22 Higher relationship mindfulness is characterized
piness, security and belonging is critical to achieve optimal by lower tendency to cling to future oriented thoughts or
sleep.14 As a result, the current study examined relationship excessive worry about a romantic relationship or partner
satisfaction as linked to sleep problems through an ability to availability.22 This is important to note as a lower tendency
be mindful with a romantic partner and subsequent negative to focus on the past or worry about the future of relation-
emotional symptoms. ships or partners is key to adaptive relationship procesess.21
For instance, research has shown the experience of highly
enjoyable, pleasant and strong romantic relationships
Organizing framework includes higher relationship mindfulness.22 Whereas, the
Central to the present study, is the notion that sleep is essen- experience of miserable, empty and unpleasant romantic
tial to quality of life and health of college students.1,6 Thus, relationships includes lower relationship mindfulness.13,22
sleep in the current study is considered an index of health. The identification of specific adaptive relationship processes
Also, the present study is a body of research on the social such as relationship mindfulness, which can explain how
psychology of close relationships that shows protective rela- relationship satisfaction and sleep problems are linked, is
tionship factors such as higher relationship satisfaction result- particularly important among the college population as this
ing in improved health.15 That said, there is a need to is a developmental period where relationship habits formed
identify and test specific mechanisms that explain this link.16 have life-long health consequences.21
Such an understanding can shed light on how and under Relationship satisfaction may be linked to sleep problems
what conditions romantic relationships benefit health.16,17 through its prior association with, the adaptive relationship
Multiple studies have investigated the link between process, relationship mindfulness. Higher relationship mind-
romantic relationships and health, and commonly found fulness is characterized by a higher tendency to employ a
romantic relationships predict health through adaptive rela- nonjudgmental present focused attention and awareness dur-
tionship processes and subsequent indices of mental health. ing day-to-day interactions with a romantic partner. This is
For instance, a contemporary review of research revealed important to note because research has shown higher non-
higher relationship satisfaction is linked to better health judgmental present focused attention and awareness to be a
through an ability to be attune and attentive to a romantic causal factor for lower sleep problems.8,9,23 For example,
partner and subsequent negative emotions.16 Similarly, higher levels of nonjudgmental present focused awareness
another review of empirical research found adaptive rela- predicted lower levels of sleep problems among college stu-
tionship processes mediate the association from relationship dents across an academic semester.24 It is plausible, therefore,
quality to mental health.17 In sum, research on romantic that relationship mindfulness captures the adaptive relation-
relationships and health reveals, relationship satisfaction pre- ship process that helps to explain how a satisfying romantic
dicts health through adaptive relationship processes and sub- relationship results in lower sleep problems.
sequent mental health. Therefore, the current study tested
the degree to which relationship mindfulness, an adaptive
The role of negative emotional symptoms
relationship process and subsequent lower negative emotion
explained the link between relationship satisfaction and sleep The study of relationship satisfaction, relationship mindful-
problems. ness and sleep problems should consider the role of negative
emotional symptoms—depression, anxiety and stress.
Conceptually, defining characteristics of negative emotional
Relationship satisfaction, relationship mindfulness
symptoms, such as inappropriate excessive guilt, dysphoria,
and sleep
worry, hypervigilance and tension, oppose the relaxation
The degree to which one feels happy, safe and rewarded in a required to achieve optimal sleep.25 This is particularly rele-
romantic relationship is known as relationship satisfaction.18 vant given college students experience high rates of negative
Relationship satisfaction directly relates to lower sleep prob- emotional symptoms.26,27 Furthermore, research has shown
lems as a satisfying romantic relationship provides an inter- negative emotional symptoms to be a causal factor for sleep
personal context characterized by feelings of safety and problems among college students.28,29 Specifically, a longitu-
comfort helping to initiate and maintain sleep. Research has dinal study demonstrated depression and stress positively
shown higher relationship satisfaction predicts lower insom- predicted trouble falling asleep and excessive daytime sleepi-
nia risk, as well as lower problems initiating sleep, maintain- ness among college students.29 Another study found anxiety
ing sleep and higher sleep quality.19,20 That said, a complete positively predicted reports of sleep problems over a four
understanding of how satisfying relationships influence month transition into college.28 Quite simply, negative emo-
health, should include the identification of adaptive relation- tional symptoms play a key role for sleep among col-
ship procesess.21 Such an understanding could help curricu- lege students.
lum or prevention-based programs on sleep, incorporating There is also evidence for a direct link between satisfying
the key mechanisms linking romantic relationships with romantic relationships and negative emotional symptoms.
lower sleep problems. For instance, a large number of studies have demonstrated
Relationship mindfulness is the degree to which persons strong links between romantic relationships and negative
tend to be mindful during interactions with romantic emotional symptoms.17 More than that, research has shown
 JOURNAL OF AMERICAN COLLEGE HEALTH 2145

romantic relationships to more strongly predict negative prevalence of negative emotional symptoms among college
emotional symptoms than vice versa.17 Essentially, a satisfy- students, another known causal factor of sleep problems. In
ing romantic relationship has been demonstrated to reduce addition, studies reviewed illustrated higher relationship sat-
risk for negative emotional symptoms. isfaction directly results in lower negative emotional symp-
That said, relationship satisfaction may be linked to nega- toms. So, relationship satisfaction may also be indirectly
tive emotional symptoms through adaptive relationship linked to sleep problems through negative emotional symp-
processes such as relationship mindfulness. This is because; toms. Yet, relationship satisfaction is also indirectly related
a causal relationship between an increased tendency to be to negative symptoms via its prior association with an ability
mindful within the context of romantic relationships may to be mindful. Therefore, the current study utilized a serial
result in lower negative emotional symptoms. Consistent mediation model to test the direct and indirect associations
with this possibility, an experimental study demonstrated between relationship satisfaction, relationship mindfulness,
higher nonjudgmental present focused attention and aware- negative emotional symptoms and sleep problems.
ness resulted in lower levels of stress following a conflict dis- Informed by prior theory and evidence, the study hypoth-
cussion among couples.30 In addition, a large number of esis was as follows. Higher relationship satisfaction explains
studies have shown a higher tendency to employ present lower tendency to experience sleep disturbances through
focused nonjudgmental attention and awareness predicting how mindful a person tends to be during interactions with
lower negative emotional symptoms.31 Similarly, relationship
their romantic partner and subsequent lower negative emo-
mindfulness was found to be negatively associated with
tional symptoms. Noting the role extraneous variables may
depression and stress among a sample of couples.13
have on the proposed effects, the current study controlled
However, it remains undetermined whether relationship
for attachment orientations and age. Adult attachment ori-
mindfulness indirectly links relationship satisfaction and
entations are well established correlates of sleep disturban-
negative emotional symptoms. Such an understanding could
ces.33 Furthermore, extant research has shown age to play a
elucidate the specific adaptive relationship processes,that
explain how relationship satisfaction relates to lower nega- key role in experience of sleep disturbances.34 So, the pro-
tive emotional symptoms. posed serial mediation model tested the direct and indirect
Research has also shown negative emotional symptoms as associations among the study variables controlling for adult
an important pathway by which an ability to be mindful attachment orientations and age (see Figure 1 for the tested
and sleep problems are related. Again, negative emotional model of serial mediation).
symptoms are considered a primary psychological process
maintaining arousal preventing sleep.25 Higher rates of pre-
sent focused nonjudgmental attention and awareness on the
other hand, increases an ability to accept—rather than avoid
Methods
or cling to—negative thoughts and leads to a reduction in
cognitive arousal impeding sleep.8 In fact, research has Participants and procedure
shown this quality of mind related to lower sleep problems,
The study sample consisted of 242 persons currently in a
first through lower depression and anxiety.10 Similarly,
romantic relationship. The average age of participants was
another study found an ability to be more mindful was
indirectly linked to higher sleep quality through perceived 20.25 years (SD ¼ 1.93). Majority of the participants identi-
stress.32 So, the positive effects of an ability to be mindful fied as White/Caucasian (n ¼ 165, 68%) and cisgender
on sleep appears to work first by reducing the negative emo- females (n ¼ 207, 86%). The remaining participants identi-
tional symptoms predictive of sleep problems. fied as cisgender males (n ¼ 33, 14%), transgender male
(n ¼ 1, 0.4%) and preferred not to answer (n ¼ 1, 0.4%).
Additional racial ethnic identities identified by participants
The present study included Latino/a (n ¼ 39, 16%), Black/African American
As reviewed, research suggests adaptive relationship proc- (n ¼ 27, 11%), Asian American (n ¼ 6, 3%), Native
esses and negative emotions are key pathways linking rela- American or Native Alaskan (n ¼ 1, 0.4%), or preferred not
tionship satisfaction and sleep problems. First, multiple to respond (n ¼ 1, 0.4%). The study sample resemble prior
studies have demonstrated a direct causal relationship research and current statistics that report college students
between relationship satisfaction and sleep problems. tend to be White/Caucasian females followed by males and
Additional research reviewed indicates relationship satisfac- persons who identify as Latino/a or Black.35,36
tion which relates to sleep problems indirectly through The institutional review board approved study recruited
adaptive relationship processes such as relationship mindful- persons from undergraduate courses in a large U.S. south-
ness. Importantly, multiple studies have shown higher non- eastern university who were 18 years or older currently in a
judgmental present focused attention and awareness is a committed romantic relationship. Participants were eligible
causal factor for lower sleep problems. Therefore, it reasons to obtain course credit for their participation based on
relationship mindfulness—a context specific measure of instructor’s discretion. Interested participants provided
these qualities—indirectly links relationship satisfaction and informed consent prior to completing an online survey via
sleep problems. Moreover, research also points to a high Qualtrics, containing self-report measure questionnaires.
2146 M. E. JAUREQUI ET AL.

Figure 1. Estimated path coefficients for the serial mediation model with relationship mindfulness and negative emotional symptoms as mediators of the effect of
relationship satisfaction on sleep problems and age and avoidance as covariates. p<.001, p<.01, p<.05 (two-tailed).

Measures measuring depression, anxiety and stress. Although the scale

can be used to measure the specific dimensions depression,
Relationship satisfaction
anxiety and stress, it is also recommended to measure a
Relationship satisfaction was measured using the valid and
more general dimension of negative emotional symptoms.37
reliable Couple Satisfaction Index-4 item scale (CSI-4).18
Example items include “I felt life was meaningless” and “I
Participants respond to the first item “Please indicate the
found it difficult to relax.” Participants respond on a Likert
degree of happiness, all things considered, of your
scale according to “how much the statement applied to you
relationship” on Likert scale ranging from 1 (extremely
over the past week?” and range from 1 (did not apply to me
unhappy) to 6 (perfect). Participants respond to the last three
items on Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 6 (com- at all) to 4 (applied to me very much or most of the time).
pletely). These items include, “How rewarding is your rela- An overall DASS-21 score was calculated by computing item
tionship with your partner,” “I have a warm and mean scores. Higher mean scores indicated higher levels of
comfortable relationship with my partner,” and “In general, negative emotional symptoms. The internal consistency was
how satisfied are you with your relationship.” An overall a ¼ .93.
CSI-4 score was calculated by computing item mean scores,
with higher scores indicating higher relationship satisfaction. Sleep problems
The internal consistency in the present study was a ¼ .88. Sleep problems was measured using the Patient-Reported
Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS)
Relationship mindfulness Sleep Disturbance (SD) and Sleep Related Impairment (SRI;
Relationship mindfulness was measured using the PROMIS-SD-SRI).38 The PROMIS-SD-SRI measures prob-
Relationship Mindfulness Measure (RMM).22 The RMM lems initiating or maintaining sleep, early morning awaken-
consists of five items which have demonstrated adequate test ing and sleep quality. Example of these items include, “I had
and retest reliability and construct validity.22 Example items trouble sleeping” and “My sleep was refreshing.” The
include, “When I’m with my partner, I find myself saying or PROMIS-SD-SRI also measures problems with daytime
doing things without paying attention” and “I get so focused functioning as a consequence of sleep problems. Examples
on what I want my relationship with my partner to be like of these items include, “I had a hard time concentrating
that I lose touch with what I’m doing right here and now to because of my sleep” and “I had a hard time getting things
get there.” Participants respond to a Likert scale ranging done because of my sleep.” Participants respond to items
from 1 (almost always)to 6 (almost never). An overall RMM based on their experiences over the past 7 days. Responses
score was calculated by computing an item mean score, with range from 1 (not at all) to 5 (Very much). An overall
higher scores indicating higher levels of relationship mind- PROMIS-SD-SRI score was calculated by computing item
fulness. Internal consistency in our current study mean scores, with higher scores indicating higher sleep
was a ¼ .83. problems. The internal consistency was a ¼ .94.

Negative emotional symptoms Control variables

Negative emotional symptoms were measured using the Anxious and avoidant attachment were measured using the
short-form version of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale Experience in Close Relationships-Short Form (ECR-S).39
(DASS-21).37 The DASS-21 is a 21-item self-report scale Attachment anxiety and avoidance are captured by 6 items
 JOURNAL OF AMERICAN COLLEGE HEALTH 2147

Table 1. Descriptive statistics, correlations, and Cronbach’s alphas for the study variables (N ¼ 241).
Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1. Sleep problems –
2. Relationship satisfaction .29 –
3. Relationship mindfulness .21 .31 –
4. Negative Emotional Symptoms .49 .28 .36 –
5. Anxious attachment .18 .26 .28 .32 –
6. Avoidant attachment .18 .56 .32 .23 .28 –
7. Age in years .13 .13 .05 .09 .06 .00 –
M 2.46 5.04 4.50 1.67 3.92 2.29 20.35
SD 0.79 0.98 0.98 0.50 0.96 1.00 1.94
Cronbach’s alpha .93 .88 .83 .93 .66 .82 .82
p <.05, p <.01 (two-tailed).

each. Example items measuring attachment anxiety include, relationship satisfaction was negatively correlated with nega-
“I need a lot of reassurance that I am loved by my partner” tive emotional symptoms and sleep problems. Relationship
and “I worry that romantic partners won’t care about me as mindfulness was positively correlated with relationship satis-
much as I care about them.” Example items measuring faction and negatively correlated with negative emotional
attachment avoidance include, “I want to get close to my symptoms and sleep problems. Negative emotional symp-
partner, but I keep pulling back” and “I try to avoid getting toms were positively correlated with sleep problems.
too close to my partner.” Participants respond based on
their experiences with romantic partners in general.
Responses range from 1 (definitely like me) to 7 (definitely Tests of direct, simple indirect, and serial mediation
not like me). Higher scores indicate higher levels of attach-
ment anxiety and avoidance. The study measures demon- Study results demonstrated significant direct associations
strated acceptable internal consistencies for attachment among relationship satisfaction, relationship mindfulness,
anxiety and avoidance at a ¼ .66 and a ¼ .75, respectively.40 negative emotional symptoms and sleep disturbances (see
The additional control variable of age was measured on a Figure 1). There was a significant direct and negative associ-
continuous scale by which participants indicated their age ation between relationship satisfaction and sleep disturban-
in years. ces (b ¼ .15, p< .05). There was also a significant direct
and positive association between relationship satisfaction
and relationship mindfulness (b ¼.19, p< .01). In turn,
Statistical analyses there was a significant direct and negative association
The data were analyzed using structural equation modeling between relationship mindfulness and negative emotional
with full information maximum likelihood (FIML) estimation symptoms (b ¼ .28, p< .001). The subsequent direct path
method in Mplus 841 to test the proposed associations among from negative emotional symptoms to sleep disturbances
the study variables. The analytic strategy followed methodo- was also significant (b ¼.44 p< .001). On the other hand,
logical recommendations for testing parallel and serial medi- there was not a significant association between relationship
ation.42–44 That is, evidence of a significant parallel mediated satisfaction and negative emotional symptoms (b ¼ .05, p
association is indicated by the presence of a significant simple ¼ .51) or between relationship mindfulness and sleep distur-
indirect effect through the first mediator relationship mindful- bances (b ¼ .01, p ¼ .82).
ness and a significant simple indirect effect through the second The two simple indirect effects linking relationship satis-
mediator negative emotional symptoms. Estimation of serial faction and sleep disturbance via relationship mindfulness or
mediation models follows the parallel mediator case.42 That is, negative emotional symptoms were not significant (b ¼
serial mediation (ie three-path indirect effect) is indicated by .00, p ¼ .84, 95% BC CI [ 0.02, 0.02]) for the indirect
the presence of (a) significant direct effects between the inde- effect through relationship mindfulness and (b ¼ .02, p ¼
pendent variable (eg relationship satisfaction) and first medi- .51, 95% BC CI [0.08, 0.04]) for the indirect effect through
ator (eg relationship mindfulness), between the first mediator negative emotional support). That is, there was no parallel
and second mediator (eg negative emotional symptoms), and mediation from relationship satisfaction to sleep disturban-
between the second mediator and outcome (eg sleep problems) ces through relationship mindfulness or negative emo-
and (b) a significant serial mediation. Each indirect effect was
tional symptoms.
tested for significance based on 95% biased-corrected bootstrap
The three-path indirect effect linking relationship satisfac-
confidence interval (BC CI) calculated on the basis of 5,000
tion and sleep disturbance via the two serially connected
bootstrap samples.
mediators relationship mindfulness and negative emotional
symptoms was significant (b ¼ .02, p< .05, 95% BC CI
Results [-.05, .01]). This finding supported the main study hypoth-
esis on relationship mindfulness and negative emotional
Preliminary analyses
symptoms serially mediating relationship satisfaction and
All study variables were significantly correlated and in the sleep disturbances (see Table 2). The predictors and media-
hypothesized directions (see Table 1). For example, tors accounted for 26% of the variance in sleep disturbances
2148 M. E. JAUREQUI ET AL.

Table 2. Standardized estimates and 95% confidence intervals for pathways in overall negative affectivity best explains how anxiety, depres-
the serial mediation model (N ¼ 241).
sion and stress relate to sleep among college students.50
Effect B SE 95% BC CI
Thus, the treatment of sleep problems among college stu-
Indirect effect
RSAT ! RM ! SP .00 .01 [.02, .02]
dents should consider the role of a complex set negative
RSAT ! NEM ! SP .02 .03 [.08, .04] emotional symptoms.
RSAT ! RM ! NEM .05 .02 [.10, .01] The current study’s findings add to an understanding on
RSAT ! RM ! NEM ! SP .02 .01 [.05, .01]
Total effect
how a satisfying relationship relates to lower negative emo-
RSAT ! SP .20 .07 [.33, .06] tional symptoms. First, present findings demonstrated no
Note: b, standardized estimates; SE, standard error; BC CI, bias-corrected confi- direct association between relationship satisfaction and nega-
dence interval; RSAT, relationship satisfaction; RM, relationship mindfulness; tive emotional symptoms, but an indirect effect through
NEM, negative emotional symptoms; SP, sleep problems. Estimates provided
include having controlled for age and attachment orientations. relationship mindfulness. This finding is in line with prior
literature reviewed that identified relationship satisfaction as
and 17% and 20% of the variance in relationship mindful- a negative predictor of negative emotional symptoms.17
ness and negative emotional symptoms, respectively. Specifically, our findings replicate research on adaptive rela-
tionship processes as mediating relationship quality and
mental health.17 In that, relationship mindfulness mediated
Comment the link from relationship satisfaction to negative emotional
symptoms. This finding extends prior research on a present
The current study investigated factors explaining sleep prob-
focused nonjudgmental attention and awareness as explain-
lems among college students within the context of a roman-
ing the link from a satisfying relationship to lower negative
tic relationship. Results from the study identified lower
emotional symptoms. For example, one study found a col-
relationship satisfaction and higher negative emotional
lege student’s tendency to be nonjudgmental of present
symptoms directly related to more sleep problems. Results
also supported the study’s main hypothesis on relationship moment experiences accounted for levels of depression, anx-
satisfaction as related to sleep problems via its prior associ- iety and stress above and beyond perceived social support.27
ation with relationship mindfulness and subsequent negative In another study, a college student’s tendency to focus on
emotional symptoms. the present rather than ruminating on the past or worrying
As expected, higher relationship satisfaction directly about the future mediated social support and psychological
related to fewer sleep problems. Being in a highly satisfying distress.51 Taken together, it seems feelings of warmth and
romantic relationship provides a context that influences an comfort provided by a relationship relates to lower negative
overall sense of wellbeing.45 Persons in a highly satisfying emotional symptoms, first through the degree to which one
romantic relationship view their partner as responsive to tends to employ a present focused nonjudgmental attention
their needs and validating of their experiences. As a result, a and awareness.
highly satisfying romantic relationship provides emotional The present study found engaging with a romantic part-
warmth, comfort and safety. Such qualities are strikingly ner with present focused nonjudgmental attention and
relevant to sleep and sleep is a vulnerable physiological state awareness explained how higher satisfying romantic relation-
that requires one to feel safe and secure. In fact, a number ships related to lower negative emotional symptoms and
of studies have shown being in a satisfying romantic rela- subsequent fewer sleep problems. Cognitive models of sleep
tionship relates to lower psycho-physiological responses to propose higher rates of sleep problems stem from a ten-
stress, which promotes sleep.45,46 This is particularly import- dency to cling to negative thoughts and emotions exces-
ant for college students as this population experiences a host sively.25,52 This idea was replicated in the present study with
of interpersonal stressors ranging from loss of friends, family the direct and positive association between negative emo-
and having to navigate new social environments. Given the tional symptoms and sleep problems. That said, a key to sat-
numerous interpersonal stressors college students experi- isfying romantic relationships is the ability for couples to
ence, romantic relationships become a primary means for resolve—rather than cling to or avoid—negative thoughts
emotional support.47 Thus, the current and past studies sup- and emotions. Important then is the idea that relationship
port satisfying romantic relationships as an important con- mindfulness is characterized by attention, awareness and
text directly linked to sleep. intention when discussing an issue or working on a problem
Findings also supported prior research on a direct associ- with a romantic partner. In that way, romantic partners who
ation between negative emotional symptoms and sleep prob- practice relationship mindfulness also report lower levels of
lems for college students. In the current study, negative stress and depression.13 Extending this understanding, in
emotional symptoms were characterized by higher aggregate our sample, relationship mindfulness appeared to provide a
reports of depression, anxiety and stress. A review of empir- pathway for satisfying romantic relationships to relate to
ical studies demonstrated depression, anxiety and stress lower negative emotional symptoms and in turn fewer sleep
uniquely predict sleep problems.48 That said, research has problems. Thus, relationship mindfulness may be an import-
also shown depression, anxiety and stress share core symp- ant adaptive relationship process with the potential to help
toms.49,50 Moreover, research has shown college students college students who place great emphasis on romantic rela-
experience a complex mix of negative emotional symp- tionships and are at risk for negative emotional symptoms
toms.50 In fact, research has shown individual differences in and sleep problems.
 JOURNAL OF AMERICAN COLLEGE HEALTH 2149

Implications among these variables across time. Another limitation of the

present study is that sleep disturbances were evaluated using
In the U.S. there has been an increased call for Universities
self-report measure. Individuals can only provide limited
to develop clear health promotion interventions or pro-
insight into their actual sleep-wake states, as their reports
grams.53 One way in which Universities have attempted to
reflect perceived sleep disturbances. Measures that provide
bolster the health of college students is through providing
relationship education programs. A shared core aim of rela- more objectivity, such as polysomnography, would be useful
tionship programs for college students includes a focus on in advancing scientific understanding how relationship satis-
helping develop effective relationship skills.54,55 Moreover, faction, relationship mindfulness and negative emotional
college students report enjoying education and training on symptoms relate to sleep. Another important limitation is
how to foster healthy romantic relationships.55 that, individuals in relationship of any length were able to
Importantly, emerging adults in college are at an import- participate in the study, which may have played a role in
ant life-stage for the development of effective interpersonal the findings. It is possible that the associations among the
skills within romantic relationships.35 This is because effect- variable would have been stronger if the sample would have
ive relationship skills learned during emerging adulthood been limited to individuals in a relationship of six months
can provide relationship, emotional, and physical health or more. For example, in the present study it was found
benefits.56 In fact, adaptive relationship skills mediate the that the association between relationship mindfulness and
link between romantic relationships and mental health.17 On sleep problems was not statistically significant. However, if
the other hand, a lack of effective interpersonal skills within the sample was limited to individuals in longer, more com-
a romantic relationship can be detrimental to wellbeing. For mitted relationships, this association may have been in line
example, higher negative interactions in romantic relation- with our initial hypotheses.
ships predict higher levels of internalizing psychopathology
among emerging adults.57 Findings from the current study
support the notion that, a focus on relationship education
and skills may be key in facilitating the positive effects of a Conclusions
romantic relationship on the health of college students. College students comprise nearly half of the US population
New or existing relationship programs may incorporate experiencing emerging adulthood, a developmental period in
relationship mindfulness as a key relationship skill. Aiding which relationship habits formed have the power to influ-
college students to cultivate a nonjudgmental attention and ence overall wellbeing across the lifespan. The current and
awareness during moment-to-moment experiences with a
prior research has illustrated how an ability to be mindful
romantic partner may reduce the risk for negative emotional
explains the link between romantic relationships and
symptoms and, in turn, lower sleep problems. Therefore,
improved health. The current study extended this under-
educating students on the benefits of being in a highly satis-
standing by examining the role mindfulness-based strategies
fying relationship could be bolstered by a focus on helping
students be more intentional about how they interact with within a romantic relationship play in lower rates of emo-
romantic partners. For example, relationship programs edu- tional negative symptoms and sleep problems among college
cate and instruct college students on the importance of com- students. Hopefully, the present study may advance the
munication techniques such as active listening or conflict development and integration of relationship-based strategies
resolution.55 Importantly then, is the idea that to be higher to improve the complex health issues commonly faced by
on relationship mindfulness is to be open, engaged and non- college students.
judgmental during a conversation or conflict with a roman-
tic partner. Such a process could, in theory, help students to
down-regulate stress, fear and worry necessary to fall and Conflict of interest disclosure
remain asleep. Of course, more research is needed to test
the efficacy of the integration of relationship mindfulness- The authors have no conflicts of interest to report. The
based strategies into a relationship education program and authors confirm that the research presented in this article
its effects on negative emotions and sleep. met the ethical guidelines, including adherence to the legal
requirements, of United States and received approval from
the Institutional Review Board of Florida State University.
Limitations
In interpreting the findings of the present study, several lim-
itations should be taken into account. First, the data were Funding
collected at a single time point, which precludes the use of
the findings to establish temporal or causal relationships No funding was used to support this research and/or the
among relationship satisfaction, relationship mindfulness, preparation of the manuscript.
negative emotional symptoms and sleep disturbances. In
future studies, researchers may build on the model in the
present study by testing it using longitudinal data, thus help-
ORCID
ing to elucidate the longitudinal nature of the associations Matthew E. Jaurequi https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4545-0932
2150 M. E. JAUREQUI ET AL.

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