Nephrol Dial Transplant (1996) 11: 1885-1889

Nephrology
Dialysis
Historical Note Transplantation
(Section Editor: J. S. Cameron)

William Cruickshank (FRS - 1802): Clinical chemist

Guy H. Neild

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Department of Renal Medicine, Institute of Urology and Nephrology, UCL Hospitals, London, UK

Introduction life or how he arrived at Woolwich Arsenal. This was

the government's centre for 'Defence research and
I was researching the start of modern urinalysis, which development' and much of Cruickshank's work would
began at the end of the eighteenth century. In 1764 have been on explosives, although almost nothing is
Cotugno [1] had shown that urine from a case of known of this research. It is interesting that his contem-
nephrotic syndrome produced a 'white coagulum sim- porary Lavoisier, father of French chemistry, was
ilar to that of boiled egg white'. A William Cruickshank appointed in 1775 to his government's munitions
was credited with first describing 'the nitric acid test factory.
for protein'. I looked Wm. Cruickshank up in several Cruickshank's work can be broadly divided into
dictionaries of Biography [2] and was rather surprised. chemistry and analytical chemistry applied to clinical
Physicians are familiar with the immense skill, learning, medicine, and basic chemistry which included his work
and culture of surgeons—but Wm. Cruickshank on explosives and electrolysis. When he first arrived at
seemed to have been an extraordinary polymath by Woolwich, he was appointed assistant to Dr Adair
any standards. He was surgeon, anatomist, chemist, Crawford [5]. Adair Crawford (1748-1795, FRS 1786)
and physicist. Moreover, he either worked extraordin- was a physician to St Thomas' Hospital, and lecturer
arily hard or seemed to be able to be in two places at in Chemistry at Woolwich Arsenal. He was assisted by
once. 'My' Cruickshank, who studied urine, was spelt Cruickshank in the discovery of strontium (Sr) [6].
with a c, and yet the anatomist part of my man was Strontium was purified by Davy in 1814 using
usually spelt without a c. It became clear that there electrolysis.
were two Wm. Crui(c)kshanks, who lived and prac-
tised in London at the end of the eighteenth century,
were made Fellows of the Royal Society (FRS) within Medicine
five years of each other, and both died at the beginning
of the 1800s. After their death they were 'amalgamated' At the Royal Artillery Hospital, Woolwich,
into one man—and Wm. Cruickshank, surgeon and Cruickshank worked under the Surgeon-General John
chemist to the Woolwich Arsenal, who did important Rollo. In 1797 Rollo published a popular and well-
pioneer work on proteinuria, disappeared without circulated book 'An account of two cases of the
trace. The other, William Cumberland Cruikshank [3], diabetes mellitus' (in two volumes), with a second
anatomist and surgeon, is well documented and died edition (in one volume) in 1798; and the two editions
in 1800. of his book on diabetes incorporate Cruickshank's
research on diabetes, urine analysis, venereal disease,
and disinfection by fumigation (Fig. 1). The second
William Cruickshank edition contains much correspondence from other
physicians regarding the first edition, and it is clear
William Cruickshank [4] Dipl. RCS (England) 1780, that, although diabetes was well known to physicians,
was Ordinance Chemist and Lecturer in Chemistry most only had personal experience of one or rarely
(1795) at the Royal Artillery Academy at Woolwich, two cases.
and Surgeon of Artillery, and Surgeon to the Ordinance
Medical Department. Elected a fellow of the Royal Urine analysis
Society (FRS) in 1802, he died in Scotland c. 1811.
Sadly we know nothing at all of Cruickshank's early In the last years of the 1790s Cruickshank was extens-
ively analysing the chemical components of urine in
Correspondence and offprint requests to: Prof. G. H. Neild, MD health and disease. The following are a few of his
FRCP, Middlesex Hospital, Mortimer Street, London W1N8AA, remarkable observations published in the second edi-
UK. tion of Rollo's book [7].

© 1996 European Renal Association-European Dialysis and Transplant Association

1886 G. H. Neild

AN ACCOUNT OF found to consist principally of phosphate of lime; about 2 gr

may be obtained in this way from 4 oz of urine. Lime water
TWO CASES likewise throws down a precipitate which is much more
OF THE copious, for reasons which must be obvious.1 Nitrous acid,
added to healthy urine, produces a slight effervescence, and
DIABETES MELLITUS: gives it more or less of a reddish colour, but produces no
WITH REMARKS, precipitation. In some diseases, however, particularly general
AS THEY AROSL Dt'KING THE dropsy or anasarca, this reagent, when dropped into the
PROGRESS OF THE CURE. urine, produces a milkiness, and in some instances a coagula-
T o which are adJcd, tion, similar to what would take place if added to the serum
A G E N E R A L VIEW CF of the blood. When bile is mixed with this fluid, as in
THE NATURE OF THE DISEASE jaundice, the acid renders it green.
AND ITS APPROPRIATE TRt-.ATMENT, The principal of tan, or infusion of oak-bark, detects
animal mucilage or jelly, and the quantity of coagulum

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Including OM'civ.it ions on fonic Difialis ilcpcmlingon
STOMACH AFFECTION; thrown down will in general bear a certain proportion to the
AND A DETAIL OF extractive matter. Four oz. of healthy urine afforded in this
THE COMMUNICATIONS way precipitates of about 4 gr.
Received on the SubjiO fince tht- Diipcifionot the Notes on the The corrosive muriat of mercury is a very useful reagent,
FIRbT CASE. as it has no immediate effect on recent healthy urine; but in
every case of increased action of vessels, more particularly of
BY JOHN ROLLO, M.D. the inflammable kind, a greater or less milkiness, and a whitish
SCKGKOX-GKNKllALJ ROYAL ARTILLERY. precipitate, is instantly produced; it likewise in some degree
coagulates dropsical urine.—Effects somewhat similar,
WITH although not so striking, are produced by alum. The muriat
THE RKSULTS OF TIIF. TRIALS OF of barytes detects the phosphoric salts.... (From pp. 243-244)
VARIOr.S ACIDS AM) OTHER SUBSTANCES Upon the whole, therefore, we would observe, that the
In the rrcatuKiii >>t the Luts \\T<ir«.a ; proportion of extractive matter, may in some measure, be
AN n determined by an infusion of oak bark, or rather galls; the
<OME OHSERVATIOXS OV THL XATl RE Of Sl'GAR, &c. quantity of phosphoric salts by the muriat of barytes, or
HY WILLIAM CRUICKSHANK, acetite of lead; that of the muriatic salts by the latter
Oicmill to the Onlnance, ai)d * Suigeon of Ar.illcrw substance; the proportion of phosphate of lime by pure
ammonia, or any of the alkalis, and the lithic acid by the
IN THO rOLL'MRS. processes already described. In morbid states of the urine,
the coagulable part of the serum is detected by the nitrous
acid, and even by heat; bile by the nitrous or muriatic acids;
and the condition of urine accompanying rheumatism and
Honasn: other inflammatory complaints by the corrosive muriate of
IiV r. r:t|.LFT, mercury and sometimes by alum ... (p. 245)
I OK C . THE l'OLLTHY. From what has been delivered it must be evident, that an
attentive examination of the urine may lead to useful conclu-
sions in several diseases.
Fig. 1. Frontpiece to the 1st edition of An account of two cases of In dropsy, the general disease may readily be distinguished
the diabetes mellitus. from that depending on morbid viscera, by attending to the
effects produced on thisfluidby nitrous acid and the corrosive
The urine contains neutral salts and animal extractive matter.muriat of mercury. In three cases which we have lately met
There is an enormous daily variation in health and disease. with, the urine coagulated not only on addition of nitrous
The specific gravity varies between 1005 and 1033 (distilled acid, but likewise by heat; and. in one of them, which proved
water at 1000). On exposure to air putrefaction occurs, with fatal in six weeks, the urine appeared to differ but little from
the production of much ammonia. When first voided urine the serum of the blood, so remarkable was the coagulation
always contains an excess of phosphoric acid held in solution produced by heat and acids ... In the dropsy 2
proceeding
as phosphate of lime, and readily thrown down by fixed alkali from diseased liver and other morbid viscera , the urine does
not coagulate either by nitrous acid or heat; it is usually
or even pure ammonia. Urine reddens litmus. Evaporation of
small in quantity, high coloured, and deposits, after standing,
36 oz (c. 1000 ml) yields a residuum of 1-1 \ ounces (50 oz =
a considerable quantity of pink-coloured sediment. This
1450 ml) this consists of muriats of potash and soda (KG,
NaCl), phosphoric and lithic acid (uric acid) and animal ' Cruickshank clearly expected his readers to follow what he was
extractive matter ... (p. 240) saying—without him having to explain every implication. My reason
... Lithic acid and nitrous acid (nitric acid) evaporated to 2for this emphasis will become clear.
dryness leaves a bright crimson colour. Calcium phosphate The point is that Cruickshank is assuming that the reader realizes
that he was discussing the kidney, and now he is discussing other
and nitric acid yields a white colour ... (p. 241) organ pathology. Thus Cruickshank can claim to be the first to
Pure ammonia and fixed alkalies dropped into healthy recent demonstrate that heavy proteinuria causing dropsy was due to
urine, produce a slight cloud, which, on examination, will be kidney disease.
William Cruickshank (FRS - 1802): Clinical Chemist 1887

peculiar sediment we consider as, in some measure, character- Disinfectants

istic of diseased or rather scirrhous liver. On examination we
found that it consisted of a phosphate of limes, some animal In 1795 Wm. Cruickshank introduced chlorine into
matter to which its red colour was probably owing, and a Woolwich Military Hospital as a disinfectant [9]
little lithic acid; this last, however, was in very small quantity. (Fig. 2). In 1780 Sir James Carmichael Smyth had
In inflammatory affections, particularly those of the chest used nitric acid vapour to purify contagious ships. The
and acute rheumatism, the urine, during the active state of latter, however, was generally felt to be more dangerous
the disease, always affords an immediate precipitate with the than the contagion.
corrosive muriat of mercury or alum, and sometimes with
the nitrous acid—when the disease takes a favourable turn,
this effect will in a great measure cease, and the 'lateritious
sediment makes its appearance, (pp. 248-249) Treatment of syphilis
We have thrown out these imperfect hints, merely with a At this time there was enormous enthusiasm about the
view to induce others to pay some attention to a subject power of oxygen to treat clinical disease. Cruickshank,

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which has of late been much neglected, but which, in our and others, were particularly interested in the idea that
opinion, is capable of affording great assistance in theoxidizing agents could be given as therapy and in the
investigation and cure of many diseases, (p. 256). first edition of Rollo's book he proposed that such
chemicals might be efficacious in the treatment of
In 1797 Cruickshank produced urea nitrate by syphilis. The second edition is full of enthusiasm and
adding concentrated nitric acid to evaporated urine. individual case details of the great success of this
therapy: nitric acid (1 drachm diluted in 20 oz of
water), and oxygenated muriate of potash (potassium
Work on sugars chlorate) being particularly successful and more effect-
Cruickshank must have been one of the first analytical ive than citric acid [10] (Fig. 3). The potassium chlor-
chemists to investigate the composition of organic ate (now known to be a highly toxic proximal renal
compounds and was particularly interested in sugars. tubule toxin) resulted in a gratifying increase in urine
He was fascinated by the chemistry of fermentatation flow after a few days! These ideas may seem odd now,
and in a series of definitive experiments, using different but 200 years later we are equally obsessed with trying
atmospheres, showed the absolute requirement for to deliver nitric oxide, in similar ways, to obscure parts
oxygen [8]. of the body.

A ./*>'•• (l/'/ii/r/i'.-,w //'//> >/'///!•// nit

// / ' / • y // /

it/',- //• / / ' r ////'i>//t/''''if -~

,/•///.// /•// ///••<///•> >•/'//,• .My/.;;-/' (

•.////•>• ,/<//:////>•'/n>/i> //>>• ' f'l'-u/ \

,//-///,'/.!///'' .

1) .j/^.y///;/.';- .•,;t,;y,'//l/ ///. //..:>,

,i//t//<•> //•//>>•/'• /:/•/>/•/////// it/ I' //>'

.'/i/ttt/t/sr i.) i///irt'/)'t/. —

'/'/it* rt'/union

Fig. 2. Apparatus used for fumigation.

1888 G. H. Neild

-
Nature of the Difeafe. P Period of Adiuiflion and Difcharge.

1 whom
Throat
s so

ancre
'A o H. Particular Remedies em- Admifflon. Difcharge.
\fe:i'a Names. 3 o ployed. «
d U CO W Z
Slid I ar I — — — Acid Nitros — — Ja Mar. IO, 1797 April 1797
lit 16* do.
Do. — — do.
i
__ Do. —
h IO, do. '9> do.
More — — i
i ___ Do. — — Ja IO, do. 11. do.
Kali ox. mur. — C May 8, do. May 26, do.
Bents — — levcral
Smitli do. I Acid nitros — — Ir June 28, do. Aug •4> do.
• Do — — Ir Sept. 8 , do. I4> do.
Drvennort
Henderlbn
—
— dtep
I
2 . Kali ox. mur. — Ir Nov. IO, do.
oa.
Jan. 8, 1798
Jlj.t Do. ung. hydr. calomel Ir do. D.-c. 2 5 , '797

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levei al i i ,
Muddling — i — — — Kali ox. mur. — Ir Aug. *3» 1798 Sept. 2 4 , 1798

id King — feveral K'lli ox. mur. — C Mar. 8, 1797 June 3°. »797
SiiiL-y — do. Acid nitros — — C II, do. April 3> do.
MU.IIeton — i Do. — — C *S» do. 18, do.
Ft.nfi.le — deep Dei. kali ox. mur. — C May 29> do. July 1, do.
J hnllniie •cv.-ial 1 ,'.ci<l nitros. kali ox. mur. W Aug. 2 1 , do. April 4. 1798
Ward ley — i — — — Ox. mur. ot maiigantie — W 2 8 , do. Sept. 1 9 . 1797
2 11,
F'lvltr i Do. — — W 9> do. Dec. do.
r.Mter — — i i Do. kali ox. mur. — w Sept. 1 0 , do. Jan. 13. 1798
Wardly _ p
Kali ox. mur. — Dec. 1 , do. Dec. »797
.XCOl'. — — — —
w Hi

Fig. 3. Clinical cases treated for Lues (2nd edition).

Chemistry grooves were made opposite to each other, about the tenth of
an inch in depth, and sufficiently wide to admit one of the
Work on gases plates of zinc and silver when soldered together; three of these
grooves were made in the space of one inch and three tenths,
Cruickshank prepared carbon monoxide by passing so that the whole machine contained 60 pairs of plates. A plate
carbon dioxide over heated iron. He called it 'gaseous of zinc and silver, each 1.6 inches square, well cemented
oxide of carbone' and described it as 'heavy, inflam- together, were introduced into each of these grooves or notches,
mable air' and correctly proposed its composition as and afterwards cemented into the trough by a composition of
CO. Dalton's theory of 1803 that matter consisted of rosin and wax, so perfectly, that no water could pass from one
'atoms' was in part inspired by Cruickshank's accurate cell to the other ... the interstices or cells formed by the
description of carbon monoxide. different pairs of plates were filled with a solution of the
The famous chemist Joseph Priestley (1733-1804) muriate of ammonia [ammonium chloride] which here supplied
refused to believe Cruickshank's work, and sub- the place of the moistened paper in the pile, but answered the
sequently there was a robust exchange of correspond- purpose much better.
ence between Priestley and Cruickshank, which
continued after Priestley moved to North America Mottelay emphasized the importance of this inven-
[11]. Another modest Yorkshire man, he wrote of tion of Cruickshank stating that it was modified by
himself: Dr Wm. Babington (1756-1837) and that the great
batteries of the Royal Institution were constructed on
'No person was ever more temperate, or more cautious than I
have been in the introduction of new terms, considering the
this principle. Furthermore, he says:
number of new facts that I have discovered'.
Cruickshank's plan was adopted in the construction of the
powerful battery of 600 pairs, which Napoleon Bonaparte
presented to the Ecole Polytechnique and upon which Gay-
Work on electrolysis Lussac and Thenard made their important experiments during
the year 1808.
In March 1800, Volta had written a letter to Sir Joseph
Banks, President of the Royal Society, describing his
invention of the (Voltaic) Pile. This was read at a Nicholson and Carlyle (1800) showed that electricity
meeting of the Royal Society on 26th June. decomposed water to oxygen and hydrogen.
Cruickshank constructed a trough battery [12] in July Cruickshank showed that metals are deposited on the
and September 1800. negative pole, while acids (anions) are deposited on
the positive pole—the first example of electroplating.
...a kind of trough of baked wood, 26 inches in length, 1.7 He also described how the electrolyte became increas-
inches deep, and 1.5 inches wide; in the sides of the trough, ingly acid at the anode and alkaline at the cathode.
William Cruickshank (FRS - 1802): Clinical Chemist 1889

Cruickshank also recommended that electrolytic depos- 3. Gillispie CC (ed). William Cumberland Cruickshank. In
Dictionary of Scientific Biography. New York. Scribner. vol 3,
ition of the metal as a qualitative analysis test and 1971, pp.'486-488
described it as a test for copper [13]. This was how, 4. For a large part of the biographical facts concerning Wm C I
for example, Davy finally purified strontium. am indebted to Mr Alec Coutts, formerly of the Physics Dept,
Woolwich Polytechnic, who published an account of
Cruickshank's life and work in 1959 in the Annals of Science
Conclusion 1959; XV: 121-133
5. Partineton JR The early history' of Strontium. Annals of Science
1941-7; 5: 157
I hope you will be convinced that Wm. Cruickshank 6. This is from a paper on "the medicinal properties of the muriated
was a remarkable scientist, whose neglect has been a varieties', Adair Crawford. MD, FRS, read Nov 10th 1789,
tragedy and whose recognition is overdue. Medical Communications (of the Society for promoting Medical
Knowledge). 2 vols. 8°. 1784-1790. 2. 301-59: section on
strontium, 353-356
Acknowledgements This paper is part of a talk on William
7. Quotes from Rollo's book—2nd edition; reprinted in Philosoph

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Cruickshank given at the 576th meeting of The United or Boro
Hospitals Club. Mag 1798; 2: 240-250
8. Published originally in editions 1 and 2 of Rollo's book.
Reprinted in two parts in Nicholson's Journal (1797; 1, 337-341
and 1799; 2: 406-411) and together in Philosophical Mag 1798;
References 2: 240-250
1. Schena FP. Domenico Cotugno and his interest in proteinuria. 9. Rollo J. An account of two cases of the diabetes mellitus. 1st
Am J Nephrol 1994; 14: 325-329 edition. 1797. vol ii, 283. Cruickshank was using chlorine for
2. Biographie Umverselle, Anciene et Moderne, Michaud, Paris. disinfection before Guyton de Morveau, who described
1813, vol 10, 317-8.; Dictionaire des Sciences Medicates: Cruickshank's process in his Traile des movens de desinfecter
Biographie Medicate, Panckoucke, Paris, 1821, 558; Nouvelle I'air, Pans, 1801, 58-61
Biographie Generate, Didot, Paris, 1855, 558; Poggendorf JC 10. Rollo J. An account of two cases of the diabetes mellitus. 2nd
(ed.), Biographish-Lileransches Handworterbuch zur Geschicle edition, 1798, 625
der Exaclen Wissenschaften, JA Barth, Leipzig, 1863, Vol 1, 502; 11. Nicholson's J 1802; i: 181 and 1803; iv: 65
Biographisches Lekikon der hervortragenden Arize alter Zeilen 12. Mottelay PF. Bibliographical History of Electricity and
und Vo'lker, 2nd edition. Urban and Schwartzenberg, Berlin, Magnetism. London, 1922, 338
1930, 149 13. Nicholson's J 1801; 4: 187 & 254

Glossary

Acetite of lead lead acetate

Acid of tartar tartaric acid (a dicarboxylic acid)
Alum aluminimum, potassium sulphate, A1K(SO4)2
Azotic gas nitrogen
Barytes BaSO4
Carbonic acid gas (fixed air) CO2
Corrosive muriat of mercury HgCl2
Cream of tartar potassium bitartrate
Hydrocarbonate gas ether?
Lime (quick lime) CaO
Lime water Ca(OH)2
Limestone CaCO3
Lithic acid uric acid
Muriat of barytes BaCl2
Muriat of lead PbCl2
Muriat of potash KC1
Muriat of soda NaCl
Muriatic acid HC1
Nitrat of mercury HgNO3
Nitrat of silver AgNC-3
Nitrous acid nitric acid
Nitrous gas mixture of nitrogen oxides
Oxygenated muriat of potash potassium chlorate
Oxymuriatic acid chlorine
Phosphate of lime calcium phosphate
Pyromucous acid ? fumaric acid