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RECONNAISANCE SURVEY
A reconnaissance survey is a broad, preliminary examination of a subject or area to
identify key features, patterns, and potential areas of interest. It's a fundamental step in any
research or investigative process to gather preliminary data and insights.

Reconnaissance survey is a fundamental phase in any research or investigative

process, serving as the initial step to gather preliminary data and insights. This type of
survey involves a broad and quick examination of the study area or subject, aiming to
identify key features, patterns, and potential areas of interest

Reconnaissance surveys can have many purposes, including:

Historical surveys

A broad look at a study area to determine what is potentially historical, what is not,
and what needs further study. Properties are typically mapped, photographed, and
documented on standardized state forms.

Geological surveys

A preliminary examination of a region's geological features and characteristics. This

may involve pitting and trenching to expose mineralized zones, limited scouting, reverse
circulation, or diamond drilling. It can also include a literature survey, acquisition of
geophysical data, and synthesis of all available data.

Road or airfield surveys

An extensive study of an entire area to identify promising routes or sites and eliminate
those that are impractical or unfeasible. Existing maps and aerial photographs can be
helpful.

Reconnaissance surveys can also help assessment teams finalize the selection of study
sites for field data collection, identify logistical requirements, and refine study areas and
sites.

The reconnaissance survey is an extensive study of an entire area that might be used for
a road or airfield. Its purpose is to eliminate those routes or sites which are impractical or
unfeasible and to identify the more promising routes or sites. Existing maps and aerial
photographs may be of great help.

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CHAPTER-1

HIGHWAY PROJECT
INTRODUCTION

Transportation contributes to the economic, industrial, social and cultural development of

any country. Transportation is vital for any region since every commodity produced need
transportation at all stages, namely production, distribution and marketing. Project work
deals with the suitable and economical alignment of road, design of elements along the road
such as vertical curves, horizontal curves and thickness of pavements. Longitudinal and
cross section for the highway alignment is prepared using AutoCAD.

Road transport is one of the most common modes of transport. Roads in the form of track
ways, human pathways etc. were used even from the pre-historic times. Since then many
experiments were going on to make the riding safe and comfort. Thus road construction
became an inseparable part of many civilizations and empires.

Village roads are roads connecting villages or groups of villages with each other to the
nearest road of higher category. Preparation of road project involves a chain of activities
such as field surveys, land investigations, selection of alignment, carrying out various
designs and preparation of drawings and estimation etc. to be compatible with technical
requirements, economy which is essential in every project. The project should be prepared
after thorough investigations and collection of all relevant information and evaluating all
possible alternatives.

PROJECT AREA

Location

The proposed survey work is carried out for new alignment in Chamarajanagara
district at the , Chamarajanagara near at Bedarapura village and it is approachable from
taluk headquarters by Karwar-Kadra road which is situated at a distance of around 500M
from the GEC Chamarajanagara college campus. The area is considered for the survey is
still under development.

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Climate

The temperature ranges from a minimum 24°C in December to a maximum of 37°C in May.

ROLE OF TRANSPORTATION

 Transportation contributes to the economic industrial, social &cultural development

of any country.

 Transportation is vital for economic development of any region since every

commodity produced whether it is food, clothing, industrial products or medicine,
needs transport at all stages from production to distribution.

ADVANTAGES

 Transportation is for advancement of the community.

 It is essential for economic prosperity and general development of country.

 It is essential for strategic movement in emergency for defense of country and to

maintain better law and order.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ROAD TRANSPORTATION

 Roads are by various road vehicles like passenger cars, buses, trucks, pedal cycle and
animal drawn vehicle.

 Road transport is the only transports which offer door to door service.

 Road transport requires relatively small investment.

OBJECTS OF SITE SELECTION

 Easy and short distance with minimum cost.

 Maximum utilization of road.

 Future requirements and safe traffic keeping in mind the future development
programs.

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 The proposed state highway is connecting and which reduces the length of existing
road by km the existing road is a curved long pathway which consumes a lot of time
to reach the destination keeping in mind the present situation we conducted
preliminary survey and collected the local demand from which the construction of
new state highway road easy and short in its nature is very essential for the users
directly in all aspects.

 The proposed alignment of road is of length which starts from passes through and
connects to existing state highway.

SIGNIFICANCEOF PLANNED ROAD NETWORK

It may be said that deficiency in road development in India has contributed greater to the
setbacks in agriculture commercial and in industrial sectors. It is essential to provide road
link between villages and market centers. The prosperity around the urban areas alone does
not reflect the economic and living condition of people of our country as whole. Overall
economic progress can be achieved, only if reasonably adequate transport facilities are
made available between villages and other districts headquarters and commercial centers,
the road network have also to be supplemented to keep pace with the requirement of
uninterrupted movement of fast vehicles along the arterial roads.in general developing
countries have to rise there transportation system to higher level both in terms of length and
quality so as to meet the demand which is being generated by the development plans. Also
road developments generate considerable employment potential. It is estimated by planning
commission and the national council of applied economic research that Rs. 1000 corers
invested in roads would yield employment for 6 million persons.

It has been shown that paved surface is reasonably good condition can contribute to
15 to 40 percent savings in vehicle operation cost. This is very significant from the point of
view of energy crises and conservation of petrol and fuel. Revenue from the road transport
in India has been much higher than the investment made on the road development plans.
Out of estimated revenue of Rs. 10000 corers from the road sector during the sixth five year
plan1980-85 only Rs.3439 corers was provided for roads during the plan period. During
the seventh plan Rs.6000 corers was spent of or road development in the country. There is
a greatened and considerable scope for higher investment for development of road
transportation in India.

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REQUIREMENT OF RURAL ROAD DEVELOPMENT

There are 5.76 lacks villages in India. Of this only about 57 percent of villages with
population about 1500, 36.3 percent villages with population 1000 to 1500 and 23 percent
villages with population less than 1000 were connected with all-weather roads by 1980-
81.

Realizing the urgency of developing the village roads this has been treated as a part
of minimum needs program since the 5th five year plan. It is estimated that Rs of 11000
corers (as per 1980 costs estimates) will be needed to provide al weather motor able roads
network so that on the average any village is not more than 1.6km from aroad. During a 6th
five year plan (1980-85) out of the provision of Rs.3439 corers for the road development
and maintenance, Rs. 1165 cores was set apart for the rural roads under the minimum need
program. A master plan for rural roads has been prepared for a Karnataka state at an
estimated cost of Rs. 949 corers. Classification of roads.

TYPES OF ROADS

The different types of roads are classified into two categories depending on whether they
can be used during different seasons of the year,

• All weather roads and

• Fair weather roads

All weather roads are those which are negotiable during all-weather except at Major River
crossing where interruption to traffic is permissible up to certain extent, the road pavement
should be negotiable during all weathers. Roads which are called fair weather roads, on
these roads, the profit maybe interrupted during monsoon season at cause ways where
streams may overflow across the road.

Based on the Type of Carriage Way orthe Road Pavement

• Paved roads

• Unpaved roads

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Based On the Type of Pavement Surfacing Provided

• Surfaced roads

• Un surfaced roads

Methods of Classification of Roads

• Traffic value

• Load transported or tonnage

• Location and function

Based on the traffic value roads are classified as heavy, medium and light traffic roads.
Classification based on load or tonnage is also relative and road maybe classified as class
1, 2, etc. or class A, B, etc. and the limits maybe expressed tones per day.

Classification based on location and function should therefore be a more acceptable

classification for a country as they may be defined clearly. The Nagpur road plan classifies
the roads in India based on location and function into following 5 categories.

 National highway(NH)

 State highway(SH)

 Major district roads (MDR)

 Other district roads (ODR) and

 Village roads (VR)

CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS BY NAGPUR PLAN

National Highways (NH)

National highways are main highways running through the length and breadth of India,
connecting major ports, foreign highways, capitals of large states and large industrial and
tourist centers including roads required for strategic movements for the defense of India.
All the national highways are assigned the respective numbers. The highway connecting
DelhiAmbala-Amritsar is denoted as NH-1.

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State Highways (SH)

State highways are arterial roads of a state, connecting up with the national highways of
adjacent states, district headquarters and important cities within the states and serving as
main arteries for traffic to and from district roads. These highways are considered as main
arteries of commerce by roads within a state or a similar geographical unit. In some places
they may even carry heavier traffic than some of the national highways but this will not
alter their designation or function. The NH and SH have the same design speed and
geometric design specifications.

Major District Roads (MDR)

Major District roads are important roads within a district serving areas of production and
markets and connecting those with each other or with the main highways of a district. The
MDR has lower speed and geometric design specifications then NH/SH.

Other District Roads (ODR)

Other District road are the roads serving rural areas of production and providing them
with outlet to market sectors, taluk headquarters, block development headquarters or other
main roads. These are of lower design specification than MDR.

Village Roads (VR)

Village Road are roads connecting villages or groups of villages with each other to the
nearest road of higher category. It was desired that the prevalent practice of leaving such
tracks to develop and maintain by themselves should be replaced by a plan for designed
and regulated system.

A general note was assigned by the Nagpur road conference regarding the economics of
road construction that all roads of whatever type or class, should be so constructed that
maintenance and capital cost over a period of 20 years will be minimum. The responsibility
of construction and maintenance of national highways was decided to be with the central
government; it was stated that "Centre should select the national highways and trails, accord
priorities and pay for all construction and maintenance"

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HIGHWAY PLANNING

INTRODUCTION

In the present area, planning is considered as a pre-requisite before attempting any

development program. This is particularly true for any engineering work as planning is the
basic requirement for any new project or an expansion project. Thus highway planning is
also a basic need for highway development. Particularly planning is of great help when
funds available are less.

OBJECTIVES OF HIGHWAY PLANNING

To plan a road network for efficient and safe traffic operation, but at minimum coast

• To arise at the system and the length of different categories of the roads this could
provide maximum utility and could be constructed with in the available resources
during the plan period under construction.

• To fix up date wise priorities for the development of each road link based on utility
as the main criteria facing the road development planning.

• To plan for future required and improvement of the road in view anticipated
development.

• To work out financial system.

PLANNING SURVEY

Highway planning phase includes

• Assessment of road length for area

• Preparation of master plan

Thus for assessing the road length requirement field surveys are to be carried out. The
collected data are required for determining the length of the road. Planning survey consist
the following surveys.

Economic Studies: The details of the existing facility should be collected before
estimating the requirements such that the economic justification made for each plan.

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Financial Studies: Financial studies are essential to study the various financial
aspects like source of income manner in which the fund mobilized.

Traffic Studies: The traffic studies should be carried out in the whole area and
selected routes and locations.

Engineering Studies: All details of topography of soil and other problems like
drainage, construction and maintenance problem should be investigated before a scientific
plan or program is suggested.

Preparation of Master Plan: Master plan is the final road development plan of the
area under study which may be a block, taluk, district, state or whole country. Based on the
available plans different possible networks of new road and improvement of some existing
roads are proposed.

HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT

INTRODUCTION

The position or the layout of the centre line of the highway on the ground is called the
alignment. The horizontal alignment includes the straight path horizontal deviation and

curve. Once the road is aligned and constructed, it is not easy to change the alignment due
to the cost of adjoining land.

A new road should be aligned very carefully as improper alignment would result in

a) Increase in construction cost

b) Increase in maintenance cost

c) Increase in VOC.

d) Increase in accident rate.

REQUIREMENT

The basic requirement of an ideal alignment between two terminal stations is

a) Short: It is desirable to have short alignment between two terminals.

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b) Easy: The alignment should be easy to construct and maintain.

c) Safe:The alignment should be safe for construction maintenance& for traffic operation.

d) Economical:The road alignment could be considered economical only if the total cost
including initial cost, VOC maintenance cost is lowest. The alignment should be such
that it should offer maximum utility per unit length.

FACTORS CONTROLLING ALIGNMENT

The various factors are:

Obligatory Point: This control points divided in to two categories

• Obligatory points through which the alignment is to pass

• Obligatory points through which the alignment should not pass.

Traffic: The alignment should suit traffic requirements, origin and destination studies
should be carried out in the area and the desired lines be drawn showing the trend of traffic
flow. The desired lines, traffic flow pattern and future trends should be kept in view in
aligning the new road.

Geometric Design: Geometric design factor such as gradient, radius of curve and sight
distance also would govern the final alignment of the highway. If straight alignment is
aimed at, often it may be necessary to provide very steep gradient. As far as possible while
aligning a new road, the gradients should be flat and less than ruling or design gradient.
Thus it may be necessary to make adjustment in the horizontal alignment of roads keeping
in view the minimum radius of curve and transition curve.

Economy: The alignment finalized based on the above factors also be economical. In
working out the economics the initial cost of maintenance and vehicle operation should be
taken into account. The initial cost of construction can be decreased if high embankment
and deep cutting and filling.

Other Consideration: Various other factors which govern the alignment are drainage
consideration hydrologic factor, political consideration. The vertical alignment is often
guided by drainage consideration. The subsurface water level, seepage flow and high flood

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level are the factor to be kept in view. In a flat terrain it is possible to have a very long
stretch of road, absolutely straight without horizontal curve, but straight roadof very low
stretch may be monotonous for driving. Hence after a few kilometer of straight it may be
desirable to have a slight bend.

SURVEY

Survey work is carried out in four steps and those are as follows:

 Map Study

 Reconnaissance

 Preliminary Survey

 Final Location & Detailed Surveys.

Map Study

With the help of topographical maps available in the Survey Department of India, the main
features like rivers, hills, valleys etc. are known. By careful study of such maps, it is
possible to have an idea of several possible alternative routes. Then the shortest alignment
was selected.

Reconnaissance Survey

The second stage of surveys for highway location is the reconnaissance to examine the
general character of the area for deciding the most feasible routes for detailed studies.
Reconnaissance survey was carried out by field party on 29-01-2013.

The standard bench mark was already fixed in the existing earthen bund of the village with
a RL of it. Then shortest alignment between Hotegali and Bhimkol was selected, connecting
the nearby villages and passing over the proposed bund. After the proposed bund the road
has higher amount of natural gradient compared to starting and near to Bhimkol it is much
steeper.

Preliminary Survey

The main objectives of the preliminary survey are:

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1) To survey the various alternate alignments proposed after the reconnaissance and to
collect all the necessary physical information and details of topography, drainage and
soil.

2) To compare the different proposals in view of the requirements of a good alignment.

3) To finalize the best alignment from all considerations

Final Location & Detailed Survey

Location:

The centre line of the road finalized in the drawings is to be translated on the ground during
location survey. This is done using a transit Theodolite and by taking of the centerline.
Major and Minor control points established on the ground &centre pegs are driven,
checking the geometric design requirements. The centre line stakes are driven at suitable
intervals; say at 50 meter intervals in plain & rolling terrains & at 20 meter in hilly terrain.

Detailed Survey:

Temporary bench marks are fixed at intervals of about 250 m & at all drainage &underpass
structures. The cross section levels are taken up to the desired width, at intervals of 50-
100m in plain in terrain, 50-75m in rolling terrain, 50m in built up areas & 20m in hilly
terrain. All river crossing, valleys etc should be surveyed in detail up to considerably
distance on either side. All topographical detail is noted down & also plotted using
conventional signs.
Adequate hydrological details are using collected and recorded.

CONSTRUCTION SURVEY

This type of survey is done only after the completion of final location survey. The jungles,
bushes, grass and other objectionable materials are cleared. Then the centerline is marked
on the ground using pegs. Detailed design and earth work calculations are prepared to
proceed for the further construction work.

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PREPARATION OF MAPS

A map is the representation of the ground features to scale. Plan, longitudinal section and
cross section are drawn to determine the final centerline of the road. The map is prepared
based on the bearings and distances obtained from the survey work, using Dumpylevel,
Prismatic compass, Tape and Chain. Levels were taken to plot the longitudinal sections and
cross-sections, using Dumpy Level, leveling staff, and Cross staff.

ROAD ALIGNMENT

The proposed road work is almost hilly as mentioned in the reconnaissance survey for some
of the change in the direction of the roads and vertical levels; respective horizontal and
vertical curves were designed for the same. The highest deflection angle is 43° and lowest
is 2° 0'.

TERMINOLOGY

Highway alignment: The position or the layout of the centre line of the highway on the
ground is called the alignment. The horizontal alignment includes the straight path, the
horizontal deviations & curves.

Camber: It is the slope provided to the road surface in the transverse direction to drain off
the rain water from the road surface. The types of camber are parabolic shape camber,
straight line camber & combination of straight & parabolic shape camber. :
Recommended values of camber for different road surfaces
Type of Road surface Cross fall light rainfall Cross fall heavy
rainfall

High bituminous or cement 1 in 60 1 in 50

concrete

Thin bituminous 1 in 50 1 in 40
Water bound macadam 1 in 40 1 in 33
Earth 1 in 33 1 in 25

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CURVES

The geometrical areas provided at the change in alignment or gradient of a road are
known as curves. They are usually employed in order that the change in the direction at the
intersection of straight lines shall be gradual. The curves play a very important role in the
geometrical design of a road hence they should be designed so as to provide safety and
convenience to the traffic.

Advantages of Providing the Curves to a Road are

 Provide easy turning of vehicles.

 Provide gradual change in gradient.

 Provide comfort to the passenger.

 Increase life of vehicles.

 Keep drivers to be alert by changing the direction of a road.

 To avoid mental strain caused by continuous straight drive.

 Help in providing safe and economical alignment of road.

Curves are Two Types

 Horizontal Curve

 Vertical Curve

Horizontal Curves

The curves provided at the turning points in the alignment (that is in the horizontal
plane) of a road are known as horizontal curves. These curves are provided to achieve
gradual change in the direction of alignment of road in the horizontal plane.

Horizontal curves are further divided into following types:

 Simple curve

 Compound curve

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 Reverse curve

 Transition curve

Simple Curve: A circular curve consisting of a single arc of uniform radius connecting two
tangents. This type of curve is suitable for slow moving traffic and for large radius such
curve may lie within two tangent lengths or two transition curve.

Compound Curves: A circular curve consisting of series of two or more simple curves of
different radii, which turn in the same direction. This type of curve is used when compelled
by topography of the area in order to avoid cutting through hard rocks, heavy cutting or
filling.

Reverse Curve: A circular curve consisting of two simple curves of same or different radii
in the opposite direction. This is also called as serpentine curve. This type of curve is often
used in the alignment of a hill road.

Transition Curve: The curve having its radius varying gradually from an infinite value
equal to that of the circular curve to be connected. These curves are also called as spiral or
casement curve. This type of curve is commonly introduced on highway between tangent
and a circular curve or between circular curve and a tangent to provide ease and gradual
change in direction of a road alignment.

Vertical Curve: The curves provided at a change of gradient (in vertical frame) of a
road are called vertical curves.

Vertical Curves Are Of Two Types

 Summit curve: these are the curves with convexity upwards.

 Valley curve: these are also called as sag curves, where the convexity is downwards.

SUPER ELEVATION

In order to counteract the effect of centrifugal force and to reduce the tendency of the
vehicle to overturn or skid, the outer edge of the pavement is raised with respect to the inner
edge, thus providing a transverse slope throughout the length of the horizontal curve. The

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inward inclination provided to the cross section of the carriage way at horizontal curved
portion of a road is called Super elevation.

SURVEYING DETAILS

In road survey, the first step is leveling. This is carried out using, instruments such as
dumpy level cross staff and leveling staff. Other instruments used are prismatic compass to
note the bearings, arrows and ranging rods which are used to mark points on the field. The
leveling operation starts from benchmark. A benchmark is point of known elevation.

THE ROAD IS ALIGNED BY TWO OPERATIONS, NAMELY

• Longitudinal sectioning.

• Cross sectioning.

Longitudinal Sectioning: Profile leveling is a process of determining the elevation of

points at fixed intervals along the chain line. Here the line along which the section to be
taken is marked by ranging rods, and the fore bearing of the line is taken with help of
prismatic compass. The level is then setup at a point. The telescope then directed to staff,
held on the temporary benchmark of R.L.100.00m and the reading is taken. This reading is
called as the back sight. Height of collimation is determined. By adding R.L. of temporary
B.M. and B.S. all these readings are noted down in the level book. Then the intermediate
sight is taken on the starting point of the line by holding the staff. For each setup,
intermediate sight should be taken after the fore sight on the next turning station has to be
taken. To find the R.L. the intermediate sights are subtracted from the height of collimation.
When the instrument is to be removed, a change point is selected and a staff is held on the
same point and read it, which is fore sight.

It is subtracted from the height of instrument to find the R.L. of the change point.
The instrument is then transferred to the second position. Having adjusted the instrument,
a back sight is taken on the change point just established. This reading when added to the
change point gives R.L. of the new line of collimation. Then successive intermediate sights
are taken.

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The horizontal distances are plotted along the horizontal axis to some convenient
scale and the distances are also marked. The elevations are plotted along the vertical axis.
The various points obtained are joined by straight lines.

Checking The Levels: For checking the levels, we use the technique called fly leveling. In
this, we start from the last point and go to the first point, taking back sight and fore sight
only. At the end, the last point should be in the vicinity of the benchmark.

Cross Sectioning: Cross sections are run at right angles to horizontal profile and at
either side of it for the purpose of lateral outline of the road surface. It provides data for
estimating the quantities of the earthwork and other purposes. The cross sections are plotted
in the same manner as the longitudinal sections.

CONTOURING

On a plan, the relative attitudes of the points can be represented by contour lines as
they indicate the elevators directly. The area to be surveyed is divided into a number of
squares. The interpolation is done by graphical methods.

DESIGN SPEED

It is the main factor on which geometric design elements like sight distance, radius
of horizontal curve, super elevation, extra widening of pavements, length of horizontal
transition curve & length of summit & valley curve are all dependent on design speed.

WIDTH OF PAVEMENT

It depends on width of traffic lanes & number of lanes. The lane width is determined on the
basis of width of vehicle & minimum sight clearance, which may be provided for safety.
It depends on width of traffic lanes & number of lanes. The lane width is determined on the
basis of width of vehicle & minimum sight clearance, which may be provided for safety.

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Table:Design speed for various terrains

Design Speed in kmph for various terrain

Road
Plain Rolling Mountains Steep
Classification
Rolling Min Rolling Min Rolling Min Rolling Min

National and
State Highway 100 80 80 65 50 40 40 30

DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL CURVES

A horizontal curve is a curve in plan to provide change in direction to the centre line for
road.

Necessity of Super elevation:

• To counteract centrifugal force

• To avoid skidding and overturning

• To distribute the lateral thrust equally on outer and inner wheel.

GRADIENT

Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with respect to the horizontal.
It is expressed as the ratio of 1 in x (1 vertical unit to x horizontal units). Before finalizing
the gradients, the construction cost, vehicular operation cost and the practical problems in
the site also has to be considered. The gradient depends on the terrain of the road. Very
Steep gradients are avoided.

TYPES OF GRADIENTS

Gradients are divided into following categories

• Ruling Gradient

• Limiting Gradient

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• Exceptional Gradient

• Minimum Gradient

Ruling Gradient: Ruling Gradient is the maximum gradient within which the designer
attempts to design the vertical profile of a road. The IRC: 73-1980 has recommended the
following Ruling Gradient values.

1 in 30 on plain and rolling terrain

1 in 20 on mountainous terrain, and

1 in 16.7 on steep terrain

Limiting Gradient: This gradient is adopted when the ruling gradient results in enormous
increase in cost of construction. On rolling terrain and hilly terrain it may be frequently
necessary to adopt limiting gradient.

The IRC: 73-1980 has recommended the following limiting gradient values:

1 in 20 on plain and rolling terrain

1 in 16.7 on mountainous terrain

1 in 14.3 on steep terrain

Exceptional Gradient: Exceptional gradient are very steeper gradients given at

unavoidable situations. They should be limited for short stretches not exceeding about 100
meters at a stretch. In mountainous and steep terrain, successive exceptional gradients must
be separated by a minimum 100 meter length gentler gradient. At hairpin bends, the
gradient is restricted to 2.5%.

The IRC: 73-1980 has recommended the following limiting gradient values: 1 in 15 on
plain and rolling terrain

1 in 14.3 on mountainous terrain

1 in 12.5 on steep terrain

Minimum Gradient: This is important only at locations where surface drainage is

important. Camber will take care of the lateral drainage. But the longitudinal drainage along

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the side drains requires some slope for smooth flow of water. Therefore minimum gradient
is provided for drainage purpose and it depends on the rain fall, type of soil and other site
conditions. A minimum of 1 in 500 may be sufficient for concrete drain and 1 in 200 for
open soil drains are found to give satisfactory performance.. 1 in 200 are provided for
inferior surfaces of drains

1 in 500 are provided for concrete drains or gutters

1 in 100 is provided for kuccha open drains.

KERB

Kerbs are provided at the edge of road between road and shoulders.

SHOULDER

It the thin strip of land provided along the road edge for the emergency lane for parking or
to repair the damaged vehicles. "The minimum shoulder width recommended by IRC is
2.50 m.

Table.: IRC Recommended value of shoulder width

Shoulder Width in meters

Sl No Category of Road
Plain Area Hilly Area

1 National and State Highway

a) Single lane 4.125m 1.25m
b) two lane 2.5m 0.90m
2 Major District Road
a) Single lane 2.625m 0.50m
b) Two lane 1.00m

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3 Other District Road

a) Single lane 1.875m 0.50m
b) Two lane 1.00m
4 Village Roads 2.25m 0.50m

SUMMARY

The site chosen for the proposed highway alignment is carried out in Chamarajanagara
district at the Chamarajanagara taluk near Bedarapura village and it is approachable from
Nanjanagud road which is situated at a distance of around 1km from Government
Engineering college campus, Chamarajanagara.

The main objective of planning a road network is to provide a safe, efficient and
fast movement of people and goods as the area selected for the survey is still under
development.

Based on traffic volume, load transported per day, future needs and the location and
functions the type of road chosen at the site, keeping in view the above requirements is
Major district road (MDR).

The laying out of centre line for the proposed road was carried out at the selected
site for the construction of highway. Cross sections were taken at every 30m chainage
with 5m, 10m, 15m marked on either side of the cross section. Longitudinal section was
also taken along the proposed highway alignment at every 30m interval. A total length of
1020m was surveyed along the centre line of the proposed highway alignment. By
referring all the above details taken at the site the design of road and earthwork was
carried out. Flexible type of pavement is selected and designed for major district road.

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CHAPTER :2

WATER SUPPLY AND SANITORY PROJECT

INTRODUCTION

Water is the basic need for all living beings. Water is extremely useful to mankind
to provide luxurious and comforts in addition to the fulfillment of the basic necessity of the
life. Water is absolutely essential not only for human beings but also to the animals, plants
and all other living beings.

Hence it becomes necessary that the water is required for there need must be good
and it should not contain unwanted impurities and harmful chemical compounds, pathogens
etc. Therefore, a suitable scheme should be provided to ensure constant and reliable water

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supply to the section of people for which it is designed. Water is our life blood, literally.
All the living organisms are mostly made of water and so without water sustaining life is
impossible. Water supply is considered as one of essential requisite of the community life
of civilized country. The provision of such a facility serves as an index of progress in every
sphere of activity; hence it should be given highest priority. Water supply scheme withdraw
water from natural sources of supply, purify it if necessary and deliver it to consumer. Any
water supply scheme starts with preparation supervision and maintenance of source of
supply. After the collection work has tapped a source continuously adequate in volume, if
the quality of the water collected is not satisfactory, purification work are introduced to
render it suitable for purpose it must serve. The water delivered is metered so that an
equivalent charge can be made for its use and for its disposal after use.

PROJECT AREA

Location
The project area lies in the Bedarapura is a small village/helmet in Chamarajanagara Taluk
in Chamarajanagara District of Karnataka State, India. It comes under Bedarapura
Panchayat. It belongs to Mysur division. It is located 7 KM towards west from District head
quarters Chamarajanagara . 6KM from Chamarajanagara

Climate

The temperature ranges from a minimum 24 °C in winter season to a maximum of

38 °C in summer.
A water resources systems planner is faced with the challenge of conceptualizing a
project to meet the specific needs at a minimum cost. For a demand intensive project, the
size of the project is limited by the availability of water. The planner then must choose
amongst the alternatives and determine the optimum scale of the project. If it is a
multipurpose project, an allocation of costs has to be made to those who benefit from the
project. An important aspect of planning is that it has to prepare for a future date – its
effects in terms of physical quantities and costs over useful life of project has to be
evaluated. The return expected over the project period must be calculated.

NECESSITY OF PLANNED WATER SUPPLY

Next to the air, the other important requirement for human life to exist is water.
Water is available in various forms such as rivers, lake, streams etc. The earliest
civilizations organized on the banks of major river systems and required water for drinking,

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bathing, cooking etc. But with the advancement of civilization the utility of water
enormously increased and now such a stage has come that without well-organized public
water supply scheme, it is impossible to run the present civic life and the develop the towns.
The importance of water from only a quantity viewpoint was recognized from the earliest
days and the importance of quality come to be recognized gradually in the recent years.

2.3.STEPS INVOLVED IN WATER SUPPLY

The primary objective of water treatment for public supply is to take water from the
best available source and to subject it to processing which will ensure water of good
physical quality, free from unpleasant taste or odor& containing nothing which might be
detrimental to health. The treatment of water to improve its quality involves additions to,
subtraction from, or chemical changes in raw water. Municipal water systems consist of the
following units.

 Collection work
 Transmission work
 Purification work
 Distribution work
 Collection work
Water is collected from the source like pond, lake, river etc. it is collected and is used for
the various purposes .

Transmission work

In many cases, the collection works may be far away from the city where water is
to be supplied. In that case, water is conveyed to the cities through the transmission work.
These form the connecting link between the collection works & the purification works.
Depending upon the topography of the area between the two sites, the transmission works
may be in the form of conduits canals or aqueducts for simply gravity flow, canals are
generally used.

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Purification work
The water collected directly from the source may not be safe for drinking because
of physical, chemical & biological impurities. The municipal water works must deliver to
the consumer the water that is hygienically safe, aesthetically attractive & palatable, &
economically satisfactory for its intended use. Diseases like typhoid, cholera, dysentery
etc, are water borne diseases. The principle aim of the purification works is to supply clean
& bacteria free water. Softening plants to remove excessive amounts of scale forming, soap
consuming ingredients like calcium & manganese ions.

Distribution work
The treated and purified water is finally sent to the consumers through suitable
distribution system. In order that water may flow in the water supply pipes under pressure,
the purified water is normally stored in the elevated service reservoir. More than one
reservoir may be needed in large systems branching pattern with dead ends, and grid iron
pattern. The plan, topography & location of the area with respect to the service reservoir
establish the type of distribution system & its character of flow.

Reconnaissance Survey
During a reconnaissance survey, secondary and primary data are collected. Such
surveys are useful to obtain a more detailed picture of the project area. During the survey,
technical and non-technical data may be collected from local organizations, or data may be
based on own observations.

 To stimulate integrated formulation of the project scope, the composition of the survey
team should include technical experts (water supply engineers) as well as economists.
 The viability of different service levels or technical options should be investigated
at this early stage.

DATA TO BE COLLECTED IN FIELD

 The primary job of the water resources engineer would be to locate the land surface
elevation, or topography for properly
 Positioning of the intakes treatment works and the distribution reservoirs. Hydrostatical
data of available source of existing water in the vicinity of the area.
 Data of water requirement of the area including the data of the population and their
water needs.
 Data on sanitary conditions of the area and the sources of water pollution.

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 Data on the various legal laws on the water rights, land zoning, land ownership,
administration pattern may also be collected.

WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS

Water is to be stored temporarily and supplied to the consumers through the
network of pipelines called distribution system. The distribution system also includes
pumps, reservoirs, pipe fittings, instruments for measurement of pressures, flow leak
detectors etc. The cost of distribution is about 40 to 70% of the total cost of the entire
scheme. The efficiency of the system depends upon proper planning, execution, and
maintenance. Aim is to supply potable water to all the consumers whenever required in
sufficient quantity with required pressure with least lost and without any leakage.

For efficient distribution it is required that the water should reach to every consumer
with required rate of flow. Therefore, some pressure in pipeline is necessary, which should
force the water to reach at every place. Depending upon the methods of distribution, the
distribution system is classified as the follows:

 Gravity system
 Pumping system
 Dual system or combined gravity and pumping system

Gravity system

Fig: 2.1 Gravity system

In this system the water from the high levelled source is distributed to the
consumers at lower levels by the mere action of gravity without any pumping

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Pumping system

Fig:2.2 pumping system

In the pumping system the treated water is directly pumped into the distribution
mains without storing it anywhere. For this reason this system is also sometimes called as

WATER DEMANDS:

Whenever an engineer is given the duty of design a water supply scheme for a
particular section of the community, it becomes imperative upon him, to first of all,
evaluate the amount of water available and the amount of water demand by the public. In
fact, the first study is to consider the demand, and then the second requirement is to find
source to fulfil that demand. Many a times a compromise is sought between the two.

VARIOUS TYPES OF WATER DEMAND

While planning a water supply scheme, it is necessary to find out not only the total
yearly water demand but also to assess the required average rates of flow or draft and the
variations in these rates. The following quantities are, therefore, generally assessed and
recorded:

Total annual volume (v) in liters or million liters.

Annual average rate of draft in liters per day i.e. V/365.
 Annual average rate of draft in liters per day per person and is also known as per
capita demand (q).
 Average rate of draft in liters per day per service.

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 Fluctuations in flows expressed in terms of percentage ratios of maximum or
minimum yearly, monthly, daily, or hourly rates to their corresponding average
values.

It is very difficult to precisely assess the quantity of water demand by the public, since
there are many variable factors affecting consumption. Certain thumb rules or empirical
formulas are therefore, generally used to assess this quantity, which may give fairly
accurate results. The use of particular method or a formula for a particular case has,
therefore, to be decided by intelligence and foresightedness of designer. The various types
of water demand, which a city may have, may be broken down into the following classes:

 Domestic water demand,

 Industrial water demand,
 Institution and commercial water demand,
 Demand for public use,
 Fire demand, and
 Losses in wastes and thefts.

IMPURITIES IN WATER
Pure water is a chemical compound with each of its molecule containing two hydrogen
atom and one oxygen atom. However pure water can never be available in nature. Even a
manmade drop of water, prepared in a laboratory by lightning hydrogen and oxygen gases
in a test tube, may not be perfectly pure, because the water drops so formed will dissolve
the glass of the test tube. The precipitation in the same manner, at the instant of its
formation, contains no impurities, but during the process of formation and fall through the
earth’s atmosphere, it may dissolve certain gasses, traces of minerals and other substances.
When once the precipitation reaches the earth’s surface, many more opportunities

Are presented for the introduction of various physical, chemical, or bacterial impurities in
it As the rainwater flows over the surface of earth, it picks up or dissolves the particles
of soil, garbage, sewage, pesticides and other human, animal, or chemical wastes. It may
also pick up and dissolve certain decayed organic materials, such as plants or dead animals.
As the surface water seeps into the “Ground-water Reservoir” most of the suspended
particles are filled out, but on the other hand, the water dissolves the minerals and salts
present in the earth’s layer through which it travels before joining the water table.

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The impurities which water dissolves or picks up as suspended matter may
sometimes make it more useful and potable for public uses and especially for drinking, and
sometimes it may render it harmful and unfit. For example, certain minerals such as iron,
calcium, magnesium, fluorine etc. in small quantities may be useful and good for the health
of the people, because human being needs a certain amount of these elements in their
bodies. But when these materials and others are dissolved in larger amounts or in certain
combinations, the water may become unfit or less useful for municipal, industrial, and other
users. For example, sometimes water may contain toxic or poisonous substances such as
arsenic, barium, cadmium, selenium, etc. which may be very harmful to the public health,
even if present in low quantities. Sometimes the water may contain too much of common
salts, thereby rendering it brackish and making it undrinkable and less useful for cloth
washing or for irrigation and forming

REQUIREMENT OF A GOOD DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

 They should convey the treated water up to consumers with the same degree of purity
 The system should be economical and easy to maintain and operate
 The diameter of pipes should be designed to meet the fire demand
 It should safe against any future pollution. As per as possible should not be laid below
sewer lines.
 Water should be supplied without interruption even when repairs are undertaken
 The system should be so designed that the supply should meet maximum hourly demand. A
peak factor 2.5 is recommended for the towns of population 0.5. to 2 lakhs. For larger
population a factor of 2.0 will be adequate

METHOD OF DISTRIBUTION
Generally, in practice there are four different systems of distribution which are used.
They are:

 Dead End or Tree system

 Grid Iron system
 Circular or Ring system
 Radial system Water Supply Engineering

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Dead end or tree system

Fig: 2.4 Dead end system

This system is suitable for irregular developed towns or cities. In this system water
flows in one direction only into sub mains and branches. The diameter of pipe decreases
at every tree branch.

Grid iron system

Fig: 2.5Grid iron system

From the mains water enters the branches at all Junctions in either direction into
sub mains of equal diameters. At any point in the line the pressure is balanced from two
directions because of interconnected network of pipes

Circular or ring system

Fig: Circular or ringrd76rf system

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Supply to the inner pipes is from the mains around the boundary. It has the
same advantages as the grid-Iron system. Smaller diameter pipes are needed. The
advantages and disadvantages are same as that of grid-Iron system.

Radial system

Fig: Radial system

This is a zoned system. Water is pumped to the distribution reservoirs and from the
reservoirs it flows by gravity to the tree system of pipes. The pressure calculations are
easy in this system. Layout of roads needs to be radial to eliminate loss of head.
are sometimes known as gate valves. This is generally use to control the flow in a pipe
line. When a question of repair is needed, this valve close the supply of water beyond
the valve in the pipe lineThis also can be used to control or regulate the flow. 224 Water
Supply and Treatment Engineering .

Choice of pipe material

 The factors which affect the final choice of pipe material are:
 Internal pressure and external loads to which the pipe is subjected.
 Type of water to be conveyed and its resistance to corrosion.
 Availability of fund.
 Carrying capacity of pipe.

Requirements of pipe material

 It should be capable of withstanding internal and external pressures.
 It should have facility of easy joints.
It should be available in all sizes, transport and errection should be easy

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TYPES OF PIPE
Different types of pressure pipes are used in practice. It depends upon the material
used. The following are the different types of pipes most commonly used

 Cast iron pipes

 Steel pipes
 Reinforced Concrete pipes
 Pre-stressed Concrete pipes
 G.I. pipes
 Plastic pipes

Cast iron pipes

Cast iron pipes are mostly used in water supply schemes due to their durability,
strength, resistance to corrosion, easy of laying, etc. Cast iron pipes are manufactured
in lengths of 2.5m to 5.5m. These are joined together by means of Bell and Spigot,
threaded or flanged joints. The cast iron pipe may have two types one is ordinary sand
moulding and the other will be centrifugal processes

Fig: Cast iron pipes

Advantages:

 The pipes are strong and durable.

 Service connections can be easily made.
 Usual life is about 100 years.

Disadvantages:

 The carrying capacity of these pipes decreases with the increase in life of pipes.
 The pipes are not used for high pressure.

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 Possibility of breaking during transportation and also making connections.

Steel pipes
To withstand the high internal pressure the steel pipes are used. These pipes are
stronger than cast-iron- pipes. They are, however, less durable having life upto 50 years,
more liable to corrosion.

Fig:Steel pipes
Advantages:

 Steel pipes are cheap.

 The pipes are durable.
 Flexible to some extent and they can therefore laid on curves.
 These pipes are light in weight, hence easy-to-transport.

Disadvantages:

 Maintenance cost is more.

 The pipes are likely to be corroded by acidic or alkaline water.
 These pipes require more time for repair and therefore, are not suitable for
distribution pipes.

Plastic pipe
At present, the plastic pipes arc commonly used in water supply system. Plastics
pipes are light and corrosion less. Having low strength and low durability. They are
quite suitable for domestic supply. They are cheaper. They are capable to carry water
up to about 100 m head of water. Kinds of plastic pipes are used for potable water
supplies.

 Unplasticised polyvinyl chloride (UPVC) pipes

 Polyethylene Pipes

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Fig: Plastic pipes

Pipe joints
 pigot and Socket joints
 Flanged joint
 Expansion joint
 Flexible joint
 Joint for concrete pipes

1. Pigot and Socket joints

Fig: Pigot and socket joint

2. Flanged joint

Fig: Flanged joint

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3. Expansion joint

Fig: Expansion join

4. Flexible joint

Fig: 2.21Flexible joint

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Summary

The village choose for water supply is Bedarapura. This place is located around 7KM
from Chamarajanagara, 700M from Govt Engineering college campus
Chamarajanagara.

Next to the air, the other important requirement for human life to exist is water. The
water is available in various forms such as river, lake, streams etc. For Bedarapura
village water is supplied from earthen dam. The main objective of water supply project
is to supply safe and wholesome water to the village people. For supplying safe and
purified water, water treatment plant is required. The survey work I was conducted for
design the water supply project and water treatment plant.

 The total length of water supply project is 825M.

 Block levelling which is indirect method of levelling was adopted at the site below
the sluice and wastewater weir.

The population is calculated by incremental increase method. the total population is

3624 and the treatment plant is installed for 485160 L/C/D. The water is supplied from
reservoir to treatment plant is by gravity flow method. The overhead tank is constructed
for storage of 485160 Lack liters of water having diameter of 6.51m and height of
3.5m.dead end or tree system is used to distribute water from OHT to village. The
diameter of main pipe for water supply is 0.25m .Water treatment plant consist of
screening, preliminary settling tank, aeration tank, flocculation channel, clarifier
channel, filtration tank, backwashing, pump house, OHT, distribution.

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CHAPTER.3

NEW TANK PROJECT

Fig.1: Combined Map of a Tank Irrigation

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INTRODUCTION:
New tanks are constructed to provide water for multipurpose irrigation purpose. Tanks
and reservoirs requires very careful planning, design and operation for which certain
observations relating to selection of site relative merits of different types of tanks, storage
capacity, optimum yield, coordinated uses of storage for different purpose etc, are to be
studied in detail. The irrigation reservoir is primarily meant to store the excess water during
the period of large supply and release it gradually for irrigation reservoirs is primarily
meant to store the excess water during the period of large supply and release it gradually
for irrigation as and when required.

Works Required
It is proposed to construct an earthen bund to store water for irrigation purpose. The
following works are required to be taken up for the project.

 Reconnaissance survey
 Preliminary investigation
 Detailed Survey
Reconnaissance survey comprise of

 Locating possible sites for construction of bunds from topo sheet.

 Visiting the sites for preliminary investigation
 Finalization of the site for construction.

The preliminary investigation includes the following

 Rough leveling work along the, valley to obtain the topography of the valley.

 Availability of construction materials, transportation, equipment required for

investigation, local labor etc.
 A study of the foundation strata with few trial borings along the proposed
alignment.

 Collection of hydrological data such as annual rainfall in the catchment area

and flood discharge at the site.
 A natural facility for discharging the flood water through a waste weir.

 Assessment benefit from the project that would reach the people after
construction of the dam.

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 Submergence of the important occupational feature under water such as Lands,
highways, rails,

 Bridges, cultivated lands, after the completion of the project.

 Hence a general map showing the elevation of the waters courses, canal routes,
dams, and important occupational features such as vegetation, cultivation lands,
roads and other rail-roads has to be prepared.

1.3. SURVEYS TO BE CONDUCTED

 Longitudinal and Cross sectioning of the main bund.

 Capacity contouring

 Block leveling at the waste weir site

 Canal alignment

The following are the points to be considered while arranging the network of the
survey

 Length and height of the bund should be minimized.

 There should be natural diversion canal to carry the surplus water.

 The length and height of the waste weir shall be economical.

 Good foundation soil shall be available for the earthen bund as well as waste
weir and tank sluice.
 Nearby availability of construction materials and its transportation.

LONGITUDINAL AND CROSS-SECTION OF MAIN BUND

Objective: To conduct longitudinal and cross section survey along the center line of
bund and to estimate the quantity of different materials required for the bund.

Instruments required
 Total station
 Prism

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Fig. The Schematic Sketch of Surveyor Process

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DRAWINGS REQUIRED

 L/S of the profile of earthen bund to a scale.

 The C/S at various chainages showing the profile of the bund, MWL, FTL and
dead storage
level etc., to a scale
.

Instruments Required
 Total station

 Prism

 Tape

 Dumpy level

 Levelling staff

 Compass

 Ranging rod

 Pegs

Field Work
The following are the works are to be carried out.
 The direction of the centre line of the waste weir is fixed with reference to the
centre line of the main bund and the bearing of the line is noted down.

 Blocks of 5 m. are formed for a length of 90 along the center line of bund 45m
downstream and 30m upstream of center line of bund.

 The leveling is carried out to establish the reduced levels of the corners of the
square block.

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Drawings Required

 The block plan to a scale of 1cm=5m, with contours drawn at an

interval of 5m.

 The longitudinal sections of subsidiary-valley to a scale 1:1000.

CAPACITY CONTOUR SURVEY

Objectives: The objective of this is to draw the capacity contour map of the
catchment and to estimate the quantity of water that can be stored.

Following three aspects are to be considered wile fixing the capacity of the reservoir

 The catchment at the site proposed receives sufficient rain to cater the demand
and if the proposed site can hold the required quantity of water then required
height of bund can be constructed.
 The catchment at the site proposed receives sufficient rain to cater the demand
and if the proposed site cannot hold the required quantity of water then required
height of bund shall be restricted to site condition.
 The catchment at the site proposed receives less rain which cannot cater the
demand and any height of the bund can be constructed, then the height of bund
is fixed to store maximum water. The catchment at the site proposed receives
less rain which cannot cater the demand and the height of the bund is also
restricted because of site condition, then the height is fixed taking site
condition.
 In all the above cases it is necessary to compute the yield of the catchment

USEFUL STORAGE OF WATER IN THE RESERVOIR

Assuming 10% evaporation losses and another 10% being the dead storage in the
reservoir, the useful storage may be taken as 80% of the annual yield. Assuming cumecs
of water per hectare as the duty, the area that can be irrigated will be However it is
proposed to irrigate 100 ha. Since, minimum storage in the reservoir. Always be available
in all seasons .After doing capacity survey the FTL of the tank is decided and providing
necessary freeboard top of the bund is fixed .

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Survey Instruments Required

 Level with stand

 Leveling staff

 Plane table with accessories

 Chain and Tape

 Ranging rods
 Arro

Drawings required
Contour plan showing the details of topography etc., with centre line of bund
and waste weir to a scale of 1:1000.

IMPORTANT LEVELS OF THE PROJECT

The following important levels are fixed after a thorough study of the profile of
the longitudinal sectioning of the proposed site and the capacity contour map.

 Top of the bund

 Maximum Water Level

 Full Tank Level

 Dead storage level

CANAL ALIGNMENT
Objective: It is proposed to align a canal for irrigation of paddy, Sugar cane,
grains, vegetables etc.

The following points are kept in mind while aligning the canal.

 As far as possible, curves should be avoided in the alignment of

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 Canals because the curves lead to disturbance of flow and a tendency to
silt on the inner bend and scour the toe of the outer (concave) bend
 The alignment should be such that the cutting and filling of earth or rock
should be balanced, as far as possible.
 Number of cross drainage works shall be minimum.
 Surveying for canal are conducted:
 To finalize the alignment of the canal & to determine the length and
alignment of canal  To estimate the cost of the canal works.
 To know the number and nature of cross drainage works encountered in
the alignment& to estimate the cost of cross drainage works.
 To find the location and extent of irrigable lands.

Instruments required
 Leveling staff
 Chain, Tape and Arrows
 Plain table with its accessories
 Ranging rods
 Wooden pegs, Plumb bob
 Level with stand
The proposed canal is a contour canal in a falling gradient of 0.5 m. per km. i.e.,
1 in 2000.The starting point of the canal is sill level of canal on center line of
earthen dam. Let the sill level be

Classification of Canal

1. Based on the Canal Alignment

• Contour canal
• Water shed canal
• Side slope canal

2. Based on Distribution System

• Main canal
• Branch canal
• Major distributaries  Minor distributaries  Water courses.

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Guidelines for Aligning a Canal

• The alignment should follow a falling contour and shall be in ‘cutting’. The depth
of the cutting should be minimum.
• Alignment should be straight.
• Curve should be long, minimum radius should be twenty times the bed width of the
canal.
• Number of cross drainage works should be minimum.
• Longitudinal slope of the canal bed should provide non – silting and non – scoring
velocity of flow.
• Alignment shall progress as far away from natural drain to yield large command
area.

Longitudinal Slope for Canal

Longitudinal slope shall be as possible and guided by minimum permissible

velocity in the channel should neither be silting non – scoring. The value generally varied
from 1 in 2500. It depends on natural terrain and type of the canal.

Slide Slope of the Canal

Slide slope of the canal is an important feature in canal generally steeper slope section,
narrower, deeper, increased velocity and discharge permits width. It also decreases
evaporation and percolation loss. Slide slope is falling 1.5:1 is generally used in the hard
and rocky soils.

Type of Canal Cross - Section

• Fully embankment
• Partial cutting and partial filling  Fully cutting.

Surveys Conducted for the New Tank Project

Reconnaissance

A site
for the new project will be fixed based on the following preliminary investigations.
• Catchment area of a place
• Average rainfall of a place
• Suitable site for the bunds, weirs and sluice Extent land to be irrigation with
nature of the crop.
• Available of the construction materials.

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• Financial feasibility of the project.

Longitudinal and Cross Section along the Centre Line of the Bund

• From the permanent benchmark fly levels are carried out to establish a benchmark
on the left bank or right bank wherever the work is to be started.
• The end points of the bund are fixed and the wooden pegs are driven at regular
intervals.
• The centre line bearing is noted using prismatic compass
• From both the ends of bund bearing to the permanent object such as transformer,
electric pole, building etc...
• Above the centerline of the bund already fixed longitudinal section at every 15m
interval on centerline and cross section at 30m interval up to or beyond the
embankment cases on either side taken 5m interval.

SALIENT FEATURES OF THE PROJECT

Details of site

Place of project – Bedarapura

Tq, Chamarajanagara Dist, Chamarajanagara,

Nature of project – New tank project

Type of Bund –

Earthen Bund

Details of Bund:

Type of Bund – Earthen Bund

Length of Bund – 155 m

Top level of Bund (TBL) – 107.1m

Maximum water level (MWL) – 105.6m

Full tank level (FTL) – 104.6m

Dead storage level (DSL) – 99.87m

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Top width of Bund – 3m

Upstream slope – 1.5:1

Downstream slope – 2:1

Rock toe - D/s blanket provided

Upstream side pitching –50 cm thick stone revetment over 10 cm thick grave

Details of main canal

Canal of taking RL – 92

Gradient provided – 1:200m (chainage 0 to 92m)

Bottom width of canal – 2m

Side slope in cutting -1:1

Side slope in banking -1.5:1

Free board - 0.5

Type of sluice – plug sluice

Canal length surveyed - 155.00m

. Lining of Canal

The impervious layer which protects the beds and sides of the canal is called canal lining.

Necessity of Canal Lining

• To minimize the seepage losses in the canal.

• To increase the discharge in canal selection by increasing the velocity.
• To prevent erosion of the bed and sides due to high velocity.
• To reduce maintenance of canal.

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 Requirement of Canal Lining Materials

• The materials used for lining should provide the water tightness  The materials
chosen should be strong and durable.
• The materials should withstand the high velocity.
• The materials used should resist to the growth of weeds and attack of animals.
• The material should permit the construction of the required slope easily.

 Types of Canal Lining

The Canal lining are of following types:

• Cement concrete lining.

• Brick lining
• Cement mortar lining
• Asphaltic lining
• Soil – Cement lining
• Sodium – carbonate lining
• Precast concrete block lining

Selecting a Suitable Preliminary Selection of an Earthen Dam

Bund
In this new tank project, it is proposed to have a homogeneous earthen bund across the
stream. The stored water is used to irrigate the nearby lands with the help of canal.

The selection of bund is made considering the following factors:

• The site selected is such that there is a narrow opening to reduce the length of the
dam.
• The land selected is such that it is unimportant and submergence of Roadways or
Railways is unobjectionable.
• The proposed site is located at Engineering College
• A V-shaped valley is capable of storing the maximum amount of water for the
catchment and has good runoff at the proposed site.
• The saddle between the hillocks is the best suited since it is suited for surplus water
works with a minimum cost of construction. A preliminary design of an earthen dam
is done on the basis of existing dams of similar characteristics and the design is
finalized by checking the adequacy of the selected section from the worst loading
condition. Empirical rules are frequently used in these designs. A few

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recommendations, for selecting suitable values of top width, free board, upstream
and downstream slopes, drainage arrangements, etc., are given below for
preliminary designs.

 Freeboard:
Free board or minimum free board is the vertical distance between the maximum
reservoir level and the top bund level (i.e., the crown or crest of dam). The dam
vertical distance between normal pool level or spillway crest and the top of the dam is
termed as normal free board. The minimum height of the free board for wave action is
generally taken to be equal to 1.5Hw Where, HW= Maximum height of wave

 Width:
The top width of large earthen dams should be sufficient to keep the seepage line well
within the dam, when the reservoir is full. It should also be sufficient to withstand
earthquake shocks and wave action. For small dams, this top width is generally governed
by minimum roadway width requirements.

 Upstream and Down Stream Slopes:

The side slopes depend upon various factors such as the type and nature of dam and
foundation materials, height of dam etc

Summary

 The site chosen for new tank project is situated at Bedarapura.This place
is located around 7kms for from Chamarajanagara and 0km from
Government engineering college Campus Bedarapura ,
 The main objective of new tank project is to construct an earthen bund
across the stream for the purpose of irrigation and water supply to the
people residing in and around Bedarapura the site selected for the
construction of new bund has greater capacity for storing water.
 The survey work was conducted for knowing the reservoir capacity
and to design the earthen bund and canal to supply water for various
purposes the readings of various points were determined by using
Total station surveying.

 Earthen Bund: For earthen bund cross section was taken at every
30m and staff readings was taken at 2m, 4m, 6m, 8m, and 10m
12m on either side of each cross section. Longitudinal section was

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taken at every 15m along the proposed bund line. The earthen
bund has a total length of 180m
 Canal: Longitudinal section and cross sections was taken at site
along the proposed bund line. Longitudinal section was taken at
every 10m and cross section was taken at every 10m with 2m, 4m,
and 6m marked on either side of the canal cross section. The total
length of the canal surveyed was 420m.
 For capacity contour radial method of contouring was adopted.
The total area of catchment was referring all the details taken at
site, the design is prepared for the earthen bund and canal, along
with the earthwork calculation

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CHAPTER-4

RESTORATION OF AN EXISTING TANK

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INTRODUCTION

General Introduction

The proposed tank project is across local pond .. The tank project is situated at the
and it about 500 m from Bedarapura village. This village is connected to Chamarajanagara
to Mysur road. The occupation of the people in this area is agriculture. The agriculture
occupation is quite often affected by the ill distribution and untimely rainfall in the area.
By the restoration of this tank belonging to Bedarapura village will be directly get
benefited.

This report is submitting for the restoration of breached Bedarapura tank in

Chamarajanagara taluk Chamarajanagara district. Since the Bedarapura earthen dam
was breached and it was occur due to the following reasons that are due to overtopping
of bund, adequacy of spillway, internal fluid pressure (Pore Pressure) or due to swirling
action of water.

Aim

Restoration of old tanking is necessary to improve the capacity of tank which is

reduced by silting and also to improve the conditions of the bund.

Necessity for restoration of tank

Construction of tank bund across the stream at a river would facilitate in creating
a reservoir on the upstream of the bund. The water gets arrested within the barrier there
by tapping the sediment in the reservoir. Due to progressive silting in the reservoir, its
storage capacity gets reduced. The demand for irrigation water cannot be met due to
reduced storage.

Further, in future there may be demand for water cultivation of large area. In
view of these two factors it becomes necessary to restore the storage capacity of the
reservoir to a value equal to its original value.

Objectives of restoration of tank

 Restoration can involve silt removal to increase the storage capacity of the tank and
reduce evaporative loss.

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 The silt can be used restore the earthen bund and remaining silt can be applied to
nearby farm land.
 The out flow structure can also be improved.
 To increase the storage head in the tank.
 To provide water almost of the year.

Method of restoration of tank

1. Increase the height of the bund.

2. De-silting.
3. Increase the height of the waste weir.
4. Revetment and pitching after the height of the weir is increase to provide the
necessary stability.

PROJECT AREA

Location

The project area lies in the Bedarapura is a small village/helmet in

Chamarajanagara Taluk in Chamarajanagara District of Karnataka State, India. It comes
under Bedarapura Panchayat. It belongs to Mysur division. It is located 7 KM towards
west from District head quarters Chamarajanagara . 6KM from Chamarajanagara.

Catchment Area

The catchment area at the project site is with gentle slope. The rain water and the
spring water are the source of the catchment area. The catchment area of the project is
0.62 Sq miles or 1.6 sqkm and the project will water requirement is 733192 m3.

Topography and Soil

The topography of the project area is hilly. The general slope of the ground is
towards the stream which flows from North-West to South-East direction. The command
area is very gently to gently sloping plains accruing on both sides of stream. The soils in
the command area requires application of organic manure and by providing adequate
drainage, high and sustained yields can be obtained when the soil is put under irrigation.

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Climate

The temperature ranges from a minimum 24°C in December to a maximum of 40°C

in May.

Agriculture

At present majority of the area is rain fed. The yields obtained are generally not
satisfactory. The crops growing in the area under rain fed condition are rice etc…

HISTORY OF TANK

The Bedarapura tank has been constructed in the year 2010 across a stream north
flowing river near Bedarapura village in Chamarajanagara taluk. This tank is across flow
of watetr .

The tank consists of an earthen embankment of 62.300 m length. The

embankment of the tank is conventional rolled with central hearting zone. The top width
of the bund is 4.0 m and has a maximum height of 4 m reckoned above deepest stream
bed level.

The independent catchment area of the stream at the tank site is 395.37 acre.The
average annual rainfall in the catchment is reported to be 811.75mm.

PRESENT STATUS AND PROVISIONS MADE FOR TANK

Old bund improvement

In the proposed estimate, tank has a bund length of 62.3m (From CH: 0.00 to CH
62.3 m). Here the bund improvement is taken from CH: 0.00 to 62.3.00 that is for a
length of 62.3 m is get partially damaged like casing, pitching, turning etc. For these
portion improvements is proposed for a length 62.3m, Improvements like providing new
casing blanket, resetting of disturbed revetment and providing new turning etc. .

Approach Road to Tank

For the conveyance to the dam accessibility is proposed by providing proper

Approach road for a length of 1.00km from Chamarajanagara to Mysur road.

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Channel Improvements

There is existing canal lining, which is clearly shown in key plan with chainages.
Trapezoidal type canal lining exists and after that for a length lining is newly proposed.

DETAILS OF BUND

The upstream side of the bund has a side slope of 1.5:1 and downstream side has a side
slope of 2:1. Top width of the bund is 4m. Bottom width of the bund is about 9m. The bund
is lined with stone pitching which is worn-out at some locations. Existing bund contains
heavy amount of silt, which exerts pressure on the bund.

The maximum water level (MWL), to which the water will rise in the reservoir during
ordinary operation condition is called Normal pool level. The normal level is corresponding
to the level of the spillway crest, or to the spillway gates. The level to whichwater rises
during the flood is known as Maximum water level. The lowest operation to which the
waterin the reservoir is to be drawn under ordinary operating conditions is called minimum
pool level (MDDL/LWL).

The volume of water stored between the normal pool level and the minimum pool level is
known as the useful storage (live storage). The volume of water below the minimum pool
level is known as the dead storage and is not useful under ordinary operating conditions.
The volume of water stored between the normal pool level and maximum level
corresponding toe flood is surcharge storage, and is usually uncontrolled. The term bank
storage and valleystorage are referred to the volume of water stored in the previous
formations of the riverbank and the soil above it. Such storage depends upon the geological
conditions of the riverbanks. The bank storage increase the capacity of the reservoir above
that indicates by the elevation-storage curve.

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Salient Features of Existing Bund

General Details
SL NO Name of the project Renovation of OLD tank at Bedarapura
1 District Chamarajanagara
2 Taluk Chamarajanagara
3 Village Bedarapura

Rainfall Details
1 Influencing rain gauge station Chamarajanagara
2 Average annual rain fall 811.75 mm
3 50% dependable monsoon rainfall 350 mm

Existing Bund details

1 Length of the bund 179 m
2 Top width of the bund 4m
3 Max height of the bund 4m
4 Top of the bund RL 104.89m
5 Max water level 103.46m
6 Full tank level 102.35 m
7 Dead Storage 100.859
8 a) Slope at Upstream side 1.5:1
b) Slope at Downstream side 2:1

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Capacity of Contour

Contour

A contour is a horizontal curve connecting points of equal elevation or a contour

may be define as an imaginary line passing though points of equal elevation.

Contour line

A contour line is an imaginary level line that connects points of equal elevation.

Contour interval

The vertical distance between any two consecutive contours, is called contour
interval.

Capacity of a bund

A contour map is very useful to study the possible location of dam and the volume
water to be confined. The line indicating the full reservoir level is drawn on the contour
map. The area enclosed between successive contours are measured by planimeter. The
volume of water full reservoir level and revoir bed can be calculated using this formulas,

Summary

The site chosen for old tank project is situated at Bedarapura. This place is located
around 7 km from Chamarajanagara. 1km from Government engineering college campus
Bedarapura. The main objective of the old tank project is already constructed an existing
bund across the stream for purpose of irrigation and water supply to the people residing and
around Bedarapura is not sufficient, for this reason increase the 1m height of the existing
bund for sufficient water. The bund selected for the construction of old bund as greater
capacity for storing the water. The survey work was conducted for knowing the reservoir
capacity and to design the existing bund and canal to supply water for various purpose. The
readings of various points where determined by using the Dumpy level surveying.

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CHAPTER 5

TOWN PLANNING

INTRODUCTION

Cities are the most complex things that human beings have ever created. They are
the good springs of culture, technology, wealth, and power. People have a love-hate
relationship with cities we are torn between our needs for community and privacy and the
conflicting attractions of urban and rural life.
Town planning is an art and science of ordering the use of land and siting of
buildings and communication routes to secure the maximum practicable degree of
economy, and convenience. And beauty

Town planning is considered an art of shaping and guiding the physical growth of
the town creating buildings and environments to meet the various needs such as social,
cultural, economic and recreational, etc., and to provide healthy conditions for both rich
and poor to live, to work, and to play or relax, thus bringing about the social and economic
well-being for the majority of mankind
The various fields that are encountered in Town Planning are:

Today most towns need urban renewal as well as new development plans related
to new areas as per residential and industrial demands. Town planners are supposed to deal
with complex issues for which there may not be simple single solutions. Town planning
involves the allocation of scarce resources such as urban land and services and is therefore
seen as an aspect of economic and social factors which create the demand for different
types of land use and development. The land is required for residential and industrial
requirements and for planning effective transportation systems. Traffic is one of the biggest
problems for town planners. It is generated everywhere. Anywhere, where people live and
work, and around transportation centers, bus and railway stations Land acquisition is a
major problem in our country. Planners deal with space organization itself express meaning
and have communicative properties. It is expressed through planning for different zones,
transportation networks, streets and squares, open space systems, signs, materials,colures,
shapes, street furniture, and landscaping is essential to integrate all physical requirements.
Plants and farming bring man closer to nature. It is rightly stated that "how people should
behave is the hidden thought behind a design. This is an indirect way of educating the
masses. Hence town planners require an ability to look at the whole situation, both causes
and effects they are also supposed to act as team leaders; coordinating specialists, and
experts such as ecologists, highway engineers, and architects. Landscape architects and
government authorities

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The overall result is a pleasing townscape that gives a pleasant feeling of a
welldeveloped area, provides satisfaction and happiness to all sections of society, has the
quality of commercial attractiveness, and has plantations around buildings to soften hard
layouts, and add colures to the town scape. Provides shelter along roads and river hanks.
Cities, welldeveloped villages, and regions are the wealth of a nation.

The need of the hour is sustainable development. With the increasing population
and growing pollution, we can't ignore the ill effects of planning on the environment.
Sustainable development refers to utilizing the present resources keeping in mind the
future needs of the society, so as not to exhaust the resources. It should not disturb the
ecological cycle and hence preserve the environment.

HISTORY OF TOWN PLANNING

Town planning has always been of chief concern since times immemorial.
Evidence of planning has been unearthed in the ruins of cities in China, India, Egypt, Asia
Minor, the Mediterranean world, and South and Central America. Early examples of efforts
towards planned urban development include orderly street systems that are rectilinear and
sometimes radial, division of a city into specialized functional quarters: development of
commanding central sites for palaces, temples, and civic buildings; and advanced systems
of fortification, water supply, and drainage. Most of the evidence is in smaller cities that
were built in comparatively short periods as colonies. Often the central cities of ancient
states grew to substantial size before they achieved governments capable of imposing
controls.

MOTIVE OF TOWN

Even from the early period of civilization water was an important element for man's
establishment. The importance of water for day-to-day life, agriculture, transportation,
disposal, environment, etc. was known to mankind, therefore, has tried to establish himself
along the water, and when and the number of families started increasing. Then the man
himself started restricting himself and others as laws.In town planning, we arrange and
make the composition of a cluster of houses with common services and implications of
those elements which can provide a better and healthy environment to mankind.

A. Fortification: The primary motive of community living in the past had been that of
self-defense. The earlier town plans are therefore characterized by an element of
fortification in them against wild animals or any other enemy.
B. Trade and commerce: Human being, wants companionship and social contracts
which develops the aspect of trade and commerce Development of trade and
commerce began to affect to a great extent the location and design of towns located

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close to the line of communication like natural streams, sea shores, and road
junctions
C. Political and administrative: Concentration of urban communities gives birth to
political and administrative bodies, and thus many administrative centers spring
up
D. Religions: Man's religious nature created some center sthat developed into
pilgrimagetowns.
E. Miscellaneous: In the later period education centers (For example. Nalanda's,
places of recreation, health resorts, etc. were established and today we find several
towns serving various purposes and functions.
These may be

 Defense town-Today it is termed as a cantonment, to work for the safety

of the country.
 Residential Town
 Commercial Town-Mandi Towns.
 Industrial town/Centres-Durgapur, Bhilai, Rourkela.
 Administrative town-Chandigarh, Bhubneswar, Gauhati.
 Places of pilgrimage-Hardwar, Banaras
 Education Centres-Nalanda, Oxford, Cambridge.
 Recreation Centres and Health Resort-Mussoorie, Shimla, Nainital, and
Ranchi
 Antique towns of historic and archaeological interest-Chittore, Fatehpur
Sikri.

OBJECTS OF TOWN PLANNING

The main objects of town planning are

 Health
 Beauty
 Convenience
 Environment and Health

The object of health is achieved by

• Creating and promoting healthy conditions and environments for all the people-rich
poor, to live, work, play or relax.
• Making right use of the land for the right purpose by proper division of land called
zoning such as Residential, Commercial, Industrial, Institutional and Recreational, etc.
to avoid the encroachment of one zone upon another for the smooth and orderly
development of the town without causing future conflicts.

Beauty

The object of beauty is achieved by

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• taking the most possible advantages of the natural conditions surrounding the town and
also giving architectural finishes to the various components of the town
• Preserving trees, natural greenery, and architectural control on the public as well as
semipublic buildings, ancient architectural buildings, temples, churches, and mosques,
buildings of cultural and historical importance.

Convenience
The object of convenience is meant in the form of various needs of the community suchas
social, economic, cultural, and recreational amenities, etc. This is achieved as

• Providing cheap power and electricity, proper sites for industrial units, transport
facilities, adequate water supply, easy disposal of sewage and industrial wastes,
facilities for commercial units, etc.
• Providing recreational amenities include open spaces, parks, gardens, and
playgrounds, for children, town-halls, stadiums, community centers, cinema houses,
theatres, etc.

Environment

The object of the environment is important in the sense that the environment should be
molded in such a way that man can go about his normal activities with the least amount of
strain. The complex problems of modern society such as tiresome travel to work, and long
hours of work. Limited time spent within the community, etc. has gradually led to serious
maladjustments between the human being and the type of life he had to live. These
maladjustments have tended to destroy the vitality of urban living and town planning is
mainly concerned with bringing about a better relationship between man and his
environment.

PRINCIPLES OF TOWN PLANNING

The subject of town planning demands knowledge of various professions, especially those
of engineering, architecture, and surveying. The town should not be designed only to
satisfy the needs of the future generation. Some of the guiding principles of town planning
are as follows:

 Housing
 Public buildings
 Civic amenities
 Recreation centers
 Zoning
 Transport facilities
 Green belt

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Housing
Housing accommodation for various classes of people should be allowed to develop it
should be observed that there is no development of slums Existing slums if any should be
cleared by making some alternate arrangement of accommodation in transit camps for
disused persons
Public buildings
Public and semi-public buildings should be grouped and distributed
nearlythroughout the towns.The unnecessary concentration of public buildings in certain
spots of the town should be avoided

Civic amenities
Civic amenities like shopping centers, dispensaries, schools, nurseries, etc. should
be provided to all the residents

Recreation centers
Adequate open spaces should be reserved for public recreation centers and also for
the future expansion of the town.

Zoning
Zoning should be strictly followed. The town should be divided into suitable zones
such as residential zone, commercial zones, industrial zone, recreational zone, etc. Suitable
rules and regulations should be formed for the development of each zone.
Transport facilities

The town should be provided with suitable transport facilities so that there is minimum
loss of time from a place of work to the place of residence. The efficiency of any town is
measured by the layout of its roads. A well-designed road system makes the smooth flow
of traffic which avoids traffic congestion. Green belt
The provision of a green belt on the periphery of town results in the limitation of
its see and hence, the final size of the town can well be anticipated.

(Green belt is an open strip of land all-round the town or city reserved for the
special purpose oflimiting the growth of the city. It is primarily meant for intensive
cultivation of vegetables, fruits, and farm industries like poultry farms, dairies, etc. It also
provides sites for recreational amenities like parks, playgrounds and picnic spots, etc.)

NECESSITY OF TOWN PLANNING

The evils from which the town suffers in absence of townplanning are as follows:

1. The people will have to take a long uncomfortable journey from their place to their
place of residence or work resulting in increased costs.

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2. Development of slums and squatter settlements.
3. Haphazard location of industries.
4. Increased traffic congestion, resulting in accidents.
5. Inefficient road systems result in the formation of narrow streets and lanes
6. Lack of open spaces for parks and playgrounds resulting in unhealthy living conditions
7. Houses may be constructed and occupied even before water supply and drainage
facilities
8. The noisy atmosphere disturbs the peace of city dwellers.
9. Uncontrolled development of the town

10. Unhealthy living conditions, etc.

11. Improper disposal of industrial waste has caused pollution of water, air, etc.
12. Lack of public unity services such as water supply, drainage, sanitation, electricity, etc.
13. Haphazard construction due to lack of legislation.

SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC AIMS OF TOWN PLANNING

1. Socially successful planning tends to make people's life happier, because it results in a
physical environment that is conducive to health, facilitates social intercourse, and
gives visual attractiveness
2. It increases wealth, by efficiently arranging communication routes to carry out human
activities in a more efficient and less wasteful manner through the proper spatial
arrangement.
A town planner needs, among other things, specific data to base his proposals in
respect of the type and number of dwelling units in a locality or a town. For this purpose, it
is essential to have a clear idea of the population structure and condition of existing
housing and future housing trends for various income groups, together with a realistic
picture of the economic situation. He has further to think in terms of a social and
geographic grouping of the dwelling units while preparing the layouts and placing such
amenities and services as schools, clubs, shops, and places of amusement. etc., at the
disposal of the community. The data for the provision of these amenities and services on
the right scale has to be supplied by the sociologist.

ORIGIN OF TOWNS

The contributing forces to the origin of towns and cites can be broadly divided into two
categories, namely, topographical and functional
The topographical features contributing to the origin of towns are as follows.

 conditions favorable for industrial units,  Hilly areas to achieve the object of defense.
 palm areas useful for business activities,
 river banks, and
 sea or ocean fronts

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The functional aspects responsible for the origin of towns are as follows:
 Education.
 health resorts,
 political, and
 religious

GROWTH OF TOWNS

Human settlements consist of five basic elements, Nature, man, society, shells, and
networks. Which together form a system. Their goal is to make man happy and safe.

The towns grow with time in several ways. The following points highlight how
man moves from rockcaves to town life.

 The earliest forms of dwellings of 'Savage' hunters were rockcaves.

 The next job he did was to change the face of the jungle and create huts of reeds and
tents, to protect against weather, wind, beasts, and enemies.
 He started living a settled life mostly on the banks of rivers, which he found to be a
lifegiving sourceof water for drinking and rich fertile land for cultivation.
 Man is primarily a social creature. On account of this nature, he always preferred to
live in groups, forming camps, hamlets, and villages.
 Human settlements like these as the population increased expanded into towns and
towns into cities and finally, cities turned into highly populated metropolitans, like
Mumbai, Calcutta Chennai, Delhi, etc. growth of
The growth of towns and the growth of population are always together. These causes of
town as follows:

• The expansion of towns is mainly the result of communication facilities such as buses,
tram road-ways, railways, suburbs, etc.
• Waterways and airways help to develop harbors, ports, airports, etc.
• Vertical development in the form of skyscrapers with the help of vertical transportation
such as mechanical elevators, lifts, escalators, etc.
• The attraction of modern amenities for comfort, convenience, recreation combined,
lucrative professions
• Facilities for higher education, research, etc., and employment opportunities help the
migration of the rural population to the city.

TOWN PLANNING TEAM

Town planning requires a team of experts in different fields. Such a team consists
of a. Engineer

b. Architect

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c. Landscape Architect
d. Sociologist
e. Geographer
f. Ecologist
g. Administrator

 A Civil Engineer is necessary to design the buildings, roads, bridges, water supply,
drainage systems, etc.
 An Architect will advise on the aesthetics of the town such as buildings of architectural
aspects
 A Landscape Architect is necessary to fix up the location of the sites considering the
landscape of the country, and to lay out the parks, gardens, trees, shrubs, etc. to create
a cheerful environment.
 A Sociologist is necessary to report on the social and cultural state of the city dwellers.
He is also useful to prepare the 'socio-economic' or 'civicsurvey".
 A Geographer is necessary to report on the natural configuration and natural
resources.Etc.
 Nowadays an Ecologist is also required to study the total environment ecology that
influences people's life, work, and play.
 An Administrator will have to look after the proper and orderly development of the
town. He is usually assisted by an Economist and a Legal Adviser to help solve the
economic and legal problems.

DUTIES AND POWERS OF TOWN PLANNING OFFICER

The role of a town planner is a constructive one for new developments and urban
renewal. Town planning provides a framework for the expected development of urban and
rural settlements. Development is done through the government and private agencies. The
number of years for the total development depends upon the years required for the
preparation of the plan, the implication of theplan, procedure related to various
permissions, availability of resources and interest, awareness created in the minds of the
people, and actual participation of private agencies, industries, etc. The various duties of
the Town Planning Office areplan, procedure related to various permissions, availability
of resources and interest, awareness created in theminds of the people, and actual
participation of private agencies, industries, etc.
The various duties of the Town Planning Office are:

1. He has to collect data from both inside and outside the town limit.
2. He has to conduct different surveys.
3. He should allow the sites to be owned property.
4. He should reserve land for public purposes.
5. He should prepare a plan, estimate, and report onthe town planning scheme.
6. He should workout compensation to be given to the owner in case of land acquisition
7. He should work out betterment charges to be collected from the owners.
8. He should be an expert value and financial adviser.

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9. He should guard the interests of the citizens of the town as a whole.

ELEMENTS OF MODERN TOWN PLANNING

The procedure for preparing an outline plan of a modern town depends on the skill,
training, and imagination of the town planner. It is necessary to correlate the function or
functions of the town with the physical characteristics of the site. A proper combination of
function and site would result in the formation of a successful modern town.
The land is mainly divided into two categories.

Built-uplands
 Open lands

Built-up lands include all areas used for buildings of all types.
Open lands include roads, gardens, parks, and playgrounds,
A town generally consists of the following: Built-up areas: These include,

Residential buildings-Public and semi-public buildings, Commercial buildings, and

Industries.
Communications: These include

• Roadways
• Railways
• Airways and
• Waterways.

Good Network of Roads: These roads run between the built-up areas and connect each
other.

 Open spaces: These include

• Open space for recreation like gardens, parks, playgrounds, etc.
• Open lands, other than the above, for graveyards, cremation grounds, burial places,
etc.
 Public Utility Services: These include  Water supply  Drainage.
 Electricity.
 Gas,
 Telephone, etc.

 Public Amenities
The most important public amenities are

 Post office. Police station,

 Petrol pump.

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 Fire Brigade Station,
 Dairies.
 Dhobi Ghats.
 Refuse deposits, etc.

The spaces to be allotted for various features can be estimated from the study of
existing towns or they can be suitably judged from the experience of the town planner. In
the beginning, the town planner prepares an outline plan accommodating the above
features and if necessary, one or more alternatives are also prepared, and then, by trial and
error, a combination giving the maximum benefit of the site with the functions of the town
is adopted.
The important points to be considered in modern town planning are as follows:

a) The various public utilities should be adequately provided to meet future requirements.
b) The natural features of the site should be preserved and maximum advantage should
be taken of such features for public enjoyment.
c) Adequate provision should be made in the outline plan for recreational amenities.
d) The industrial area should be properly located with the required facilities.
e) Planning of residential areas and amenities such as schools, local shops, etc., should
be accommodated in the outline plan with proper care
f) The public building should be located in proper places.
g) The study of the existing railway line, road network, and other communication
facilities shouldbe considered for finalizing the location.
h) The road system should be well designed.
After the outline plan of the town is finalized, the detailed planning of various areas of the
town iscarried out.

The new emerging concept of the City Development Plan (CDP) is an action plan for
equitable growth in a city, developed and sustained through public participation to improve
the quality of life for all citizens. ‘A City Development Plan (CDP) is both a perspective
and a vision for the future development of a city. Does it present the current stage of the
city’s development where is the city now? It sets out the directions of change where does
the city want to go? Does it identify the thrust areas-what does the city need to address on
a priority basis? It also suggests alternative router strategies and interventions for bringing
about the change- what interventions should be madeto attain the vision? It provides a
framework and vision within which projects need to be identified and implemented. It
establishes a logical and consistent framework for the evaluation of investment decisions.

DISTRIBUTION OF LAND

The residential area is the most important aspect of town planning. The rest 3%
covers the business, shopping, and other public amenities.

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LAND USE
“Land use’ includes the purpose to which the site or part of the site or the building
or part of the Building is in use or permitted to be used by the Authority. Land use includes
zoning of land use as Stipulated in the development plan and the Zoning Regulations.

TOWN PLANNING SURVEYS

NECESSITY

A town planning survey is useful in the following way:

1. It helps to provide the data of the existing town and thus the planning work becomes
easy.
2. It helps to know exactly what is lacking and what is needed for the development of the
town.
3. The survey draws attention to the inter-relation between various complicated activities
of town life.
4. It helps to know the evils from which the town suffers and provides a proper treatment
to be given, i.e. it helps to diagnose before treatment, as pioneered by Sir Patrick
Geddes.
5. It helps to build up public opinion and appreciation in favor of the town planning
scheme.
Thus, the role played by survey in the science of town planning is as follows:

 To evaluate the effects of development;

 To present detailed reasoned reports;
 To provide the necessary understanding before decisions for development are made;
 To study the situation objectively and factually.

COLLECTION OF DATA

The following four surveys are carried out to collect data:

a. Functional survey
b. Social survey
c. Territorial survey
d. Vital survey

Functional survey

The functional aspects of town life are studied under this survey. The type of
information collected in the functional survey is as follows:

a) Roads including the history of roads, and traffic surveys. Details of the width of
roads and tree planting

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b) Railways with positions of level-crossings, passenger stations, and goods sheds. c)
Airports and seaports,
d) Waterways and canals.
e) Routes of services by bus, tram, ferry, and suburban railway,
f) Local industries, their classification, and location, availability of raw materials, and
type of labor employed.
g) Mines and their location.
h) Conditions of commercial activity, etc.

Social survey

The social aspects of town life are studied under this survey. The type of
information
Collected in the social survey are as follows: a)

a) Residential areas including historical studies, types of buildings, slums, and suburban
b) Development

c) Historical buildings and public buildings, their location and classification;

d) Parks and playgrounds, their size and number concerning the residential areas. e)
Ancient ruins.
f) History of growth from the study of old maps. F) Conditions favorable for the
preservation of wildlife and spots of natural beauty.
g) Birth rates, death rates, and charts of diseases.
h) Public services comprising of water supply, sewerage, drainage, electricity, telephone,
streetlighting, cemeteries, and fire protection.

Territorial Survey
In the territorial survey, the physical aspects of the territory are studied under this survey.
The type of informationCollected in the territorial survey is as follows:

a) Geology shows arrangements of underlying rocks and methods responsible for the
formation of topography.
b) Contours of the land surface show both the actual heights and variations of the surface.
c) Rivers, oceans, streams, and lakes.
d) Climatic conditions include temperature range, rainfall, and direction and intensity of
winds.
e) Types of soil include areas of first-class agricultural soil.
f) Forests and other natural vegetation.
g) Areas that are low-lying and are likely to submerge.

Vital survey
The population aspects of the town under consideration are studied under this survey.
The type of information collected in the vital survey is as follows:

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a. History of the past growth of population.
b. Characteristics of the present population.
c. Factors that may influence the future rate of growth of the town such as migration.
d. Decentralization, development of new local industries, etc.
e. The density of population.

TYPES OF SURVEYS

These are broadly classified as

 Preliminary survey
 Regional Survey
 National Survey
 Civic Survey

Preliminary survey

The preliminary survey is in the form of restricted inquiries made for the town
planning schemes the data collected in the preliminary survey are general and it is
conducted before national, regional, or civic surveys. The main object of the preliminary
survey is to decide approximately the boundary of the area tobe planned and to find out
the problems requiring further attention. The topics which are covered in the preliminary
survey are as follows:
 The study of civic art. Parks, playgrounds, etc.
 The conditions of the existing roads concerning their construction and maintenance
problems are studied.
 The study of the existing housing conditions concerning lighting, ventilation,
sanitation, Conveniences, and amenities.
 Industrial development includes the arrangement and classification of various
industries. Location and distribution of the manufacturing units, etc.
 The density and character of structures, divisions, use of land, etc...
 The study of the sources and distribution of power and location of power supply units.
 The existing railway and volume of goods traffic together with the future
requirementswith the growth of town are considered.
 The existing Water supply and sewerage facilities, as well as the future requirements,
are studied. The study of the highest water level, yearly and seasonal variations, and
navigation possibilities.Etc.

Regional Survey
The regional surveys are carried out on much larger units than civic surveys, which
may consist of several townships and villages. The investigations carried out are generally
such onthe social, physical, and economic conditions of the region. Surveys for regional
highways, and regional transport. Regional water supply come under regional survey. The

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topics to be covered in the regional survey are more or less the same as those in the civic
survey. It helps to develop the whole region in a coordinated manner. National Survey
It helps to collect information regarding natural resources and potentialities and to
locate the industries in different regions. Care should be taken to see that no one region is
allowed to develop at the cost of other regions. Survey for fixing Railway alignment.
Irrigation, Hydro Electric works. Heavy industries come under a national survey. The data
collected concerningthe following areas:

 The availability of natural resources in the form of oil, minerals, gas, water, etc.
 The aspects of land ownership and general administration of the country are considered
 The distribution and density of population.
 The type of agricultural soil, the crop patterns, and the number of crops per year.
 The existing modes of transport such as roads, railways, waterways, and air routes.
 The overall situation of economic conditions of the nation including the availability of
raw
 Materials and labor force, types and location of industries, etc., etc.
 The geological conditions, the extent of the sea coast,

Civic Survey or Socio-economic Survey

In this type of survey house to house survey conducted for this purpose is the
socioeconomic The town planner can make a correct diagnosis of various ills from which
the town is suffering and prescribe the correct remedies for their cure from this survey.-
The data collected during the civic survey are as follows:
 The means of communication such as roads, railways, airways, and waterways are
studied together with their inter-relationship.
 The study of contours of the area helps in deciding the gradients of roads, location of
waterworks and sewage plants, location of public buildings and airports, etc.
 The study of agricultural lands, residential and commercial areas, parks, open spaces,
Locations of airports, etc.
 The study of the general historical development of the town, and the present policy of
the administration. Physical and social aspects of the area, etc.
 The characteristics of houses, distribution and relation of people to houses, etc. are
studied.
 The character, distribution, types, and special requirements of the local industries are
studied.
 The study of the present and future population to be served by the town planning
scheme. Family structure, the density of population, migration tendencies, etc.
 The study of buildings to be used by the common people. The study of the general
health of inhabitants, death rate, causes of special diseases, etc.
 The study of the public services such as water supply, sewerage, telephone, gas, and
electricity. Etc. is made.
 The topography of the area is studied regarding climatic conditions. Locations of rivers
and streams, etc.

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METHODS EMPLOYED TO COLLECT DATA

The data and information of various surveys are collected partly by the fieldwork
and partly by analyzing the reports prepared by other bodies.
The methods adopted to collect data for the surveys are as follows:

1. House to house investigation was conducted to collect information in a

questionnaire form specially Prepared for this purpose. The questionnaire may also
be inserted in a local newspaper or journal of any organization or it may be sent out
to interested parties and returned by post.
2. The interviews may be arranged with individuals or organizations having special
knowledge in specific fields. The most frequent form of conducting an interview is
by personal contact.
3. The specialists may be employed in some cases to supply information on topics
relating to their work.
4. The records and reports maintained by the government offices/police department,
municipal Offices, revenue department, etc. can be studied and analyzed.
5. Reconnaissance and spotinspection may be conducted by the townplanner himself
and his staff. The observation can be carried out for many subjects such as the
physical potential of land for building purposes, generation of traffic, etc.

PREPARATION OF MAPS AND DRAWINGS

After collecting the data, maps and drawings are prepared in standard scales and
represented in different colors and symbols. The preparation of drawings helps in the
following two ways:

 The task of the town planner of designing the future town becomes easier.
 The final proposals of the town planner are to be accepted by people in general and by
the authorities in particular. The representation of such proposals on drawings assists
in an easy understanding of the ideas of the town planner.
The following drawings are generally prepared:

1. Contour map.
2. Land use map showing broad features of the town such as open and built-up parks,
railways, and important buildings.
3. Population Density map showing the density of population per acre or hectare, Areas,
tanks,
4. Town map showing proposals of different zones.
5. Programmed map of town showing development in first five years and also subsequent
developments.

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REPORT

Based on the maps and drawings, a detailed report is prepared. Sometimes models can be
prepared for some specific proposals to convey the ideas of the townplanner in the right
sense
The report contains the arguments in favor of the proposed scheme and it mentions
the advantages and results of the proposed scheme. The implementation of the scheme
starts after the report is accepted by the concerned authorities.

USES OF SURVEYS

The data and information collected during the survey work are useful in the following
respects
1. To give the town planner some basis for his thinking and working.
2. To provide the relevant information regarding the community to be served by the
town planning scheme.
3. To suggest the means for developing public opinion and appreciation in favor of
the town planning scheme.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF PLANS

Structure plan

A structure plan singles out for the attention of certain aspects of the environment
usually the landuses, the main movement systems, and the location of critical facilities and
buildings. Such a plan aims to influence certain key vocational decisions while recognizing
that many other things can’t and perhaps should not be decided at the outset.
Comprehensive plan

“Comprehensive” means that the plan encompasses all geographical parts of the
community and all functional elements which bear on physical development. Although
there is some variation in the content of comprehensive plans, three technical elements are
commonly included: the private Uses of land, community facilities, and circulation.
Comprehensive plans may cover other subjects, such as utilities, civic design, and
special usesof land unique to the locality. Usually, there is background information on the
population and economy. Existingland use, assumptions, and community goals.

The comprehensive plan seeks to combine in one document the prescriptions for
all aspects of city development. It includes an analysis of the city’s economy and its
demographic characteristics. And the history of its spatial development is a preface to plan
for how the city should evolve over20 year period.

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Development plan

A development plan means a plan for the development or re-development or improvement

of the area within the jurisdiction of a planning authority and includes a regional plan or
master plan. Detailed development plan and a new town development plan.
Elements of planning:

• To make appropriate choices.

• To allocate resources.
• To achieve goals.
• Planning is for the future (i.e.it involves the TIME factor).fi>  Planning is for
implementation (i.e. Practicable).

Planning includes village planning, town planning, and city planning, metropolitan
planning. Regional planning and national physical planning. Many a time, this broad
concept of planning is overlooked and the town planner is thought of as one who plans
streets, houses, and a few civic buildings. Town planning, to be effective and creative, has
to start from the village and cover the entire country.

While at the village level, town planning pays detailed attention to such matters as the
location of houses, providing schools, shops, rural industrial estates, as also the distance
of the farms from the village, at the city level the town planner comes across more complex
problems, such as industrial development, movement of people from their houses to the
workplace, transport of goods, residential accommodation, utilities and services, zoning
of land and others.
At the metropolitan level, the town planner seeks to serve the interests of not only one
community or one town but several communities, individually as well as about one
another, and utilizes the resources of the metropolitan area to the best advantage and
optimum utilization by all the communities of that area.

RECREATION MEASURES & LANDSCAPING

□ NECESSITY OF RECREATIONAL FACILITIES
Recreation is one of the important parts which contribute to the general health and well-
being of the community. It brings the enjoyment of living, encourages relaxation, and helps
to utilize the leisurely hours of all age groups young and old alike
By clearing the slum areas in the city and then the land available may be converted
intoParks, gardens, playfields, etc.

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TYPES OF RECREATION SYSTEMS

There are two types of recreation systems. They are:

• Passive types such as parks, gardens, etc.

• Active type such as a playground. Stadium, Boating & Swimming, Clubs.

Parks

These are necessary to meet the needs of open spaces, to get fresh air, and evening rest for
all the sections of the community. The parks and gardens should be made more attractive
by planting all types of flowers, trees, and bushes the pleasing layouts with fountains,
lawns, etc. These parks and gardens form a passive type of recreation.
Playgrounds
These help to provide the physical growth of the body and hence offer an active type of
recreation. The demand for playgrounds in recent times has greatly increased due to the
rapid both types of recreation. Passive as well as active, have considerable effects on civic.

CLASSIFICATION OF PARKS

The parks can be classified in the following three ways:

 According to a character.
 According to purpose
 According to size
 According to the character
According to character

The parks, according to character, are classified into the following two
types: a. Artificial parks ,b. Natural parks

Artificial parks
These parks are prepared artificially with great care by experts in the park layout. They

Are planted with grass, shrubs, flowers, and trees. The water may be introduced in the
form of fountains and pools. The seats of suitable design may be provided. They are
usually Prepared in the heart of a town and given an attractive finish.
Natural parks

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In the case of natural parks, all efforts are made to maintain in tack the original natural
features: of the parks, and only the necessary minimum adjustments are made to put them
for public use.
According to purpose

The parks, according to purpose, are classified into the following two types and they
provide green spaces for special use:

a) Botanical parks
b) Zoological parks
Botanical parks
These parks are primarily meant for the study of plant specimens. But their atmosphere
can be made more pleasant and appealing by the presence of beautiful trees, flowers, and
lawns.

Zoological parks

These parks which provide for all specimens of animal life are called zoos. People
generally
Like to visit the zoos along with their children as a picnic or outing, as such it should be
laid out in pleasant surroundings. According to size

The parks, according to size, are classified into the following five
types: a) Small size parks

b) Medium size parks

c) Large size parks
d) Reservations
e) National parks
Small size parks

These parks are generally in the form of squares enclosing a public building. They
are provided in dense business or residential areas where land is costly. The area of these
parks varies from I hectare to 4 hectares. For children, small parks of size about 0.17
hectare or 500sq.ft. Can be developed at suitable sites in the town. It is to be noted that
such parks meant for children should be well equipped with modern types of sporting
apparatus such as merry-go-round, see-saw, slide, etc.
Medium size parks

These are also known as the neighborhood parks and they are preferred for every
residential locality in a town. The community center can also be located in this park. The
size of these parks should not be less than 12 hectares. They can provide passive as well
as active recreation.

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Large size parks

These parks serve the town or city as whole or severalneighborhood units. These act as a
reservoir of fresh air for the city, and are therefore called as “lungs” of the city. Here there
should be provision for sporting items such as boating, riding and swimming facilities for
the adults. They should also be provided with paved footpaths and a driveway. Shelters,
parking places, drinking water, drinking water fountains, restaurant, etc. If the

SUMMARY

As we know, the local area plans are part of the development plan. Town planning
also is the art of development plan. Planning is a process of thinking ab on organizing
activities required to achieve a goal .what we do in town planning is that be organized and
arrange the various component of town the in a systematic or arrange manner. It involves
planning and designing buildings as well as roads and parks in play us to make them
attractive and convenient for people who live there. It also involves physical, social, and
economic development,it has important life quality,it has responsible administration of
resources and environmental protection and rational use of land. The four essential objects
or ideas of any town planning scheme are beauty, convenience, health, and environment.

In a similar way town plan which is well planned and organized effort more
comfortable and convincing to the public. The necessity of town planning will be
appreciated by mentioning the various revealing which towns the face in absence of town
planning. In the absence of town planning, there will be most probably a defective road
system in the formation of narrows and streets. Town also includes the infrastructure
development throughout the consolidation of land. We could also see that the city-level
infrastructure was created for socially and economically weaker sections of people,
including water supply, sewage, recreational, social infrastructure, etc also city-level road
networks were created. Likewise, we also see that neighborhood-level infrastructure water
supply network, sewage network, recreational, road network, land for civic center and
neighbor center (for public utility services), and land for educational purposes taken out.
We see glimpses of all the work which was done through the town planning, we can create
gardens, lakes and affordable housing projects, and physical infrastructure projects. As we
saw what is happening on the ground and how this scheme is we employed it as a tool of
local area planning and used it about developed a plan summering what we have learned.
We have seen the concept we learn the objects of town planning, principle, and necessity.

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