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Ancient History Definition, Civilizations & Timeline

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Contributors: Felicity Moran

Study an overview of ancient history. Review what ancient history is and examine the achievements of
ancient civilizations in various periods with a timeline. Updated: 02/28/2023

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What is Ancient History?

Ancient history is typically defined as the longest period of history and the one beginning with the first
civilizations and concluding with the medieval era in Europe. However, this is not to say that all ancient
societies developed, flourished, or declined on the same timeline or in the same manner. Rather, the
context and circumstances of varying ancient civilizations depend on geographic location and historical
events.

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A History of Ancient Civilizations: An Overview

The history of ancient civilizations is a long and complicated timeline of interlocking empires and
cultures. Major developments in culture occurred in the ancient Near East, China, India, and the Greco-
Roman world, not to mention Africa, the Americas, and Oceania. Most of these tended to emerge near
abundant natural resources, especially fresh water. Each evolving culture developed a unique writing
system and a myriad of advancements and skills based on geographical needs and understandings of the
world.

Ancient Near East

The ancient Near East is home to some of the most recognizable of ancient civilizations including Sumer,
Babylon, and Egypt. Sumerian culture emerged in Mesopotamia, the “land between the rivers”—in this
case, the Tigris and the Euphrates. Their culture depended on the strength of these rivers and their
regular flooding, by which the Sumerians practiced irrigation and agriculture, which led to such
inventions as the plow. By gaining control of foodstuffs, the population could constantly increase.
Sumerians also became renowned for their writing system, cuneiform, or “wedge-writing,” by which
they could communicate mundane information, such as trade and business accounts, as well as key
works of literature. Another proof of the progressing nature of Sumer was their religious and
architectural evolution, which manifested in the building of square pyramids known as ziggurats.

Clay tablet of cuneiform, or wedge writing, used by the Sumerians

Clay tablet of cuneiform on museum display

Babylon developed on the remnants of Sumer gathering the various Mesopotamian pockets of
civilizations that had become known as cities into a collective empire. Babylon had actually begun as
part of Sumer, but the emergence of the ruler Hammurabi led to the creation of the new empire. Many
of the architectural and cultural beliefs of Sumer carried over to Babylon, but the most noteworthy
advancement was Hammurabi’s legal Code, through which he laid out specific laws for all levels of
society, basing them on equal justice, depending on class. The Assyrian people developed as a city in
Babylon until growing into a full-fledged civilization because of its lucrative trade around 1900 BCE.
Assyria adopted a warlike policy of conquest and, in some instances, deportation of undesirable people.
By the 9th century BCE, the empire had a cohesive society based on conquest and worship of a central
god.

Another kingdom that appeared in the ancient Near East about four hundred years after Sumer was
Egypt. Heavily influenced by its Sumerian and Babylonian predecessors, Egyptian civilization became
famous for its development of written hieroglyphs, which were a combination of written images and
symbols written on papyrus and stone monuments. Egyptian civilization depended on a river source, the
Nile. Egyptian society did not decline until the 2nd century before the advent of Christianity. During its
long history, it had many rulers and periods. In the first of these, the Old Kingdom, vast swaths of
Egyptian citizens contributed to the building of the pyramids, including the Great Pyramid of Giza, as
part of their desire to offer fitting service to the gods. Through trade and cultural exchange, Egypt
became a veritable powerhouse in the ancient era until the rise of Rome.
Outside of Mesopotamia and Egypt in Anatolia, the Hittite Empire came to prominence in Anatolia
during the Bronze Age beginning in circa 1600 BCE. This civilization kept detailed records of kings, as well
as the conquest and conflict with other empires—especially Egypt. The Hittite Empire was impactful on
the region that its fall at the hands of Assyria brought about a dark age in 1000 BCE. In 1500 BCE, on the
edge of the Mediterranean, the Phoenician people developed as seafaring traders and became famous
for their purple cloth. Like the later Greeks, they consisted largely of city-states. The Phoenician
alphabet formed the basis not only for the Greek language, but many modern western languages as
well. A final civilization, small by comparison, was that of Israel. Emerging in roughly the same area as
Phoenicia in 1000 BCE, Israel adopted the Canaanite language known as Hebrew and the Israelites
brought with them a religion based on the belief in one supreme God. Although it did not engage in
extensive conquest like its contemporaries, Israel’s history was forever recorded in the Hebrew Bible.

Ancient China

Ancient China was another place of advancement and growth at the dawn of civilizations. The first of
these was the Shang Dynasty, dated at about 1760 BCE. The Shang excelled in many areas of culture,
including developing religious systems, military tactics, trade, and, of course, a writing system. Much of
the Shang civilization is only available because of the preservation of the Bamboo Annals, a record of the
society written on bamboo strips and left in a tomb. This character system of writing has influenced
Chinese characters and writing to the present day. During this period, the Chinese people also
developed a major concept known as the Mandate of Heaven, meaning that rulers had to have the
respect of and the favor of the gods in order to legitimize their leadership.

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Ancient History Timeline

An all-inclusive timeline of Ancient History would be impossible by virtue of the length of the period and
multiplicity of occurrences. However, it is possible to recognize a few of the most impactful events.
These include the following:

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Lesson Summary

Ancient history, beginning with the first civilization of Sumer and ending with the fall of Rome in 476 CE,
encompasses civilizations across the globe. The developing groups were usually characterized by a
unified leadership, culture, and writing system, although each had insular advancements and changes. In
the Near East, Sumer had the earliest writing system, cuneiform. Babylon and Egypt became huge
mainstays of culture and trade. Under Hammurabi, the Babylonian empire developed the oldest
surviving legal code, while the Egyptian kingdoms built enormous pyramids and created hieroglyphs for
writing purposes. The Assyrians and Hittites Empires rose to prominence in neighboring areas and relied
on conquest, while the Phoenicians used trade. The Israelite nation did not have the same scope, but its
cultural impact is remembered to the present day. In China, the Shang Dynasty was the first to unite a
large portion of the area and is remembered through preserved character-based language, which has
influenced Chinese writing to the modern era.

The Indus Valley in modern India was home to a number of cultures, including the Harrapans and the
Indo-Europeans, who built pyramids and introduced Hinduism, respectively. In the Greco-Roman world,
the Empire of Persia became the first truly enormous empire under Cyrus the Great, using a system of
conquest and then light rule to maintain power. The Greeks eventually challenged them, however, using
their own culture based on military achievements and philosophical learning to spread Greek ideals
throughout the Mediterranean world. Greece, however, remained divided internally, unlike Rome,
which used its republic model to unify the people under elected leaders who conquered outside
civilizations. Eventually, an empire took the place of the republic, carrying Rome to the end of the
ancient period. Other civilizations in the Americas, Africa, and Oceania also developed in their own way
during this time period.

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Ancient History Topics

Early River Valleys

Prehistory

Ancient Burial Customs

Ancient Near East

Bronze Age

Classical Antiquity

Huns
Iron Age

FAQ

What are some of the main ancient civilizations?

Some of the main ancient civilizations include Sumer, Egypt, and Babylon of the Middle East, the Shang
and Ch’in Dynasties of China, and the Indus Valley in India. Others include Greece, Rome, and Persia.

What does ancient mean in history?

In history, ancient means period before the medieval period. This was when most nation states began
taking shape in forms recognizable to the modern era.

When did ancient history begin?

Ancient history began with the first civilization with a writing system. This was ancient Sumer, which
created the written language of cuneiform in c. 3500 BCE.

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