Kallanai

Kallanai is an ancient dam constructed by Karikalan Chola, who is celebrated as a

heroic figure among the Chola kings. It spans a length of 1080 feet, a width of 66
feet, and a height of 18 feet. Its structure represents an engineering marvel. Built by
the Tamil people, it stands as a testament to their technological prowess in
harnessing the flow of water for irrigation purposes.

Kallanai is a remarkable dam that was built across the Kaveri River, making it the only
dam of its kind in India. It is located in the village of Koviladi, near Thogur in the
Thanjavur district.

During the Sangam period, Karikalan constructed Kallanai to regulate the flow of the
Kaveri River and facilitate irrigation for agricultural purposes. This resulted in the
creation of a fertile delta region. The songs of Pattinapalai, Porunar Arruppadai,
Telugu Chola Kalvetu, and Tiruvalangadu Copperplate inscriptions all bear testimony
to this historical achievement.

Reason for Building Kallanai

The construction of Kallanai was motivated by the need to control the excess flow of
the Kaveri River and utilize the water for extensive agricultural irrigation. It is truly
astonishing that this ancient dam, built around 2100 years ago, continues to serve its
purpose by regulating the flow of the Kaveri River even today. The longevity of
Kallanai, spanning 2100 years, is a subject of curiosity and study for researchers and
archaeologists.

Significance

Sir Arthur Cotton, an English engineer, extensively researched and studied the
Kallanai dam. He referred to it as the "Grand Anicut" in his writings. The construction
of Kallanai, combining stone and earth, posed a significant challenge. In 1829, the
British government appointed Sir Arthur Cotton as the chief engineer in charge of the
Kaveri Puspalanam, a separate irrigation department.

With great courage, Sir Arthur Cotton undertook the task of removing small portions
of the dam and allowing the passage of sand, thus preventing silting. He recognized
the engineering expertise of the ancient Tamil people in constructing Kallanai and
emphasized its significance on a global scale. He popularized the name "Grand
Anicut" for Kallanai.
The integration of rocks and gravel to build Kallanai prevented the erosion caused by
the force of water. Despite being affected by floods and natural calamities, the
structure of the dam has withstood the test of time. In 1839, a bridge was
constructed over the Kallanai, which enhances the beauty and magnificence of the
entire dam. Even today, people from various parts of the world visit Kallanai to
witness its splendor.

In the 19th century, during British rule, Kallanai underwent renovation and
modernization. The British officers, such as Captain Caldwell, Major Sim, and Sir
Arthur Cotton, inspected and admired the construction of Kallanai, acknowledging
the advanced engineering techniques employed by Karikalan. They praised its
structural integrity and global significance.
Water Conservation

Introduction: The natural environment of Tamil Nadu is facing a severe crisis. Historical records

show that fluctuations in water levels, ranging from excessive flooding to severe droughts, have

been occurring. Therefore, the conservation of rainwater and the efficient utilization of stored

water are crucial for the sustainability of Tamil Nadu. This can be seen through various indicators

such as water bodies, rivers, wells, canals, and irrigation systems that have been in existence

from ancient times to the present day. Despite their significance, these resources are currently

being underutilized. The ancient wisdom and knowledge of water management found in Sangam

literature and educational texts still hold relevance and offer valuable insights for water

conservation practices today.

Characteristics of Waterbodies: Sangam poet Kapilar highlights the ideal characteristics of a

waterbody:

"A tank with abundant water, enclosed by a bund, Surrounded by fertile paddy fields, irrigated with

canals, With ducks swimming and lotus blooming, A cool breeze blowing from the east."

This verse describes the attributes of an area that should be developed as a waterbody. While the

depth of the waterbodies should be moderate, the volume of water they can hold should be

substantial. During the construction of an eighth bund, the waterbody becomes prone to

excessive water retention. This is an important aspect of waterbody management.

The "Sirupanjamulam" text by Kaariyaachaar provides the required specifications for constructing

waterbodies. It states:

"Dig a pond twenty feet deep, Build embankments and channels, Divert water into the paddy

fields, By doing so, the region will prosper."

This verse emphasizes the importance of digging deep ponds, ensuring sufficient water storage

capacity, and distributing water for irrigation. It highlights the key principles of effective water

management.
Conclusion: By considering the wisdom and knowledge passed down through Sangam literature

and educational texts, we can observe the valuable insights provided by water conservation

practices. The characteristics of waterbodies, as described by Kapilar and Kaariyaachaar, reflect

the importance of proper planning and utilization of water resources. It is essential to apply these

principles to current water management practices to ensure the sustainable development of

Tamil Nadu.

1. குளம் (குளம் தொட்டு) - Pond (Digging a pond)

2. கலிங்கு (கோடு பதித்து) - Canal (Constructing canals)
3. வரத்துக்கால், மதகுகள், மிகைநீர் போகும் கால்கள் ஆகிய வழிகளை
அமைத்தல் (வழி சித்து) - Managing the flow of rainwater, river water, and floodwater
(Channelizing water)
4. பண்ணை மேம்பாட்டுப் பணிகள் மூலம் ஆய்க்கட்டுப் பகுதிகளை
உருவாக்குதல் (உழுவயலாக்கி) - Restoring and maintaining tanks for water
conservation
5. பொதுக்கிணறு அமைத்தல் (கிணறு) - Managing canals

The first four elements are common water bodies that we commonly come across. However,
when there is a shortage of water in these bodies, the channels through which water flows
become crucial as they facilitate water diversion and distribution, ensuring effective water
management. During such times, the importance of channels for water diversion surpasses
that of tanks for water storage. It is therefore essential to properly manage canals so that
everyone can access sufficient water. This principle holds true even today and is globally
recognized as a significant approach to overcome water scarcity. The significance of proper
water management, including the conservation of rainwater and groundwater, is being
emphasized in Tamil Nadu in the present times.

A small but deep pond has been constructed. Water in this pond cannot be drained out
through channels. During times of drought, the water in the pond remains available. This
water has proven useful for various purposes other than drinking water. Even today, this
pond can be seen near Kanchipuram.

Fishermen, as well as farmers and laborers, have traditionally relied on the pond for their
livelihoods, and therefore, they have established regulations and security measures for the
protection of the pond. This practice is still prevalent in the state of Karnataka. During the
British colonial period, water management, including the construction of irrigation tanks, was
exclusively entrusted to the Irrigation Department. This method has been proven effective in
preventing water shortages and has been adopted by others in their respective fields without
any modifications. This practice continues to be recognized in the state of Karnataka. The
successful implementation of rainwater harvesting is attributed to the efforts of Rajaraja
Chola I during the 10th century. The construction of the Shiva Ganga tank in Tanjore was
initiated by Rajaraja Chola I, which effectively stored and conserved rainwater. This
achievement is acknowledged as an educational achievement.
Translation:

In this essay, the mentioned points are quite significant. When Tamil Nadu was constructing
buildings 100 years ago, the Tamilians were well aware of the importance of proper drainage
systems, water bodies, and sewers. However, the question of why we have neglected these
aspects during the last 2000 years remains unanswered. It is we, the people, who are
responsible for this neglect and we must take action by documenting and publishing articles
about these issues.

Truth:

Historians refer to the period between 10,000 BCE and 4000 BCE as the "New Stone Age."
During this period, the Tamilians were the first to adopt an agricultural lifestyle and settle in
urban areas. Many tools associated with this era have been discovered, with some of the
largest and most sophisticated water bodies also dating back to this time.

Initially, the settlers relied solely on rainfall for their agricultural activities. Later, water
management systems were developed to conserve rainwater. During times of drought, water
was brought from nearby rivers. Wells were dug to extract groundwater and canals were
constructed to divert water to the surrounding lands. The technology to build small dams
using stones originated during this period. As the settlements grew, larger irrigation tanks
were constructed, leading to significant progress in irrigation and agriculture. This
development took place during the Sangam era... Kallanai!

By digging ponds, constructing canals, and managing waterways,

By irrigating fertile fields and connecting them with canals,
With the flowing rivers and these efforts combined,
These achievements will be known,
The prosperity of the land will be sweet.
- Silappatikaram

"Kulam; Water flowing through channels; Pond receiving rainfall; Irrigation water supplying
fields; Dam, bund, and canals diverting water from the pond and releasing excess water;
Transforming barren land into fertile fields; Constructing public canals for water utilization
during water scarcity... This is the meaning of the verse 'One who does all these will reach
heaven.' This verse specifically refers to the ancient irrigation system.

The expertise in irrigation and water management among Tamilians dates back more than
2,000 years. Even today, thousands of canals and ponds, which are used for irrigation, are
found in Tamil Nadu and Tamil Eelam. According to hydrological experts in Sri Lanka, the
'Pasavakulam' (irrigation tank) was constructed around 300 BCE.

Aathoor, located 20 km east of Thindukkal, has three ponds named Karungulam,

Pakadaikulam, and Pulvetikulam. These ponds are divided by two small bunds, creating
three separate water bodies. In the same vicinity, two small reservoirs were divided into three
sections. This engineering marvel dates back to the Sangam period, which is over 2,100
years old according to researchers in the field of hydrology. Even today, these ponds serve a
vital role in agriculture.
Compared to individual ponds, interconnected tanks or cascading ponds play a significant
role in conserving rainwater. The term 'Aendal' refers to the process of capturing rainwater
and diverting it from the north to the south. The term 'Thangal' represents the process of
storing and distributing surplus water and additional flow from cascading ponds. These terms
are widely used in Tamil Nadu to describe such water management systems.

These cascading ponds are interconnected and effectively aid in water conservation, besides
contributing to the irrigation needs. The chain of ponds starting from the Balaur dam
comprises 318 ponds through four canals. Similar cascading ponds are found throughout
Tamil Nadu. The largest pond usually serves as the temple pond. After filling up, the deity in
the temple, Sri Meenakshi, undergoes an abhishekam (ritual bathing). This signifies the
commencement of agricultural activities from the upper to the lower lands, as recorded in
historical evidence, including the Kanyakumari Kulam and Tiruchendur Kulam.

Tamil people have excelled not only in constructing irrigation systems but also in managing
them. These systems distribute water to all the lands, especially during periods of scarcity,
and regulate the flow through bunds, dams, and channels. The science of irrigation plays a
crucial role in maximizing agricultural productivity, and the expertise of Tamil farmers in this
field has been recognized for centuries.

Water should not be diverted from a higher canal to a lower one, as stated in the
16th-century decree by Sri Vallabha Pandyan at the Kallvetu temple in Kuruveti. The
construction of a new canal in the upper region is considered a violation of the rights of the
ancient farmers in the lower region. This legal principle, known as 'Kalukku Kal
Kallalaagaadhu' in Tamil, safeguards the rights of riparian farmers and is still relevant today.

The ancient practice of diverting water from rivers into fields without disturbing the rights of
lower riparian farmers is known as 'Munnoorimai' (Riparian right of lower down ayacut). This
practice is a testament to the foresight of Tamil people in water management."

Translation to English:

"Supremacy of the Chola's Water

The administration of water and land: The supremacy of the kings over land ownership,
water rights, and the control of water resources is well known through various inscriptions
known as seppedu. These inscriptions, which have been deciphered by the science of
hydrology, speak about the water management system related to landownership, water
distribution rights, and the areas where water supply is regulated.

They include: the headworks, the main channels, canals, distributaries, diversion structures,
smaller channels, sub-channels, branches, secondary channels, tertiary channels, smaller
and secondary outlets, the regulated outlets, sluices, gates, and structures to control water
flow, etc.

The headworks and main channels together form the water distribution system from the
source to the canals. The term "kulai" represents a temporary check dam-like structure that
diverts water temporarily from the main canal / river flow towards the smaller or secondary
channels. This allows the water to be diverted to different directions. The term "trivilai" refers
to the structure that redirects the water flow back to the main canal. The term "odi" denotes a
series of cascades that carry water from one canal to another. When a long canal intersects
with another canal at a specific point, it is called "naduvurkkapona vaikkaal" or an
intersecting canal.

These water management systems were responsible for redirecting the course of water
similar to how the government diverts the people's attention. They were instrumental in
supplying water to various fields, villages, and settlements from cities, towns, or regions
where water distribution networks were established. If these systems were violated by
foreigners or any other entities, they would be subject to punishment by the ruling king, as
mentioned in various inscriptions. The Chola dynasty also emphasized the importance of
these systems.

The natural water sources such as canals, ponds, rivers, and wells supplied water to the
regulated areas through the water distribution systems developed by the administration.
According to the inscription on the Tirupuvanamadevi Aeri, it is said that the water was
diverted from the river to the head of the canal through the South-facing canal (Vari:37). The
ruling administration obtained the authority to control the water flow by redirecting the water
from the river back to the main canal through the headworks. This is mentioned in the
inscription on the Vaikkaal (Vari:522-523). The Odi canal that supplied water to the town of
Pudukottai from the river flow at the main canal head, and the water from the river that
supplied water to the Kottai canal in the town, are mentioned in the inscription
(Vari:934-936). This inscription explains the process of redirecting water from the river to the
canals and distributing water to other towns or regions.

These water management systems demonstrate the government's authority in controlling

water resources and implementing water distribution networks. They played a significant role
in sustaining agriculture and facilitating the livelihood of the people. The inscriptions highlight
the expertise of the Chola administration in water management and their commitment to
ensuring an efficient water supply system."

Translation to English:

"The practice of irrigation through canals and reservoirs is prevalent in the Chola region. This
is distinct from well irrigation and tank irrigation, which are used in agricultural technology. In
this system, water is supplied to the agricultural fields through channels or canals that are
strategically placed between the high and low points of the land, ensuring a gradual flow of
water to the irrigation fields. This method is particularly effective in providing water to the
main fields, secondary fields, minor fields, and gardens in varying proportions. The final
stage of this system involves the diversion of water to the fields through channels. It is
important to understand the role of the government in this process. Therefore, the sections of
government orders that discuss water rights are highly relevant. The regulation of water
rights in government orders is closely associated with the distribution of water to the fields.
Accordingly, the water provided to the fields when they are supplied is determined. During
such times, water can be obtained through canal irrigation. This water, whether from rivers,
streams, or tanks, is directed to the fields through the main channels, subsidiary channels,
and field channels. Officials such as "Talai Vayars" (administrative officers), "Eraya Vayars"
(revenue officers), and "Talai Vayichchans" (field officers) were responsible for managing and
protecting the headworks, channels, and distribution systems. To ensure that water is not
wasted and is efficiently used, regulations were put in place. Apart from landowners who had
obtained water rights, others (foreigners/non-residents) were prohibited from accessing
irrigation water. Similarly, smaller-scale appropriations and the limited supply of water were
strictly controlled. Some government orders specifically mention the diversion of water from
rivers to newly created channels as well as the establishment of new channels. These
channels were constructed to provide water to irrigation fields. The regulation of these
channels and their water supply is an essential aspect of this system. Scholar P. Mathaiyan
has highlighted the importance of land as a primary resource for Brahmins, which is
cultivated using water from regulated irrigation channels. These observations also apply to
various other land divisions mentioned in the literature. These characteristics illustrate the
uniqueness of this particular irrigation system. Consequently, it is essential to understand the
direct relationship of the government with the administration of irrigation. However,
comprehensive information is necessary to explore this further.

3) Op. cit., Henri J.M. Classen, Peter Skalink, 1978, p. 7. This book provides significant
insights into the rule of lower countries.

4) Chieftains and subordinate chieftains were acting as rulers in their respective territories,
and their rule was mainly associated with the surrounding regions of their respective
territories. This information is given by Tamil scholar P. Mathaiyan. NCBH, 2004, p. 148.
Poets have justly depicted the conflicts faced by rulers in their fight against natural disasters
(verse: 76). This song illustrates the impermanence of human life and the transience of this
world. The kings, who were felled by the scythe of time, also lost the wealth of nature and
water resources (verse: 13, 15, 20, 23, 25).

8) It has been identified that wells were also present within the confines of water bodies. K.R.
Sankaran, "Irrigation in the History of Tamil Nadu with Special Reference to Pudukkottai
Region from C 800 to C 1800 AD," unpublished Ph.D. thesis submitted to Tamil University,
Thanjavur, 1997. See Table No. II in the thesis. The practice of some tanks utilizing water
from adjacent rivers is mentioned in the regulation records."

23) V. Selvakumar, "Urgency of Research on the Formation of Villages-States in Tamilnadu:

Ambal (Ampar) and Social Formation in the Kaveri Delta Region," Puthiya Araycci,
January-June 2017, pp. 119-133. The author, as part of the interim research conducted by
the Agazhayvu Group, provides detailed information about the archaeological sites
associated with the temple structures that were established in close proximity to the
archaeological sites in the Kaveri Delta region. Among them, the cities of Neidur, Nangur,
and Innambar are significant as they reveal evidence of settlements.

37) Although the exact meaning of the term "Talaivaychchār" is not clear, the administrators
of water management systems are often referred to as such, indicating their role in regulating
water resources. Similarly, the primary officials responsible for the management of tanks and
reservoirs can also be referred to as the administrators of "madagu"/"madais" (waterbodies).
The tasks performed by these individuals are recorded and recognized as their
responsibilities. They are known to have exercised control over the irrigation systems within
their respective territories. This work was facilitated by the land provided to them. They were
instrumental in managing the reservoirs within their communities. This is explained by the
term "Talai Vāychchēri" mentioned in the official decrees. (Ref: Noboru Karashima, South
Indian Society and History: Studies from Inscriptions AD 850-1800, OUP, 1984, pp. 6, 47,
54.)
Iron technology

People who lived in forest areas used tools made of iron obtained through knowledge gained
from the forests to play with the wild animals. They also used these tools extensively in
agricultural activities to promote the growth of civilization.

People who migrated to agricultural regions realized that the tools made using iron were not
suitable for farming due to the hardness of the soil and their inability to provide significant
benefits. As a result, they explored the uses of iron and created various iron objects.

Iron tools are essential for agricultural activities. Iron is used for plowing fields and
manufacturing various products. Iron plows, sickles, hoes, axes, and knives are mentioned in
ancient Tamil literature and songs.

During a period of limited scientific progress, Tamils acquired iron artifacts from ancient burial
sites and used them to polish small metal mirrors with the help of a small grinding stone. This
fact is mentioned in Tamil literature as an aid in the process of refining iron.

Iron is generally found in the subsoil of the earth. Iron is extracted from the ground, refined,
and used to make the necessary tools. The iron ore is heated in furnaces, and the resulting
molten iron is shaped into desired tools or objects. The iron tools are then cooled in water.
These iron tools are commonly used in agriculture.

The intense heat of the fire in the iron furnace can be seen. The heat emitted by the iron
worker while working with iron is compared to the fierce fire in Tamil poems.

"Make the iron melt in the furnace fire" (Natrinai, 133; 9)

"... Forge the iron
Set ablaze the sparks that come out of it" (Nalatiyar, 298; 2-3)

When iron is heated in the iron furnace, sparks are seen flying out. This phenomenon is
described as the result of tiny sparks igniting the beautiful flowers blooming on the branches
of the banyan tree.

"A good banyan tree that bears little sparks of fire

Shooting up in the form of small embers
Like tiny fireflies" (Akam, 202; 5-7)

"The ironsmith, heating the iron,

Holds it in the pincer tongs and
Beats it with a heavy hammer,
Making it red-hot in the furnace" (Akam, 72; 3-6)

Iron artifacts are commonly referred to as "ulai-k-kalam" in literature. The term "kottrurai" is
used to describe the iron artifact. "Kottrurai" refers to the place where iron is smelted. It is
mentioned in poems as the place where iron is forged into various tools and where the
sharpness of finished tools is tested.
"The sharpened chisel's like a spearhead;
The hammer shines like gold.
The anvil cracks like a thunderbolt
While the iron is being forged." (Akam, 72; 3-6)

"The one who hammers the iron, making it red-hot,

Looks as beautiful as the fire burning in the forge.
Even a small bit of iron sparks a great flame in the heart." (Natrinai, 133; 9-11)

Iron artifacts are typically made in foundries. Iron is smelted, shaped, and then cooled. Iron is
used to create tools such as plows, axes, and weapons. The process of creating iron objects
is described in the Tamil literary work Purananuru.

"Although the enemy has ten million men and swords

With which they strike and kill,
If the forge sparks, the anvil rings,
And the red-hot iron is shaped,
The blacksmith will prevail." (Purananuru, 95; 4-5)

Duruthi

Duruthi is generally a hand or foot-operated bellows. It blows air into the furnace. The
blowing of air into the furnace through the bellows facilitates the combustion process
required to smelt iron.

The blowing of air through the duruthi, which is operated by the foot, is mentioned in ancient
songs. When an elephant that has won a fierce battle with the enemy raises its trunk in
victory, the flowers on the banyan tree branches sway due to the blowing of air from the
duruthi, resembling the flickering of a flame.

"The banyan tree that bears little sparks of fire,

Shooting up in the form of small embers,
Like tiny fireflies" (Akam, 202; 3-6)
"The blowing duruthi, causing the breath to fade away,
Coming like a ghost at the stroke of midnight" (Natrinai, 125; 4-5)

Ulaimooku

Ulaimooku is the term commonly used to refer to the handle of the bellows. It is the part
where the handle and the bellows are connected. In Sangam literature, ulaimooku is referred
to as "kurugu."

The passionate breath of the leader is connected to the blowing ulaimooku when it stirs up
the dust. The ulaimooku that blows and makes the breath visible is compared to the breath
of the leader.

"When the leader, raising his thick spear,

With a loud sound, hurls it
Like a powerful elephant breathing heavily"
(Kali, 54; 9-11)
"The ulaimooku blowing with a strong breeze
Because of the separation from the loved one"
(Silappadikaram, 4; 58-59)

Kuradu

Kuradu is a type of tool that is used to insert iron into the furnace and extract it from the
furnace. It is a tool that is used both inside and outside the furnace to handle iron. Kuradu is
compared to the pointed thorns of a porcupine when they are seen outside the furnace like
the sharp thorns of the tool used by ironworkers. From this, the shape of the kuradu and its
usage during the Sangam period can be understood. The kuradu is still in use today. The
use of the kuradu during the Sangam period can also be seen in its application today. The
kuradu is being used to stoke the fire in the furnace. The kuradu's use during the Sangam
period is described in ancient Tamil literature.

"The blacksmith's kuradu, taking the shape

Of the porcupine's sharp thorns"
(Kurunthogai, 198; 1-3)
"The one who hammers the iron, making it red-hot,
Holds the hot iron with the kuradu"
(Perumpanatrupadai, 207-208)

Kari

Kari is a tool used to blow air into the iron utensils inside the furnace. It is mentioned in
Sangam literature as a tool used to blow and make the iron utensils hot.

"The elephant that blows air into the iron utensils"

(Kurunthogai, 198; 1)
"The iron utensil that blows hot air"
(Puram, 95; 5)

Iron Tools and their Uses

In Kurinjippattu songs, weapons such as spear, bow, and sword are mentioned. The Kurinji
people used weapons like spear, bow, and sword for self-defense, hunting, and in battles.

"The spear that strikes the chest of the enemy,

Like a venomous snake's fang" (Akam, 82; 11-12)
"The elephant with the sharp-pointed spear,
Like a heron with its beak" (Puram, 19; 8-9)

Hunters use weapons like spear, bow, and arrow to hunt elephants, deer, and boars. In
Sangam literature, the terms "Ea," "EA," "Ambu," "Ganai," and "Kol" are used to refer to the
spear.
Arival

Arival is a tool used to plow the soil to prepare it for sowing seeds. In Sangam literature,
arival is referred to as "irumbu," meaning iron.

"The farmer who plows the field with the iron plow"
(Kali, 64; 21)
"The one who plows with the iron,
Don't listen to the loud sound of the small mouse" (Natrinai, 194; 9-10)

Vel

Vel is a tool that has a curved, pointed end resembling a snake's hood. Vel has a long
handle.

"The father who gives wealth in the place

Where there is a big snake with a long hood" (Natrinai, 324; 5-6)

"Eka" refers to Vel in Sangam literature. It is described as a tool with a shining, curved end
similar to a snake's hood. Vel is used in battles, holding a sharp spear-like end.

"The Vel with a shining, curved end"

(Puram, 200; 6)

List of Publications

1. Padippasiriyar Kuzhu, Tamil Peragarathi, Chennai Kalai Katchi, 1982.

2. Paramasivanantham, A.M., Samudayamum Panpadum, Tamil Kalai Pathippagam,

Chennai, 1972, Second Edition.

3. Padippasiriyar Kuzhu, Ariviyal Kalanjiam, Volume 5, Tamil Peragarathi, Thanjavur, 1988.

4. Saminathaiyar U.V. (B.A.), Silappathikara Moolamum Arumpadu Uraiyum Adiyarkku Nallar

Uraiyum (Nizharpada Pathippu), Tamil Peragarathi, Thanjavur, 1985.

5. Pinnathur Narayanasami Aiyar, (B.A.). Nattranai Moolamum Uraiyum, Saiva

Vithiyannupalan Yanthrasalai, Chennai, 1915.

6. Subramaniyan, S.V., Tholkappiya Moolam, Meyyappan Pathippagam, Chidambaram,

2015.

7. Padippasiriyar Kuzhu, Ariviyal Kalanjiam, Volume 10, Tamil Peragarathi, Thanjavur, 1996.

8. Padippasiriyar Kuzhu, Kalai Kalanjiam, Volume 4, Tamil Valarchi Kalaikam, Chennai,

1956.
9. Shanmugampillai, M., 1985, Kurunthokai Moolamum Uraiyum, Tamil Peragarathi,
Thanjavur.

10. Venkatasami Nattar, N.M., & R. Venkatasalam Pillai (U.A.), 1965, Agananuru, Kazhaga
Veliyeedu, Chennai.

- Munivar N. Periyasami
Translation:

"Manikam in Sangam literature

Introduction:

Sangam literature, consisting of eight anthologies and ten long poems, celebrates the history
of ancient Tamil Nadu, the lives of its people, and their cultural heritage. The research
conducted on Sangam literature encompasses various disciplines such as social science,
politics, astronomy, education, medicine, ethics, economics, and philosophy. This research
examines the work, technology, material culture, and archaeological evidence related to the
gems mentioned in Sangam literature. It explores the activities of ancient Tamil Nadu's gem
industry and its association with various professions prevalent in that era, as well as the
materials obtained through excavation and the knowledge gained from them.

Collection of Original Sources:

The collection of rubies and emeralds from the mountain ranges forms the basis of economic
activity. The natural formation of the gemstone-bearing mountain region is observed. The
ancient Tamils used elephants to extract rubies from these mountains and extracted gold by
sifting through the sand. When extracting gold, they identified and collected the gems
embedded in the ornaments and jewelry of the ancient Tamils. It is described in the following
verse:

"Serimaḍai ampin, vilvil kāṉavaṉ

Poruttu tolai yāṉai veṇkoṭu koṇdu
Nīrtikaz chilambin nanpon akazhvōṉ
Kaṇporuttu imaik kum tiṇmaṇi kiḷarppa
Vainnuti vālmaruppu oṭiya ukka
Teṇnīr āli kaṭukku muthamoṭu
Mūvēṟu tāramum oruṅkuṭaṉ koṇdu
Sāntam poṟaimaram āka, naṟainār" (Akam. 282: 2-4).

The above verse describes the extraction of these gems.

The search for these gems is depicted in the following verse:

"Veṭcik kāṉattu veṭṭuvarāṭṭak

Kaṭcik kāṇāk kaṭamā nallēṟu
Kaṭaṟumaṇi kiḷarac chithaṟupon miḷirak..." (Puram. 202: 1-3).

The above verse illustrates the search for these gems.

The artisans who lived in the hilly region, which was rich in these gems, are described in the
following verse (21: 20-23):

"Veṭcik kāṇattu veṭṭuvarāṭṭak

Kaṭcik kāṇāk kaṭamā nallēṟu
Kaṭaṟumaṇi kiḷarac chithaṟupon miḷirak..." (Puram. 202: 1-3).

The verse describes the search for these gems.

The materials obtained from these gems, which were used as valuable assets by the ancient
Tamils, are mentioned in the following verse (163: 1-2). It also highlights the role played by
merchants in the gem trade and the lifestyle they adopted. Additionally, it mentions the
importance of the seaport city known as Baran (Akam. 152: 12-13), which was situated on
the coast of the Malabar region. It was a prominent city for trade. Furthermore, it mentions
the existence of gems in the marine region. The research explores the production of various
commodities through the gem industry and the diverse artifacts produced in the region
surrounding the seaport city. Thus, the gem industry played a significant role in the economy
and livelihoods of the people living in coastal regions and forest areas. Consequently, it can
be inferred that many countries witnessed economic prosperity due to the trade of these
gems. Moreover, the farming community benefited from the gems obtained when plowing
their fields. However, there is no evidence regarding the development of technological
knowledge and expertise related to these industries."

Note: The translation provided is a general interpretation of the text.

Translation to English:

"Idappayirvum nukarvum" refers to the transfer and exchange of gems. In Sangam literature,
it is mentioned that the "mankal" or gems were used as a form of currency (6:8, 19:20).
During the Sangam period, the "kuyinar" were known to be the ones who extracted and cut
gems, the "thaiyarkaarar" were the jewelers, and there were people who specialized in the
art of gem polishing. These gems were obtained from the mountains and were shaped into
small pieces using their technical knowledge. This practice was prevalent among the ancient
Tamils and was influenced by the foreign trade with the Roman Empire and the Arabian
Peninsula. These details are mentioned in the Pattinappalai, a poem that describes the
import of gems from the northern regions to the Tamil country. Furthermore, Madurai city was
known for its nine types of gems, gem cutters, and markets where gems were traded, along
with various other merchandise. All of these were located in the same place. Different types
of gems such as corals, garnets, and agates, along with ornaments made of gold and pearls,
were available in Ayilnattu, the northern region. These gems were also found in Pakistan.
Amar Nath and Ramakrishnan have mentioned that these gems were imported in ancient
times (Aavani Magazine, Page 80). Rajan, in his study of the ancient Tamil texts, has stated
that Kannadi manis (a type of gem) found in the musiri district were considered as one type
of gem (Tollyal Nokkil Sangakalam, Page 20). This implies that the gems known as Karnelian
gems originated from the Gujarat region. Other gems like Kangayam, Manikkollai, and Pasi
Kollai were also found in different regions. These gems were known to be employed in
various professions. Furthermore, Malaiyavannakan and Maniyavannakan, who were
experts in evaluating gems, lived in the Arachalur region (Tamil-Prami Kalvettagal, Page
616-617). Therefore, they could be considered as gem experts. Additionally, Arachalur's
Malaiyavannakan, who resides in the hilly region of Kurinji, is known for identifying the raw
materials of gems. Thus, gem merchants could have existed during that time. The term
"Malaiyavannakan" is mentioned in the Kurinjipattu, a rich collection of Sangam poems.
Note: The translation may not capture the poetic nuances of the original Tamil text.

Vannakkan

The term "Vannakkan" is found in several Sangam literature songs as the name of many
poets. It is mentioned in the following verses: Natrinai - 365, Kurunthogai - 81, 159, 278, 314,
366, Natru - 299, Puram - 198.

1. Puthukkayathu Vannakkan Kambur Kilan (Natru - 294)

2. Vannakkan Sorumaramgumaranar (Natru - 287)
3. Vannakkan Peyan (Perungathai)
4. Vitturru Vannakkan Taththanar (Natru - 298)
5. Vatamavannakkan Dhamodharanar (Kurunthogai - 85, Puram - 172)
6. Vatamavannakkan Peri Chathanar
7. Vatamavannakkan Perunjathanar (Puram - 125, Natru - 305, 372)
8. Vatamavannakkan Veri Chathanar (Kurunthogai - 278)
9. Vatamavannakkan Periya Chathanar (Puram - 98)

According to the Tamil Lexicon, the term "Vannakkan" can be interpreted as someone who is
skilled in writing inscriptions on stones or someone who is involved in sculpting and
engraving on stones. They are associated with the trade of gold, gems, and coins, and are
considered experts in evaluating their worth. Additionally, the mentioned individuals like
Vatamavannakkan Dhamodharanar and Vatamavannakkan Pori Chathanar are known to
have hailed from the northern region and are associated with the trade of the northern lands.
They might have been merchants, skilled artisans, or scholars. The inscriptions indicate that
Vatamavannakkan Peri Chathanar, Perunjathanar, Veri Chathanar, and Periya Chathanar are
alternative names referring to the same person. They were likely associated with the
northern region, engaged in trade and economic activities. These inscriptions suggest that
during the Sangam period, valuable goods such as gems, stones, and coins were imported
from Gujarat and transformed into valuable ornaments in the southern region. Vannakkan
Kammars, who are involved in metalwork, are mentioned as well. They are known to have
worked with gold and other metals, contributing to the prosperity of the ancient Tamil society.

Regarding the significance of gemstones:

Gemstones were highly valued during the Sangam era, and they were transformed into
various forms, such as beads and pendants. The gemstones were cut into small pieces and
polished to create intricate designs or set in different structures. Some gems were also
shaped into beads, resembling pearls. The gemstones used during this period include coral,
emerald, and sapphire. They were cut into various shapes, such as rectangles, squares, or
oval, and were used in jewelry making. Some gems were also used for medicinal purposes.
Gemstones found in Kannadi Manis, a type of bead, were mainly carnelian, agate, and beryl.
These gems were believed to possess various properties and were used for their healing
and metaphysical properties.

The Tamil Nadu region, particularly the hilly and forested areas, is known to be rich in
gemstone deposits. Gemstones such as jasper, agate, and moonstone have been found in
abundance in the region. Kannadi Manis, which are made of gemstones, were found in large
numbers in the city of Kanchipuram. These gemstones were shaped into various forms,
including cylindrical and biconical, and were strung together to create jewelry pieces. The
gemstones used in Kannadi Manis varied in color, including red, green, and blue.

Gemstone work required specialized skills and was carried out by skilled artisans known as
Vannakkan Kuinyars, Thirumanikkam Kuyinars, or metalworkers involved in the
manufacturing of intricate jewelry. They were skilled in cutting gemstones and shaping them
according to specific requirements. Some gemstones were shaped into beads, while others
were engraved with intricate designs or used in the creation of figurines. These artisans were
known for their expertise in handling gemstones and were highly valued for their
craftsmanship.

The descriptions provided in the ancient texts suggest that gemstones played a significant
role in the economy and cultural practices of the Sangam era. The gemstone industry
involved various specialized artisans, and their skills contributed to the flourishing trade and
artistic development of the time.
Translation to English:

"Kuyinar" refers to individuals in the Sangam period who were known for handling gems,
being jewelers, and working with pearls. They are also referred to as "Kuyirtnar" in Sangam
literature.

Characteristics of Gems:

In Tamil Nadu, various types of gems have been identified in different contexts, such as in
burial sites, ancient settlements, manufacturing sites, and megalithic structures. For the
production of various types of gems, specialized workshops were required during the
Sangam period. Among them, the gemstone industry in Kondur has been recognized as the
best in terms of lapidary skills. Gems found in Kondur can be classified into four types:

1. Vatta Vativam (round cut)

2. Peepai Vativam (teardrop cut)
3. Irugumppu Vativam (oval cut)
4. Kol Vativam (rose cut)

These gemstones, especially those of high quality, are adorned with white-colored
ornamental facets. The round-cut gems, which are the most common, have a diameter of 8
mm for small gems, 5 mm for medium-sized gems, and 12 mm for large gems. The thickness
of these gems is about 2.3 mm. They have simple and elegant white-colored facets.
However, within a gemstone, various types of cuts can be found, such as some with curved
edges, some with curved edges inside the gem, square shapes within square cuts, two
triangular cuts within a square-shaped gem, and two diamond-shaped cuts within a gem with
curved edges. These are examples of gemstone cuts and facets seen during the Sangam
period. Peepai Vativam gems are known for their intricate designs and are adorned with
various ornamental facets. Irugumppu Vativam gems, with their white-colored facets, are
found in different sizes, including small, medium, and large. Some gems have three equal
cuts, while others have two equal cuts. In some gems, an additional triangular cut is found
alongside the two equal cuts. Gems of the Kol Vativam type are also adorned with
white-colored facets. The Sangam people used these gems to modify and enhance their
original gemstones. Today, various types of gemstones with different cuts are found in places
like Karur, Kangeyam, Kondur, and Unjalur. Karur Amaravati excavation has yielded
numerous corundum gems of different cuts. However, a gemstone with a complete Vatta
Vativam is yet to be discovered. A gemstone in Vatta Vativam cut is a small-sized gem with a
beautiful fish-eye pattern. Both sides of the gemstone have one facet. The diamond-shaped
facet is found in gemstones made of corundum, and gems with a diamond-shaped facet are
found in gemstones made of other materials. These gemstones were also used in various
applications such as ornaments, tools, and amulets. Therefore, these gemstones were not
only important for gem artisans but also for craftsmen working with metals such as iron, gold,
and bronze. According to Rajan (Tolkappiyam Nokkil Sangakalam, p. 20), gemstones were
used to produce a wide range of objects by the ancient Tamils, such as tools, jewelry, and
amulets. Gemstones played a significant role in shaping the civilization during the Sangam
period. They were used in various trades and were highly valued.

Gemstone-Related Objects:

These gemstones are mentioned in ancient Tamil songs called "Manisei Mandai" (Puram
105:5). Gemstones were also used to embellish garments, and they were attached to gold
ornaments, earrings, necklaces, and rings of various designs. These gemstones were not
only used as decorative elements but were also connected to the crafts of goldsmiths,
blacksmiths, and nail-makers. Additionally, gemstones were used as currency, traded with
foreign lands, and incorporated into amulets and jewelry. Therefore, gemstones were not
only significant for gem artisans but also for blacksmiths, goldsmiths, nail-makers, and
traders. The Sangam period witnessed the creation of exquisite gemstone-based crafts, such
as gem-encrusted swords, gem-studded armor, gem-adorned bracelets, and gem-embedded
crowns. The Sangam-era coins featured images of gemstones, and gemstones were
recognized as valuable commodities.

Types of Gems

In various forms found in the gemstone-bearing regions of the mountainous areas, gems
were mined and polished in ancient times to create exquisite jewelry. In this region, there are
several establishments that specialize in cleaning and processing gems, which were
abundant during ancient times. In addition to blue sapphires, green emeralds, rubies, and
black diamonds are predominantly found in this area. Gold and silver coins are also found in
large quantities in this region. Blue agate, blue stone, agate stone, carnelian, and other gems
have been obtained from the Nilgiri region and transported to foreign countries. In addition, in
this region, carnelian gems have also been discovered. Cat's eye gems, stone-cutting
techniques, diamond stones, green stones, reading stones, blue stones, pearls, and rubies
have also been identified. The gemstone known as "cornelian" has been found from the
Nilgiris, and it is called "kadalneela pachchai" (blue-green). In the Kongu region, kadalneela
pachchai stones are still being extracted. In ancient times, this stone was mined in large
quantities in the Sangam period. The Kongu region is known for its kadalneela pachchai
gemstone in the paleontological study. This gemstone was especially abundant during the
Sangam period. In the literary context, the term "gems" is commonly used to refer to the
kadalneela pachchai stone. When a town was given to a person during ancient times, it was
generally accompanied by the granting of meenpada kanchanai (gold coin), thenpada varai
(honey-producing land), and ponpada kuttam (a piece of land with a golden chute). In
general, when a town was granted as a donation in ancient Tamil Nadu, the expectation was
that it would include meenpada kanchanai, thenpada varai, and maanpada katu
(deer-infested forest). However, in the teachings of Lord Murugan, ponpada kuttam is
specifically mentioned. This indicates that the term refers to the kadalneela pachchai stone.
It is believed to have originated from the Suranga stone quarry. Therefore, when a town was
given as a donation, it would also become part of the Kongu region. In the Kongu region,
kadalneela pachchai stones have been found in Erode, Kodumudi, Karur, Tirukkampuliur,
and Alagarkovil. These gems have been found in various countries through trade routes
originating from the coastline. The gemstone known as "Carnelian" has been found in
Anaimalai, Kodumudi, Karur, Tirukkampuliur, and Alagarkovil. It is worth noting that these
gems are not found in many parts of Tamil Nadu. These stones are mainly imported from
Eelam (Sri Lanka) and processed for export. According to Periplous of the Erythraean Sea,
the region of Punnaattu, known as Puhar during the Sangam period, was where carnelian
gems were obtained (Pandya, Personal Communication). Carnelian gems have been found
in Andhra Pradesh, particularly in the Pattipulumiyoo temple, where they are used for ritual
purposes (mentioned in Sangam texts). However, in Lord Murugan's teachings, it is
specifically mentioned as "ponpada kuttam" (land with a golden chute). This gemstone is
associated with the extraction of carnelian gems from the coastal areas. Kangaanoor,
Kodaumudi, Karur, Thirukkampuliyur, and Alagarkovil are some of the towns where this
gemstone has been found. The carnelian gemstone is found in the Kongu region, particularly
in the areas of Karur and Kuttuvilakku. It is also found in Kangayam in the Coimbatore
district. In addition to Tamil Nadu, the carnelian gemstone is also found in other states. In
Andhra Pradesh, it has been found in places like Anantapur and Guntur (Sami, cited in
Sangam texts, Gems, Page 10). Furthermore, in the literary works, the term "gems" is often
used to refer specifically to carnelian gems. The Kongu region is known for its abundance of
carnelian gems, particularly in the Salem district. The carnelian gemstone has been found in
Pattipuram, a town in the Kongu region. It is also found in other areas such as Uthaiyur and
Kodumudi (Kodumudi quarry, Page 96). Even today, carnelian gems are being extracted in
the Kongu region of Tamil Nadu and in the Kangeyam area. In Tamil Nadu, the production of
carnelian gems is particularly high in these regions. The gemstones are transported from the
mining areas in the Cauvery Valley to cities like Mysore and beyond. The Chinduveli people
consider carnelian gems to be of great significance and value. Carnelian gems are rarely
found in the Kodaumudi region, which is known for its other gemstones. The Uthaiyur and
Karur regions also have a significant presence of carnelian gems (Kodumudi quarry, Page
96). Even today, carnelian gems are being extracted in the Kongu region of Tamil Nadu and
in the Kangeyam area. Carnelian gems are abundant in the coastal regions of Tamil Nadu
and are often obtained from cities such as Chennai and Madurai. They are mainly mined in
the coastal areas, including in the Cauvery Valley. Carnelian gems are found in large
quantities in Tamil Nadu, particularly in the regions of Salem and the Kongu region. They are
of high value among gemstones. Carnelian gems were mined and sold by merchants

The text you provided appears to be in the Tamil language. Here's the English translation:

"Types of Gemstones

Gemstones are found in various forms in different regions within the diamond-producing
areas. In ancient times, gemstones were mined, cut, and polished to create exquisite jewelry.
In this region, blue sapphire, emerald, ruby, and black diamond are predominantly found.
Gold coins and silver coins are also abundantly available in this area. Blue sapphires,
emeralds, and pearls, which are known for their beauty and shine, have been exported to
foreign countries. Additionally, cornelian gemstones have also been identified in this region.
Cat's eye gemstones, moonstones, coral stones, green gemstones, topaz gemstones,
neelakanta stones, diamond, and sapphire gemstones have also been discovered.

Blue-Green Gemstone

The blue-green gemstone is currently being mined in the Kangeyam region. During the
Sangam period, this gemstone was extensively mined. Kangeyam region is known for the
production of blue sapphire gemstones. According to historical records, this gemstone was
primarily mined from the Nilgiri Hills and used in temples and royal palaces. The gemstone
was believed to possess divine properties and was highly regarded. Even today, when a
town is established in Tamil Nadu, it is common to find blue sapphire gemstones, emeralds,
and pearls. However, the Tirumurugan Poondi gemstone is specifically associated with the
region. It is considered to be a rare gemstone obtained from the blue-green gemstone mine.
This gemstone holds significance as it is associated with the sacred town of Kangeyam. The
gemstone is also known as Kangeyam Green Chandra Kanthakal.

Gomedha Gemstone

During the Sangam period, Gomedha gems were found in the town of Punnaatu. Gomedha
gemstones are characterized by their blue color. These gems were primarily extracted from
the Sangam region. They were also found in the Pandya kingdom, specifically in the areas
surrounding Meenpadugai, Thenpaduvary, Maanpadugatam, and Ponpadugai. Tamil
literature mentions these gems as Gomedha gems. However, Thirumurugan Pillai states that
Gomedha gemstones were primarily found in Kangeyam. These gems are often associated
with Purnaadi and mentioned in the Sangam literature.

Red Coral

Red coral is one of the most valuable gemstones among all gemstones. It is abundantly
found in Kangeyam and Kongunadu. The gems were manufactured and sold as gemstones.
Thirukkambuli Yur, Azhagarkoil, Karur, Uraiyoor, Azhagankulam, Arikkamedu, and Kodumal
are some of the towns where red coral gemstones are found. These gemstones are exported
to various countries.

Uthanirokekal

Uthanirokekal gemstones are found in abundance in Kongunadu and Tamil Nadu.

Gemstones were transported from the coastal cities to major cities such as Mysore.
Sindhuvalli in Coimbatore is known for its rich deposits of Uthanirokekal gemstones.
Gemstones are also found in Uraiyoor and Karur (Kodumal Quarry). Kangeyam is another
region where Uthanirokekal gemstones are extensively mined.

Manikkam (Ruby)
Ruby gemstones are found in the mountains and hilly regions. They are considered one of
the most precious gemstones. Ancient scholars mentioned the use of rubies during the
Sangam period. The gemstones were used in various forms by kings. Ruby gemstones are
found in the hills of Kollimalai. Scholars state that the most significant source of rubies in
Tamil Nadu is the Salem region. The gemstones are found in abundance in Salem,
Kuthuvilakku, and nearby areas. The forehead of the stone resembles the royal insignia on
the head of the king. The forehead is found in the region of Chengol, and a tree stands
behind the king. This can be seen in Rajaraja's Kasu, a coin depicting the king's head. The
head of the king can also be observed in front of the ruby stone. The gemstone is located at
the top of the forehead, which symbolizes the majesty of the king. It is believed to be a rare
gemstone found in the Malaimalai region. Tamil Nadu's prestigious teacher, Uromar K.P.,
states that rubies were mainly found in Salem, including the town of Sankari (Sangam
Literature, Gems, Page 33). Gemstones were found in large quantities in Koyamputhoor,
particularly the Kangeyam region (Gems in Tamil Nadu, Page 33). Uromar KP also mentions
that Uthanirokekal gemstones were found in Salem, one of the prominent towns in Tamil
Nadu (Kodumal Quarry, Page 96). Even today, Uthanirokekal gemstones are being mined in
the Kangeyam region."

Please note that while I have provided a translation to the best of my abilities, there may be
some variations or nuances in the meaning of certain terms or phrases.

Blue sapphires

Blue sapphires are found in various regions of Tamil Nadu, including Salem, as well as in
Kerala and in the Kaveri River basin. During that time, in the eastern region, high-quality blue
sapphires were mainly obtained through the ports of Musiri and Thondi, which served as
trade routes to the northern regions. Eminent scholars such as Thalami and Kasmus have
also mentioned the abundance of high-quality blue sapphires found in the eastern region of
Eelam. Blue sapphires obtained in countries such as Burma and Siam, which are Southeast
Asian countries, also reached Tamil Nadu through trade routes during the first and second
centuries. This was recorded by Greek and Roman scholars. Blue sapphires were used for
ornamental purposes by the upper class. Roman emperors adorned themselves with blue
sapphires (as mentioned in Sangam literature, Manikkal, page 27). Blue sapphires were
produced extensively for trade. The Kongo Nadu gem mines gained immense popularity. The
production of gemstones in Kongo Nadu, particularly in Kodal and its surroundings, created a
great spectacle. Kodal is famous for producing gem-quality corundum, known as "Kodal
Stone." These gemstones were used as currency in the form of beads. These gemstone
trade routes flourished through the connection between the Chola region and the Kaveri
River delta, forming a trade network.

Palingu

Palingu, a type of gemstone, is mentioned in Sangam literature. Palingu was considered a

precious stone that resembled a sapphire found in the Kaveri River basin. Palingu is known
to have been found in both Tamil Nadu and Kerala, as indicated in the following verses:

"Kaliurporak karaintha kayavaang kundukarai

Oli ruvan palingodu sempon minnunga
Karunkaan yaarru anjuzhuli vazhungu" (Natrinai 292: 5-7)

"Paliungu Sori Vanna Paaychunai Kudaivuli" (Kurinji 57-58, Malai 515-518)

Palingu was also used as a currency in trade. References to the use of Palingu in jewelry
can be found in literature. Palingu stones, which were oval in shape, were often used in
jewelry. These types of gems were mentioned in texts, specifically during the decline of the
Indus Valley Civilization. They were referred to as Bachi Mani or Bachi Stones. These gems
were found in Paliungu, the riverbeds, and the sea. They were mentioned in the following
verses:

"Kadathith Pitavin Thotaikulai Seikkum

Vaan Palingu Viraiyay Sempone Minnum
Karunkaan yaarru anjuzhuli vazhungu" (Paditrup 66:17-18)

"Kaliurporak karaintha kayavaang kundu karai

Oli ruvan palingodu sempon minnunga
Karunkaan yaarru anjuzhuli vazhungu" (Agam 5)

The significance of Palingu is emphasized in these songs. Palingu stones were also found in
Paliungu Payatru and in other parts of the region. These gems were used as decorative
elements in jewelry and were considered auspicious. Along with the Sangam region, Palingu
stones were also found in other regions, including Gujarat and Maharashtra. Pliny the Elder,
a Roman author, wrote about the presence of Palingu stones originating from the Sangam
region and being extracted from the gravel beds (as mentioned in Sangam literature,
Manikkal, page 11). Palingu is believed to have been produced in India, and it was extracted
from the Sangam region. The production and trade of these gemstones were
well-documented. However, there is no specific literature available on the trade of these
gemstones. Nevertheless, they played a significant role in the economy, trade, and
craftsmanship of the ancient Tamil people.

Padikakal (Reading Stones)

Padikakal (reading stones) are abundant in Kongu Nadu. They are predominantly found in
Coimbatore, Karur, and other regions. The reading stones are made of carnelian agate and
are commonly referred to as "Keezhadi Akazhai" (bottom-stones). They are used as counting
beads and are often seen in books. These reading stones are considered a significant
archaeological find. These stones were commonly used in the manufacture of seals and are
mentioned in the Sangam literature. These reading stones are still found in Kangeyam,
Karur, Anaimalai, and Thirukkampuliyur.

Gemstone Trade

Gemstones, including blue sapphires, were produced extensively. Tamil Nadu served as a
hub for the production of various gemstones that were then distributed to other regions for
trade. Apart from their cultural and artistic significance, these gemstones played a crucial
role in the economic development and trade of Tamil Nadu. They were produced in large
quantities, particularly in the jewelry and gemstone industry. The gemstones, along with silk,
were important commodities traded with foreign countries. Gemstones were also produced in
countries such as Afghanistan, and their trade reached Tamil Nadu through the Silk Road
(Tamil Wikipedia: Keezhadi Excavation). The literary evidence suggests that these
gemstones were integral to the socio-economic status of the ancient Tamil people, the
flourishing trade routes, and the establishment of commercial centers.

Please note that this translation is based on the provided text, and there may be variations in
interpretations and translations by different sources.
"Tharkalathil kalmangal"

In the contemporary art scene, various types and colors of gems like pearl, pink coral,
amethyst, crystal, aquamarine, green kalmangal, sunstone, black star, aventurine, iolite,
kakkanilam, kogolite, blue kalmangal, ruby, carnelian, red spinel, white chandrakangal, and
arur can be seen.

Among these, Arur and Karuppu kalmangal (black kalmangal) are exported to China as raw
materials and processed into gemstones. Labradorite is a popular export item. These gems,
like during the Sangam period, continue to be highly valued in both domestic and
international trade. Currently, Tamil Nadu has around 50 gem-related industries. The value of
these industries has been decreasing since ancient times.

Conclusion:

During the Sangam period, various industries thrived after the production of different goods.
Gems played a crucial role in the production of jewelry, among other products. The demand
for gems in the foreign and domestic markets was high during that time. This led to the
growth of certain regions and the decline of others in terms of trade and economic
development. Ancient Greek and Roman literature and archaeological evidence provide
substantial information about this. Different types of gems, such as gold-mani (gold-gem),
sembu-mani (copper-gem), thol-mani (lead-gem), suduman-mani (silver-gem), and
irumpu-mani (iron-gem), were produced along with other products. The need for raw
materials in countries beyond the borders of present-day India contributed to the initial period
of international trade. The trade between foreign and domestic markets flourished during the
Sangam period, benefiting the traders. Such evidence is found in the form of trade-related
sections in Sangam literature and other historical sources.

References:

1. Alaguthi, Tamil Nadu Toliyal Sannrugal (Tamil), Volume IV, Arumugam, Thanal Etxumi
Publications, Thanjavur (2008).
2. Aavannam (Toliyal) Ithazhakal 1-27, Tamil Palkalai Kalligal, Tamil Palkalai Kallagam,
Thanjavur (2017).
3. Sangha Kaalam, 2001, Tholporul Ayvagam, Kamadchi Tamil Palkalai Kallagam, Thanjavur
(2017).
4. Keeladi Aghayvu (Tamil Wikipedia, 2014: Online).
5. L.P., Sanga Noolgalil Manigal, Sami, Ulagat Tamil Araychi Niyavanam, Chennai (1980).
6. Tamil Palakai Valagatil Ayvuvu (2008: Online). (www.tamiluniversity.org)
7. Kodumanal Aghayvu Siru Velieedu, Thulasiraman, Tamil Palkalai Kallagam, Thanjavur
(1988).
8. Kangayam: (Kala Ayvum) Kalpattarai, Babu V., Kala Ayvum Mekondapothu (2017).
9. Tholliyal Nekkil Sangakalam, Rajan, K., Ulagat Tamil Araychi Niyavanam, Chennai (2010).

Evolution of Currencies
The need for currency arose with the development of human civilization and the growth of
trade and commerce. When human activities were limited to family or group interactions,
their needs were minimal. However, as they engaged in conflicts with other groups, their
needs increased. Consequently, they began to establish individual kingdoms by conquering
other groups. This led to the emergence of currencies as a means to facilitate trade and
exchange. In order to fulfill their needs, people started acquiring and distributing goods
through a barter system. In the process, they realized the importance of standardizing the
value of goods and began to use items such as salt, ghee, and rice as forms of currency.
The exchange of land and ornaments during this period caused difficulties due to the equal
exchange value required. This led to the introduction of a standardized form of currency.

During the Vedic period, the people who lived near the river Ganges developed their
livelihood based on agricultural produce. To facilitate the exchange of goods, they introduced
the barter system, known as "Tachinai" or "Kodai." During this time, ornaments and
agricultural produce served as currencies. This practice of using commodities as currency
was prevalent in many countries, including ancient Rome and China. In Tamil Nadu, the term
"Maadu" was used to denote wealth. The exchange of goods and the use of commodities as
currency became common during this period.

However, with the advent of urbanization and the expansion of trade, the need for a more
standardized and convenient form of currency grew. Precious metals such as gold, silver,
and copper began to be used as currencies. This allowed for easier transactions and
ensured the uniformity of value across different regions. The usage of coins made of these
metals, such as "Nishkam," "Sathamānam," and "Swarnam," became prevalent during this
time. These coins were instrumental in simplifying trade and commercial activities. However,
the process of exchanging goods for coins posed challenges, as it required mutual consent
between buyers and sellers. This led to the introduction of the concept of "double
co-incidence of wants," where both parties involved in a transaction should have a mutually
desired item. This further facilitated the widespread use of currencies as a medium of
exchange.

In conclusion, the evolution of currencies can be attributed to the changing needs and
practices of human civilization. The transition from barter systems to the use of commodities
and eventually to standardized forms of currency enabled the growth of trade and
commerce. Currencies provided a common measure of value and allowed for the easy
exchange of goods and services.
In ancient India, during the 8th century AD, the first coins were believed to have been issued
by a ruler named "King Krishas" of the Lidiya nation. Initially, these coins were made of
high-value materials such as gold and silver. Later, coins were issued in various parts of the
world.

Indian Coinage History:

The history of Indian coinage can be traced back to the 6th century BC. Prior to that, barter
systems were prevalent. The Harappans, the Indus Valley Civilization, and the Egyptians
traded using a proper weight system and cowrie shells as currency.

Coinage of the Vedic Aryans (1500-600 BC):

The urbanization of the Vedic Aryans took place around the banks of the River Ganges. They
transitioned from a pastoral economy to a settled agricultural economy. During the Vedic
period, coins such as Nishka, Sathamanam, and Swarna were mentioned in the Vedas,
indicating the use of coins with specific weights. These coins could have been valuable in
terms of weight and may have also served as ornaments. These coins were mainly used by
the merchants of the Pandya, Chera, and Chola dynasties, who engaged in trade with the
Harappans, the Egyptians, and other countries.

6th Century BC:

In the 6th century BC, the utilization of iron in coinage led to the introduction of various new
coin types and minting techniques. Along with them came the usage of punch-marked coins.
These coins were made of gold, silver, and copper, with gold being the most common
material.

Coinage in Tamil Nadu:

Punch-marked coins were also found in Tamil Nadu. They were discovered in various places
such as Karur, Coimbatore, Mamallapuram, Tondaimandalam, and Pondicherry. These coins
were associated with the Sangam age, Pandya, Chera, and Chola dynasties. They featured
intricate designs and were minted in gold, silver, and copper. The coins issued by the
Pandya kings, known as "Peruzhazhi," and those with inscriptions like "Kollipurai,"
"Kollirumburai," and "Makkotai" by the Chera kings, along with the coins minted by other
rulers, were abundant during the Sangam age. They played a significant role in the history of
Tamil Nadu.

Starting from the 4th century BC and until 1867 AD, various rulers in Tamil Nadu issued their
own coins. In the Sangam era, coins known as "Sangam Kalathu Tamilaga Kasu" were
prevalent in Karur, Kaveri Delta, and Kovilpatti. These coins were associated with the
Sangam age and were marked with symbols such as a tiger, elephant, horse, or a temple
tree. Additionally, coins minted by certain rulers like Athiran Ethernan, an earlier Chola king,
were also discovered. These coins were inscribed with the names "Peruvazhuthi" and
"Kollipurai," among others, and were of great importance. Pallavas, Medieval Cholas,
Pandya, Vijayanagara, and Nayak rulers also minted and inscribed coins, resulting in a rich
variety of coinage found in Tamil Nadu.

During the Sangam era, the elephant coin held prominence among the Sangam-age coins.
Previously, it was believed that the elephant coin was the only human figure found on Chola
coins. However, recent discoveries have revealed the presence of human figures on some
Chola coins.

In conclusion, the history of coins in India is extensive and dates back to ancient times. From
the issuance of high-value metal coins to the introduction of punch-marked coins and the
development of various coin types by different rulers, Indian coinage has evolved
significantly over the centuries.

Translation:
"Koondhal" means "hair" in English.

She adorned her flowing hair with a crown of jasmine flowers.

She adorned her lustrous hair with kathoori (a fragrant oil) and performed the ritual of a
married woman.

She adorned her beautiful hair with a unique arrangement of flowers, jewelry, ornaments,
and a sacred mark on her forehead.
She adorned her hair with a majestic and intricate hairstyle, using a traditional sembanchu
(hairpin) with five prongs.

Kaal (Feet)

She adorned her toenails with intricate patterns.

She adorned her feet with anklets, bells, musical instruments, and gemstone-studded
ornaments.

Idai (Waist)

She adorned her waist with a decorative belt.

Her waist was adorned with a waistband made of thirty-two types of pearls and a beautiful
silk sash.

Thol (Shoulders)

She adorned her shoulders with a necklace that resembled a garland of pearls.

Thol (Breasts)

She adorned her breasts with a garland made of fresh flowers.

Thol (Waist)

She adorned her waist with a belt made of gemstones and a beautiful peacock feather.

Thol (Neck)

She adorned her neck with a garland made of precious gemstones and a pearl necklace.

Thol (Forehead)

She adorned her forehead with an intricate and beautiful design, resembling the crescent
moon.

Thol (Cheeks)

She adorned her cheeks with red and golden-colored ornaments.

Thol (Eyes)

She adorned her eyes with dark, captivating eye makeup and long, curved eyelashes.

Thol (Lips)

She adorned her lips with a smile, resembling the redness of coral.

Thol (Chin)

She adorned her chin with a delicate, decorative design.

Thol (Teeth)

She adorned her teeth with a bright, radiant smile.

Thol (Tongue)

She adorned her tongue with sweet and melodious words.

Thol (Voice)

She adorned her voice with a melodious tone.

Thol (Nose)

She adorned her nose with a beautiful, sparkling nose ring.

Thol (Ears)

She adorned her ears with earrings made of precious gems and adorned her earlobes with
decorative chains.

Thol (Cheeks)

She adorned her cheeks with a rosy blush and a radiant smile.

Thol (Neck)

She adorned her neck with a garland made of fragrant flowers.

Thol (Arms)

She adorned her arms with bracelets made of gold and adorned her wrists with bangles
made of colorful stones.

Thol (Fingers)
She adorned her fingers with rings made of precious gemstones.

Thol (Nails)

She adorned her nails with intricate designs using henna.

Thol (Feet)

She adorned her feet with anklets made of silver, creating a pleasant sound with each step.

These descriptions illustrate the traditional adornments and beauty rituals that were common
in ancient Tamil culture.

Ship industry
During the Sangam era in Tamil Nadu, which lasted from around 300 BCE to 300 CE, the
shipbuilding industry played a crucial role in the maritime trade and economy of the region.
The Tamils, who had a strong maritime tradition, excelled in shipbuilding and navigation,
which facilitated their extensive overseas trade with various kingdoms in Southeast Asia, the
Mediterranean, and the Far East.

The shipbuilding industry in Tamil Nadu was highly developed and sophisticated during the
Sangam period. The Tamil texts, such as the Tolkappiyam and the Pattinappalai, provide
valuable insights into the construction and design of ancient Tamil ships. The ships were
mainly made from wood, and various types of timber were used, including teak, kadamba,
and sandalwood. These woods were known for their durability and resistance to water.

The construction process of the ships involved skilled craftsmen and artisans. They
employed advanced techniques, such as joining planks together using mortise and tenon
joints, and binding them with ropes and coir fiber. The ships were built with a curved hull
design, which made them sturdy and capable of withstanding rough seas. They also had a
high stern and bow, providing stability and protection against waves.

The ships of Tamil Nadu during the Sangam era were diverse in size and purpose. Some
were small fishing boats used for coastal fishing and inland navigation, while others were
large cargo vessels designed for long-distance trade. The larger ships had multiple decks
and compartments for storage, living quarters for the crew, and even facilities for cooking
and sleeping.

The ships were propelled by sails and oars. The sails, made of woven palm leaves or cotton
cloth, harnessed the power of the wind to propel the ships forward. The oars were used for
steering and maneuvering the vessels, especially in ports and narrow waterways. The Tamils
were skilled sailors who possessed navigational knowledge, including the use of stars and
celestial bodies for guidance.

The shipbuilding industry of Tamil Nadu also involved the production of various maritime
equipment and tools. Blacksmiths and metalworkers crafted anchors, hooks, and other metal
fittings for the ships. Ropemakers produced ropes and rigging materials using natural fibers
like coir, jute, and hemp. These essential items ensured the safe and efficient operation of
the ships.

The flourishing ship industry of Tamil Nadu during the Sangam period facilitated extensive
maritime trade and cultural exchange. The Tamils engaged in trade with regions like Rome,
Egypt, China, Southeast Asia, and the Persian Gulf, exporting commodities such as spices,
textiles, pearls, and precious stones. They also imported goods like gold, silver, silk, horses,
and luxury items.

The shipbuilding industry not only contributed to the economic prosperity of Tamil Nadu but
also played a vital role in the spread of Tamil language, culture, and religious beliefs to
distant lands. Tamil merchants and sailors acted as cultural ambassadors, carrying with them
the rich traditions and knowledge of their homeland.
In conclusion, the shipbuilding industry of Tamil Nadu during the Sangam era was a thriving
and advanced sector that supported the maritime trade and connectivity of the region. The
expertise in ship construction, navigation, and trade brought prosperity and cultural
exchange to the Tamils, making them prominent players in the ancient maritime world.