The Mechanics of Culture:

New Music in Hungary Since

Kati Agócs

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The Juilliard School Liszt Ferenc Music Academy, Budapest

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Introduction
This a paper aims to measure the pulse of Hungary’s new-music life in 2006, and in
particular to assess the impact of the change from a communist to a free-market system
upon the composition field. It presents an overview of a multi-layered and complex
subject. The delicateness and, at times, thorniness of the period prior to 1990 makes
truth and clarity elusive, and the musical life of the period since 1990 has hardly been
touched upon in writing. The chosen strategy is to eschew artistic assessments and
detailed musical discussion, and to focus upon the infrastructure of the composition
field in nine separate but interconnected areas, including an assessment of how changes
in the structure of the country and the field may have impacted new music up to the
present moment.
Research comprised interviews with Hungarian composers, analysis of their music,

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consultation with musicologists and “Now the audience can turn to another government support.4 Certain composers
music historians who specialize in
From State Support to a direction,” says composer Béla Faragó. cited “three different private firms” to
recent Hungarian music, and a review Free-Market System “They needed contemporary music less which they generally turn for support.
of the available written sources. For after 1989. There is more pop music, But Miklós Malek, a composer familiar
The dissolution of Soviet occupation and
the composer interviews, a fixed set of more radio and TV channels now – an with commercial-music side of the
the move to a democratic system and a
twenty questions served as a “litmus easier way for the masses to meet with field, reports that “the market here is
free-market economy brought significant
test” and entry point into key issues. The music. There are some grants [available like a little neighborhood compared to
changes in both amount and type of
interviewees, roughly forty in number, to composers], but there are no cultural America.” Foreigners have to some extent
government support to composers.
represent a cross-section of the field from programs against this phenomenon.”2 entered Hungary’s market, but Malek
Under communism, a core group of 30
novices born in the late 1980s up through The opposition between support characterizes it as a “tiny corner” of the
to 40 received support from the state
established composers in their 60s and for serious music and pop music, says world market.5
in the form of publishing, recording,
70s. They were overwhelmingly male; Péter Halász, is not as great as some In an era when the health of
performances, and commissioning. This
only two women composers participated composers represent it. He cites a specific contemporary music culture is in
support was blind both to the demands
in the study. Interviews were conducted controversy in 2005 when a government question in many areas of the world,
of the market and to the popularity of the
over email in the instances where minister claimed that Hungarian pop fifteen years may be insufficient for
music. In 1990 the possibility of applying
personal meetings were impossible. music is part of the national culture, and Hungarian government support to
for state grants opened up to a broader
Certain composers chose to elaborate therefore should be supported. “The evolve advantageously and for private
range of composers. One might surmise
significantly upon the given questions to original idea was to support these kinds of patronage and participation in the world
that the funds formerly disbursed by
shed light upon the intricacies of the field. [pop] groups actively. But instead of the market to gain footholds. Composers
the state should then have poured into a
Music historians and critics Péter Halász small groups in the cultural centers in the have had to master a whole new set of
new infrastructure that the artists would
and Zoltán Farkas, Fellows at the Music country, groups already in the business got skills unheard of to them before 1990.
develop for their allocation. In certain
Institute of the Hungarian Academy of the support.” He describes the premise The consensus that emerges is of a less
senses this somewhat naïve model is
Sciences, provided a lager critical context of supporting pop music as encouraging adept handling of the system change on
accurate, but adhering to it, one finds that
for the composers’ comments, filled in “active music-making,” in such a way as the part of composers than by other types
in reality much of the money evaporated.
the historical “cracks,” and offered an to engage a broader spectrum of people, of artists. Halász says that the changes in
Sixteen years later, a look through the
overview of the relevant literature. The since “not everyone will sing in a choir infrastructure had a “catastrophic effect”
Budapest concert calendar reveals twenty
generation born in the 1930s is well like Kodály wanted.”3 upon composers, “especially when you
or so concerts per month funded, at
documented in books by such authors as With the change to a free-market look at writers, artists, and the other
least partially, by national or local state
Imre Földes, Lászlo Dobzsay, and György economy came two other important branches of culture.” In other branches,
cultural funds. In the case of the National
Kroó, but these sources tend to stop at changes: Private support became viable, they “organized themselves much better
Cultural Fund, it is the “rate” of support
the late 1970s or early 1980s. Besides the and Hungary entered the world market. after the changeover of the regime
that has changed.1 But the disbursement
series of booklets on individual composers But private patrons or groups who than the composers.”6 The composers
of the funds also differs considerably,
published by Mágus and various reviews support the arts are “almost unheard agree: “Painters and visual artists made
since their allocation is now subject to
in Hungarian music periodicals, writings of” in Hungary, in contrast with a system for promoting themselves, but
the determining powers of a democratic
on Hungarian music from the last 25 Western countries with strong capitalist composers don’t like making business.
system. Many composers complain that
years are few. The music is touched upon traditions and bases of private support, In every country, there is no business in
the support that formerly went to new
in this paper’s final two sections, but a in addition to both national and regional
concert music has been redirected to
substantive account thereof is left for a
“könnyu zene” – light or pop music. 4 Ibid.
future monograph.
2 Béla Faragó. Interview. 26 March 2006. 5 Miklós Malek. Interview. 24 March 2006.
3 Péter Halász. Interview. 30 March 2006. 6 Péter Halász. Interview. 30 March 2006.
1 Zoltán Farkas. Interview. 30 March 2006.

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contemporary music.”7 “The generation socialism.12 Anyone perceived as a threat one blacklisted, as in the case of Jeney’s
that was in charge during the changeover was subject to censorship; new-sounding signing of a proclamation in support of
Politics, Music, and
wasn’t capable of handling it because they or “avante-garde” music might be Vačlav Havel in 1979. The blacklisting of Musical Politics
didn’t grow up with it.” 8 perceived as an ideological attack upon artists and intellectuals meant that many
In the political realm, the post-1990
the system. Thus the progressive music of only got top-ranking university jobs in
period is considerably more unstable
the New Music Studio13 was perceived to 1990 (some taught in their field but on a
Censorship have political or ideological implications. lower level, such as composition classes
and changeable than the preceding one.
Many composers report “something
The impact of censorship on composers Although music is a“hedonistic” art, for musicologists).17 Direct contact with
unspoken” – political affiliations that are
before the system change, and its dissidence in textless music was difficult students was considered by the regime
not talked about, but of which all are
residual effects afterwards, are by nature for the regime to define. The members to be threatening. That Jeney could be a
aware. Composers cited a sense that “if
enigmatic. Composer István Szigeti gives of the New Music Studio were allowed card-carrying member of the “New Music
one political party is in, their friends get
the example of “three Ts” that represent to do their work – according to Jeney, Studio of the Association of Communist
the opportunities”20 and that the change
the continuum of government response censorship did not influence his thought Youth,” and also be blacklisted through
in leadership every four years leads to
to artists under communism – “tiltott, processes when he wrote music14 – but the the 1980s, is a most apt paradox of the era.
“financial instability.”21 At the same time,
támogotott, tűrt (prohibited, supported, state wanted to monitor and control their A phenomenon of “reverse censorship”
out of those interviewed who answered
tolerated).9 Censorship in Hungary activities. They were compelled to join can be observed post-1990: One
the question, only 23 per cent say that
evolved considerably from the late 1950s the Communist Youth League in order composer of music for animated films
politics have an impact on their work
through the 1980s. “There was a slow to graduate successfully from the Music said that his life and career fell apart after
and career (77 per cent say that politics
overall loosening of control, with some Academy.15 Their music was published 1989 “because the Hungarian animated
have no impact). Most are reticent to get
politically well-defined points – such and released much later than that of some film industry fell apart,” and also because
involved directly with politics, and express
as the early 1970s – when this control of their contemporaries.16 The bizarre “my father was a communist, and so I
a desire to remain aloof. Few believe that
became stronger again. These changes fact remains that, through a personal was labeled a “bad person.”18 As regards
anything would change with the current
arose in the context of Hungarian politics contact with the conductor Albert Simon, censorship under the regime, the image
(2006) elections. Their music is rarely
and world politics.”10 One example of a the New Music Studio was part of the of someone sitting in a room with a score
directly inspired by politics.22
significant change is the appointment of Communist Youth Organization (KISZ), trying to determine its subversiveness is
In a small country like Hungary, where
István Láng, an “avante-garde” composer, which provided them with rehearsal and not altogether inaccurate. But the state
those active in a given field generally
to the leadership of the communist Music concert space. could only reach so far into the musical
know one another, inter-personal
Society in 1979.11 Non-musical activities could naturally realm. An anecdote from the late 1970s
connections are crucial. But integration
“Official” composers did not speak out impact a musician’s status with the describes a member of the musicians’
of national politics with those of the
against the state, and sometimes celebrated censors. Active, vocal opponents of the union visiting the ministry of culture with
music field has apparently declined since
communist ideals in works such as the regime could hardly get any work at all, a tape recorder. He plays an excerpt of a
1990. Politicians are not integrated into
“tömegdal” or songs on “propaganda” while less serious activities could get piece from the New Music Studio – Jeney
the “personal network” anymore for two
texts that agitated for work and or Sáry – saying, “You see, one cannot
tell that it is music. You must prohibit it.”
12 Ibid. 20 Zsolt Pethó´. Interview. 23 March 2006.
The communist minister replies, “That
7 Béla Faragó. Interview. 26 March 2006. 13 The members of the New Music Studio included Zoltán Jeney, 21 Antál Babits. Interview. 26 March 2006.
is a problem among musicians – I cannot
8 Tamás Beischer-Matyó. Interview. 24 March 2006. László Vidovszky, Zsolt Serei, László Sáry, Gyula Csapó, László Tihány, 22 One exception given by Jeney is the nationalist, “mystical” rock
help. You must solve it yourselves.”19
9 Istvan Szigeti. Interview. 24 March 2006. Szigeti adds that the and Barnabas Dukai, who joined their ranks slightly later. opera by Levente Szörényi, The People of Arpád, although a look at
prohibited art was generally pop or multimedia. 14 Zoltán Jeney. Interview, 6 April 2006. publicity for the opera reveals no direct sponsorship from -- or con-
10 Péter Halász. Interview. 31 March 2006. 15 Ibid. 17 Zoltán Jeney. Interview. 6 April 2006. nection to – a political party. Jeney also cites a general difference in
11 Zoltán Jeney. Interview, 6 April 2006. 16 Péter Halász. Interview. 30 March 2006. 18 Zsolt Pethó´. Interview. 23 March 2006. comportment between artists who support the “left” and the “right.”
19 Péter Halász. Interview. 30 March 2006. Zoltán Jeney. Interview. 9 March 2006.

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reasons: they don’t stay in power for 10 “most composers are completely satisfied”
or 15 years as before, and they are not as
Key Organizations with this system. “One who really does his
Publishing and Recording
interested in music. “The earlier regime Artisjus was formed in 1989 to distribute work can enter, with a handful of points, The impact of the change to a free
needed some representative qualities of royalty income among Hungary’s and then the process will start.”30 market system in Hungary is clearly
culture” to sustain it.23 At the same time, composers. They worked out a system Between present Hungarian musical evident in the publishing and recording
since “everybody is now his or her own entirely new to Hungary, despite some organizations and those of the communist industries. Fewer new Hungarian works
manager,”24 politics within the field have parallels with American performing era, the greatest difference is an increase are published now, and the nature of
grown even more important. Composers rights organizations. According to its in collectivity. Under communism, a the published works is different. Under
comment that “inter-personal connections chair, Máté Hollós, it has evolved into single composer (such as András Mihály communism, “official” composers were
have much to do with one’s position “a genuine society defending composers’ or Emil Petrovics) could determine the guaranteed to have their pieces, with
in musical life,” but that competition rights, thanks to which the members (and allocation of royalty income, those in the possible exception of larger stage
between them is not intense: it is “like a publishers) can count on more democratic power were immune to criticism. For works, published by the state-run Editio
frozen lake;”25 that the that field is divided decision-making in this institution of example, when Mihály ceased composing, Musio Budapest. Although that guarantee
into layers, with “a lot of fighting among cardinal importance for them.”28 nobody dared to diminish his number disappeared abruptly in 1990, the model
composers”26; that “composers don’t A system of points is employed to of points; the excuse was given that “his persists in composers’ minds and this
listen to each other – everyone is into allocate annual royalty income, which is hands are trembling, so unfortunately he makes adjustment difficult. Together
themselves,” and that “an aristocrat-class relatively low. Each composer possesses cannot compose.”31 Other organizations with the free market came a “catch-22”
controls everything.”27 Action on the a certain number of points; top ranking presently important to composers include operant in the publishing of concert
part of composers to remedy these composers, who have won the Kossúth the extensive computer database at the music everywhere: Its rate of return is
problems includes a musical forum called prize, have the maximum 80 points. A Budapest Music Center, the Hungarian neither as immediate nor as high as that
“Kortársakról Kortársaknak” (From small committee of five composers – three Copyright Company and the Composers of pop music; publishers fail to promote
Contemporaries to Contemporaries), from classical and two from pop music – Union – overlapping but separate composers’ works, and then turn around
recently organized through the Artisjus assesses the quality and importance of groups – and the Hungarian Music and complain that sales of their works are
organization. Designed to nurture a each composer’s work, and makes an Council, which sometimes makes artistic not sufficient to make publishing them
dialogue, it presents lectures by guest annual proposition to amend his number recommendations to the state. In 2000, worthwhile.
composers who take questions from an of points.29 A larger committee of 15 to 20 the Council issued a comprehensive print When Editio was sold to Ricordi in the
audience of both composers and a lay composers approves the proposals of the database of performing organizations, late 1990s, Zoltán Jeney – (president of
public. smaller committee. The actual monetary concert presenters, grants, and other the composers’ association at the time) –
value of a point changes commensurately aspects of Hungarian musical life.32 fought for a system that he had observed
with the total collective income. When in Scandinavia, by which the state would
somebody dies, their widow receives half hold a portion of the firm’s income in a
of their sum for life. According to Farkas fund for Hungarian composers to publish
their works. Two consecutive governments
23 Péter Halász. Interview. 31 March 2006 28 Máté Hollós, “With the Millennium is the Lot of Hungarian
promised to adopt this system, but
24 Béla Faragó. Interview. 26 March 2006 Composers Changing for the Better?” In Contemporary Music, 2000,
30 Ibid. ultimately that promise went unfulfilled.
25 Ibid. 14.
31 Zoltán Farkas. Interview. 30 March 2006. Presently Editio, like any publisher in the
26 Jenó´ Pertis. Interview. 25 March 2006. Mr. Pertis described a 29 The small committee of Artisjus, which rarely changes, now
32 As of March 2006, the print database issued by the Hungarian world, acts as a private firm: It handpicks
political conflict between globalization and nationalism that occurred consists of Máté Hollós, Iván Madarász, Miklós Sugár, and two “light
Music Council in 2000 had not been updated due to “laziness,” ac- its composers, promoting only a handful
about six years ago within the composition field. music” composers (János Bródy and one other). Zoltán Farkas.
cording to Eszter Vida of the Budapest Music Center, but she had been of Hungarians.33
updating it independently with the myriad changes that occurred in
27 Miklós Malek. Interview. 24 March 2006. Interview. 30 March 2006.
the various organizations within this relatively short time period. 33 Péter Halász. Interview. 31 March 2006.

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The last fifteen years have witnessed Program of the National Cultural Fund the restrictions loosening through the
the birth of a number of smaller
Commissioning, (NCF) which has helped to bring together 1960s.41 Thus composers who assembled
publishing houses, such as Akkord,34 Performances, and the ensembles and composers for the creation in secret to hear Stockhausen and Webern
and some composers consider this new Radio of new works.”40 The Budapest Spring in the late 1950s could travel to Vienna
diversity to be an advantage.35 There and Autumn Festivals also commission to buy scores by the mid-1960s,42 and
is an accompanying change in the types In conversation with composers, the works. Many “commissions” reported by many had performances abroad in the
of works published, however. The small model comes to light of the state having interviewees are from performers, with no 1980s. After 1990, grants from the Sörös
publishing houses publish more choral previously called upon them to work, but money involved. foundation and other sources facilitated
music, piano pieces, and chamber works now “waiting around, asking ‘why don’t The radio, as always relatively cultural exchange with the west.43
which are easier to prepare for publication they call me?’ 37 Some claim that there independent from the market, historically Despite a broadening and deepening
than orchestral works with greater graphic were more concerts and commissions made and broadcast many recordings interaction with the west, only a few
complexity. For the larger works, it is rare under the old regime; others say that of new music. The period since 1990 Hungarian composers have achieved
for composers to find a publisher. “If you there are more now. It is relatively rare for has witnessed many changes in its international stature. The careers of
look everywhere in the world, publishing composers to mount their own concerts. management. Composers claim that the three generally cited – György
possibilities have changed. A contract Faragó says that “nobody organizes their it used to be more of a cultural center, Kurtág, György Ligeti, and Péter
with a publishing house is not assured own concerts; everyone wants to gain the since the radio orchestra specialized in Eötvös – differed considerably. Kurtág,
[to most composers]. These are ways sponsorship or three large firms,” which contemporary music thorough the 1970s who remained at home through the
that Hungarian composers could learn, he likens to “a tap that turns on and off.” and 80s but no longer does. Its studio early 1990s, became known largely on
but I don’t think that they want to. They “Because there are no state concerts, facility for electro-acoustic music is still the basis of music that he had written in
complain about the loss of their publishing people can only organize when sponsors operant, but the technical facilities are no Hungary, but gained greater exposure
house, but they don’t do anything to work are there.”38 longer state-of-the-art. after he left the country. Ligeti, who had
against it,” says Halász.36 Some composers Commissions were more numerous left in 1956, had a kind of “homecoming”
have begun to self-publish. In general, it pre-1990. According to Máté Hollos, “the – (and reconciliation with the Hungarian
is much more common for composers to main customers in the previous decades Hungary in the authorities) – in 1978, but meanwhile
have music recorded by Hungaroton or were the Ministry of Culture, Hungarian International New-Music resided in Germany. Eötvös maintained
the radio and released on CD than for Television, the Hungarian Radio, and Sphere official terms with the authorities under
their scores to be published – although State (later National) Philharmonia. They Communism but developed an active
many interviewees, when asked if one may no longer have funds at their command.”39 With the opening of Hungary’s borders, conducting career abroad.44 Farkas cites
currently buy their CDs in Budapest, say Who is doing the commissioning now? composers could travel more freely than
no. “The metropolitan administration of before, and the flow of information and
41 Zoltán Farkas. Interview. 30 March 2006.
Budapest, the local authorities of other music to and from abroad grew more
42 Hungarian musicologist Anna Dalos is carrying out research
towns or possibly the orchestras managed profuse through the 1990s and the first
that will allow her to detect which new foreign pieces became known
by them may every now and then invite years of the 21st century. These factors
in Hungary during this period.
composers to create works; and most might presuppose both an increase in
43 Grants for travel and work abroad cited by composers in the
recently it has been the Local Composers foreign successes and a much greater
34 The publishing firm Akkord, as well as the Hungaroton recording survey include the Alban Berg scholarship in Vienna, The Kellner
range of foreign musical influences.
label, is run by composer Máté Hollós. Foundation in the US, and (most commonly) Fulbright and Sörös
Foreign music had been restricted up
35 For composer Jenó´ Pertis, the change from the exclusive Editio 37 Miklós Malek. Interview. 24 March 2006. Foundation fellowships.
to the late 1950s, with the severity of
to a multiplicity of smaller publishing houses is a positive one, and 38 Béla Faragó. Interview. 26 March 2006. 44 Péter Eötvös was a “special case” because of bad conscience
serves as “one example of politics. The boss used to be the minister. 39 Máté Hollos, “With the Millennium is the Lot of Hungarian on the part of the authorities with regard to his former teacher, Imre
Now there are alternatives.” Jenó´ Pertis. Interview. 25 March 2006. Composers Changing for the Better?” In Contemporary Music, 2000, 40 Ibid., page 11. Vince. Thus when he sought to study in Cologne in 1966, Ferenc Szabó
36 Péter Halász. Interview. 31 March 2006. 10.

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the foreign residence of these three homeland. This aspiration clearly derives of American composers younger than
composers – (besides their writing great from his nationalistic attitude.”47 Crumb or Reich suggests that perhaps
Musical “Hungarian-ness”
music) – as crucial to their gaining 85.7 percent of the composers Hungary is more musically isolated than National identity and the use of folk
international attention and prestige. 45 interviewed who responded to the many believe. elements in Hungarian music are closely
Halász explains their “transcendence” of question, when asked if they think that Hungarian composers, like many bound with the legacy of Bartók and
what it is possible to achieve from within Hungary is musically isolated, say no composers from other parts of Europe, Kodály. To come to terms with this
Hungary by way of the fact that they “live (only 14.3 percent says yes). International tend to absorb influences by “objectifying” influence and the “anxiety”51 that it arouses
in a different world and have different influences in their music have grown them. They are compelled to put a label is the greatest challenge (and certainly
people on their horizons.” He cites some more prevalent and heterogeneous in the on the style of those influences in order one of the greatest inspirations) facing
contemporary Hungarian writers, such as last fifteen years. The American music to come to terms with them conceptually Hungarian composers in the last century,
Eszterházy and Nadas, who have achieved which they cite as important or influential and to place their own work clearly in one that persists today. It is important to
this level of “transcendence” from within to their music is something of an indicator relation to them. In many instances this distinguish between deliberate attempts
Hungary, as Kurtág was able to do. “It as to their level of familiarity with foreign leads to a definition of what the music is to write “Hungarian” music, and
is a question of intellectual capacity -- it music. It is generally either George not, rather than what it is. In American unconscious manifestation of national
doesn’t matter where you live, it is who Crumb, Steve Reich (what they refer to as music, influences are generally absorbed characteristics on the part of composers.52
you are.”46 It is crucial to recognize that “repetitive” music), or progressive jazz.48 more fluidly and seamlessly into the In different ways during the last 50 years,
most Hungarians would not consider the A number of the composers interviewed composer’s individual idiom. Composers composers have made a deliberate effort
ex-patriots Kurtág, Ligeti, and Eötvös to claim that they were influenced by do not feel such a need to define the to define “Hungarian-ness” in music.
be Hungarian composers in the true sense minimalism in the 1990s, but no longer influences a priori, or to place themselves Among “mainstream” composers in the
of the word. are. According to Farkas, the musical in a group on account of those influences. 1950s and 60s – “traditionalists who
Farkas presents András Szőllősy, world of Reich is “rather restricted…it It is possible that Hungarian composers, once belonged to the avant-garde” 53– a
Sándor Balassa, and Jeney as “counter- reached a level, established an idiom, and even in the last fifteen years, have been desire to seek and to uphold distinctly
examples” – composers who belong to stopped.” Consequently some composers limited (or rendered short-sighted) by a Hungarian qualities was, according to
the same generation, who have composed view it as “an attractive but closed world persistent, although slowly diminishing,
great music, and who have had exposure that belongs to their youth.”49 The fact isolation. It is illuminating that they have
51 Harold Bloom’s vision of the relations between precursors and
abroad, but have not become as well that only two or three of the composers felt the need to conceive of themselves in
the individual artist, put forth in his study of the Romantic poets, The
known. He gives two reasons for this: The interviewed are familiar with the music groups in order to feel strong, although
Anxiety of Influence. (Oxford University Press, 1973), may also serve to
weakness of promotion in Hungary, and this tendency is also diminishing. When
illuminate patterns of influence in modern music. The crux of his ar-
the composer’s own attitudes. “Balassa asked what the greatest obstacle has been
47 Zoltán Farkas. Interview. 30 March 2006. Farkas also gives gument is that all modern literary texts reflect a strong “misreading”
was warmly received in England and to their life as composers, a number of
the special case of Miklós Kocsár’s renown in Japan, where a choir of those that precede them.
Germany in the early 1970s. But he those interviewed cite the fact that they
competition is named after him Halász cites Balassa and Durkó as 52 Péter Eötvös says that “as to what a foreigner perceives as be-
himself was not interested in becoming “do not belong to any compositional
composers who gained success in the West in the late 1960s and ing Hungarian in music, that is hard to tell. All I can say, once again,
well known abroad. He wanted speak group or school.”50
early 70s, mainly through support from the publishing house Boosey is that it lies above all in the articulation. I reckon that I can discern a
to Hungarians, to gain success in his
and Hawkes, but says that they “disappeared quite fast” because, to Hungarian quality of articulation in the music of Ligeti and Kurtág as
Western ears, they “always produced the same things.” Péter Halász. well as in my own pieces.” The articulation that Eötvös defines arises
– his teacher at the time, and also a communist – wrote a letter for Interview. 31 March 2006. out of the rhythms of the language. Zoltán Farkas. “Music-Making
him that secured permission. Jeney also wanted to study in Cologne 48 When asked to name the greatest American composers, the ma- Begins with Articulation: Péter Eötvös in Conversation with Zoltán
during that period, but was denied permission. jority of the composers interviewed said Bernstein, Gershwin, Ives, or Farkas. Hungarian Musical Quarterly, 2005, 147.
45 Zoltán Farkas. Interview. 30 March 2006. Copland. 50 Péter Tóth. Email interview. 27 March 2006. Others also ex- 53 Petrovics, Sándor Szokolay, Zsolt Durkó, Kocsár, Attila
46 Péter Halász. Interview. 31 March 2006. 49 Zoltán Farkas. Interview. 30 March 2006. pressed this idea. Bozay,Balassa, and Lendvai. Zoltán Farkas. Interview. 30 March 2006.

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Halász, a stylistic “common purpose.” “post-modern” or “polystylistic” features by censorship. Influences from abroad, end, they have employed electro-acoustic
“Back in the 1960s, after they realized after 1990, as Ligeti had done in the 1980s. often conceptual rather than musical, elements, combined them with live
the irrelevance of socialist realism, many Farkas cites “The Four” – György Orbán, helped guide their experimentalism. performance, improvised, and absorbed
Hungarian composers began to write János Vajda, Miklós Csemicsky, and The writings of John Cage provided influences from rock or pop music, as well
in the modernist (“free-twelve-tone”) Selmeczi – who once wrote avante-garde the theoretical background for much as American minimalism. The dissolution
idiom, a kind of expressionism. Most (or “free dodecaphonic”) music but who, of their music and affirmed things that of the collective in 1992 coincides roughly
of them also shared a principle of an after 1990, began to write as attractively they had already begun to think about. with the system change.
idealized Hungarian intonation. There as possible for the audience, incorporating Messaien and the French Spectralists The ideal of “musical Hungarian-ness”
are special characteristics that make the any available influences toward this end. provided inspiration for Tihányi and for may not always be central for Hungarian
music “Hungarian:” From Bartók, a Since they are now active as teachers, they Vidovsky, who studied in Paris 1970-71. compsoers, but it is omnipresent. Of the
kind of chromaticism, a lamento style, a are influencing the younger generation The Italian Giofredo Petrassi taught composers interviewed, 80 per cent say
type of pitch organization. It is difficult differently than the ex-New-Music- Jeney, Szőllössy, Lajos Huszár, and that national identity (or “Hungarian-
to define….but there is a similar sound Studio composers who are also teaching. Zsolt Durkó. He liberated them from ness”) is important to them as composers,
imagination behind it.54 “Aesthetically there tends to be a divide the Bartókian influence by pointing out but many say that it is not deliberately
Did the system change impact ideas of between the group who was audience- elements that were “come Bartók” and reflected in their music.60 Some composers
national identity as they are manifest in friendly and is teaching now, and the more therefore objectionable.58 Writing film or claim an active relationship to Hungarian
the music written in Hungary. In 1990 and experimental older composers.”56 Writing incidental music for theaters also allowed folk music, but also derive inspiration and
the subsequent period, composers who church music also emerged as a means free experimentation – you could write musical materials from the folk music
had been well established in the 1960s of “finding an institution to popularize anything for film – and provided income of other countries, in keeping with a
and 70s “shouted everywhere that they your music.” In other words, “if it is not for those blacklisted. As a consequence, global trend toward diversification. The
were oppressed.” “If you look back to the party it can be the church.”57 Thus composers such as Jeney, Eötvös, and common denominator among Hungarian
the 1960s and 70s, all of them had their Kamilló Lendvay, who had produced an Szöllösy wrote film music during the 1970s composers in 2006 is still the legacy of
own very well-defined compromises to oratorio on Lenin’s 100th birthday in the but largely ceased after 1990. The group Bartók and Kodály. Of the composers
live with the regime. They could live very early 1970s, “progressed” to large-scale in whom, under Communism, musical who answered the question, 85 per cent
well, their music was played, recorded, religious works (Via Crucis in 1988-89 and and political subversiveness intersected is say that their music has a concrete relation
and published…they had everything that Stabat Mater in 1991) twenty years later. now in a position of power in the field. to the legacy of Bartók and Kodály. Of
they needed. What they could get only In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the The subgroup of “experimental” the 15 percent who say they do not, many
temporarily was the international acclaim.” New Music Studio members broke from composers that followed in the wake of still say that they have some more oblique
Through the 1980s, these composers were both the quest to establish a Hungarian the New Music Studio, inspired by their relationship with it. “It is in our blood, in
the cream of Hungary’s limited cultural voice, and the abiding influence of live performances of music from Cage our consciousness.”61
offerings. After 1990, when a wider range Bartók. Farkas cites three motivating to Stockhausen, formed Group180. The
of offerings became available, they “found factors behind their drive to seek collective was fomed in 1978, and its
themselves very lonely.”55 alternative musical means: the shadow of members, who included Béla Faragó,
One musical response to the system Bartók’s legacy, the burden of their overly András Sóos, and Lászlo Melis, “displayed
In Contemporary Music – , 7.
change on the part of composers who had academic training – (the curriculum at the a strong inclination for integrating
60 “National identity” can be multifaceted and complex to define.
been well established during communism Academy, with its “formal studies” and avante-garde concepts with different
For example, Jenó´ Pertis said that the musical inheritances of his
was an impetus toward “populism” folk-song arrangements, was extremely popular music trends.”59 Toward this
father, a gypsy violinist, and his mother, a Hungarian pianist, were
or accessibility. Most began to absorb conservative) – and the limitations imposed
equally important to him.
58 Zoltán Farkas. Interview. 30 March 2006. 61 Katalin Szalai. Email interview. March 31 2006. Many other com-
54 Péter Halasz, Interview, 30 March 2006. 56 Zoltán Farkas. Interview. 30 March 2006. 59 Peter Halász. “Hungarian Composers of the Last Five Decades.” posers also gave their own variations on this statement.
55 Ibid. 57 Ibid.

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AY 2005-2006 Dr. Kati Agocs: The Mechanics of Culture (Music Composition)

then I can tell them my opinion and they The return to tradition on the part of the middle class – the surest audience of
Hungarian Composers will let me know the opposite point of composers is a much larger pattern. Many artistic music – has been developed.”75
Now: Who is Listening? view. That helps me to rethink my side composers say that they are getting “more According to Balázs Horváth, “the main
and open my mind.”64 traditional” or “more listenable” with problem in our country is in the brain of
The Hungarian composition field in 2006
Regarding the most important time. Composers under 35 are generally the people. People in Hungary think that
is eclectic, changeable, and multi-layered.
Budapest musical event in the last year, more conservative in their thinking than things are black or white, avant-garde or
One thing that composers agree upon
the consensus among both composers and those in their 60s. Péter Durkó, born conservative, liberal or conservative, etc.,
is that it is “mixed.” Some composers
scholars is Zoltán Jeney’s Funeral Rite.65 1972, draws attention to the importance and they fight for their ideas. I think this
claim that the system change had no
Some also name the Kurtág festival.66 of “establishing spiritual contact with comes from the older generation, and from
effect whatsoever upon their work.
The Funeral Rite was a musical event of the cultural inheritance of previous the fact that the country is such a small one.
The picture that emerges, however,
epic proportions that took decades to be ages…sooner or later, anybody with a When we can change this sick two-sided
is of a field that is now “freer,” more
realized. Sections had been performed calling will ask himself how he wants the thinking, our musical world will open.”76
open to foreign influences, and more
before, but the 2005 performance was essential elements of his music to relate Ultimately, many developments in the
amenable to performances of the works
the premiere of the complete version. specifically, personally to it.”70 Some cite field are not traceable to the system
of certain composers, but with greater
According to Farkas, the work is a “new clarity” or a “new simplicity” in change, but are better accounted for as
material uncertainty. “We can composer
indicative of Jeney’s reaching a place the current of new Hungarian music. But the result of a natural evolution. Many
freely, but the social esteem and the
where Hungarian musical elements take few will admit to being part of any main positive facets of Hungarian musical
support is little.”62 Issues shared among
center stage. “It was not natural for him current; Faragó, for example, identified life predate the structural changes in
all composers are “making a living,
to get inspiration from folk music (and the “new clarity” mentioned above but 1990 – (The Mini-Festival, the Spring
recognition, supporting our children.”63
plainchant) earlier. This reconciliation considers himself to be an “exception” to and Autumn Festivals) – and some have
Asked if they are (or were) ever tempted
with tradition happened very late in his which no label applies.71 arisen since then (the new Palace of the
to move abroad because it would be better
life. It is never one-sided – there is always Who is the audience for new music in Arts, opened in 2005). There are more
for their careers, 40 per cent of those who
a context that makes the quotations, and Hungary? A surprising number of the Hungarian music periodicals now than
responded to the question say yes, and 60
this style, more complex.”67 Halász calls composers interviewed do not know who before 1990. Perhaps, since the system
percent say no. Some describe a negative
it “a completely different way of thinking their audience is – they “just write the change, Hungarian music may have lost
“gap” between the older generation (those
about music than 30 or 40 years ago.”68 notes.” Asked who listens to their music, its subversive bite. “In the 1950s, music
in their 60s or older) and the younger
Jeney himself says that he did not think of responses range from “relatives, friends, was not free from political life, and this
generation (those in their 20s and 30s).
the Hungarian elements consciously, and and radio listeners. The rest I don’t created a dissonance, as well as opening
Balász Horváth, born in 1975, says that
that the “derived” elements constitute an know”72 to “I don’t keep track of who up new dimensions for young composers,”
“there must be a gap between the older
“archaization.”69 listens to my music – there are scientists says Péter Durkó. “For my generation
and younger generations. I think that this
who do that”73 to “nobody.”74 Hollós this is already past, history.” 77
gap is healthy - we would write the same 64 Balász Horváth. Email interview. 4 April 2006. expressed a desire in 2000 to be able to There is a persistent nostalgia for music
music as them without it. It is good that 65 Jeney’s Halotti Szertartás was performed in the Palace of Arts on look back with satisfaction upon what from 30 years ago, some of which is being
we think differently about music, because 22 October 2005 by the National Philharmonic Orchestra and Choir, he and his colleagues have done “once heard and discovered for the first time
conducted by Zoltán Kocsis.
62 István Szigeti. Interview. 24 March 2006. 66 The Kurtág Festival was a series of concerts that took place in
70 Péter Durkó. Interview. 25 March 2006. 75 Máté Hollós, “With the Millennium is the Lot of Hungarian
63 Katalin Szalai. Email interview. March 31 2006. Most say that it February 2006 at the Palace of Arts in celebration of Kurtág’s 80th
71 Béla Faragó. Interview. 26 March 2006. Composers Changing for the Better?” In Contemporary Music, 2000,
is impossible to make a living at composition. Composers in Hungary birthday.
72 Péter Nográdi. Interview. 25 March 2006. 14.
work as the musical directors of theatres, write commercial music, 67 Zoltán Farkas. Interview. 30 March 2006.
73 Tamás Beischer-Matyó. Interview. 24 March 2006. 76 Balázs Horváth. Email interview. 4 April 2006.
conduct, and teach. Over half of the composers that participated in 68 Péter Halasz, Interview. 30 March 2006
74 Endre Juhász. Interview. 24 March 2006. 77 Péter Durkó. Interview. 25 March 2006.
the interviews are practicing performers. 69 Zoltán Jeney. Interview. 6 April 2006.

134 135
AY 2005-2006 Dr. Kati Agocs: The Mechanics of Culture (Music Composition)

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138 139
 Policy Learning in Response to
Extreme Flood Events in the
Tisza and Pannonian Central
Danube River Basins

Elizabeth Ann Albright

...............................................................................................

Duke University Budapest University of Technology and Economics

...............................................................................................

The Danube River basin has had numerous extreme flooding events over the past decade, causing
high levels of economic and ecological damage. Hungary, situated in the central region of the
Danube River basin, historically has had a high level of flood risk exposure and has recently
experienced an increase in extreme floods. Environmental policies across local level institutions
in the central Danube River basin vary greatly (Pickvance, 2003). Research suggests that a
high level of variation may also be present in the policy response to extreme floods at the local
level in this region (Vari, 2003; Slávic, 2003). Successful responses to extreme events often
reflect policy learning, the evolution of beliefs, attitudes, behaviors and goals in response to
new information and experiences (Sabatier and Jenkins-Smith, 1999; Busenberg, 2001). To
understand factors that promote policy learning, this research examines the following questions:
(1) What factors are associated with observed variations in policy change and learning related
to flood mitigation and prevention at the local level? (2) To what extent has scientific and

140 141