HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

SECTION 2

HISTORY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN

ASSIGNMENT

Group Members
1. Eyerusalem Biru (ID: 1067/17)
2. Meyra Nasir (ID: 2437/17)
3. Fekadu Sefu (ID: 1111/17)
4. Dedefo Mohammed (ID: 0888/17)
5. Habtamu Abera (ID: 1304/17)
6. Henok Goytom (ID: 1469/17)
7. Solomon Tamana (ID: 3084/17)
8. Tola Gebeyehu (ID: 3211/17)

Submitted to: Sara B.

Submission Date: May 9, 2025
1. Brief Summary of Chapter Three and Four (Because it is summary we
only restricted to use our Module )

Summary of the chapter 3

Chapter 3, "Politics, Economy and Society in Ethiopia and the Horn to the
End of the Thirteenth Century," offers an in-depth analysis of the formative
stages of state development, economic systems, and societal structures in
the Horn of Africa. The chapter initiates its discussion by examining the
emergence of states (p. 21), highlighting the transition from autonomous
communities to defined political entities characterized by established
territories, sovereign governance, and evolving power dynamics. It
underscores the critical role of sedentary agriculture in this transformation,
detailing the shift from subsistence farming to surplus production through
innovations like ox-drawn plows and irrigation systems (p. 21). The chapter
elaborates on land tenure systems, including the "rist" system, and the
complex hierarchy of tribute and labor obligations (p. 29).

The expansion of trade networks, both within the region and with external
partners, is presented as a catalyst for economic growth and cultural
exchange (p. 29). The chapter identifies key trade routes connecting the
interior with coastal centers and international waterways like the Red Sea
and the Gulf of Aden, facilitating the exchange of goods such as textiles,
precious metals, and agricultural products. External contacts, particularly
with Egypt and the Arabian Peninsula, are explored in detail (p. 27),
emphasizing their impact on trade, religion, and cultural practices.

A significant portion of the chapter is devoted to the Zagwe Dynasty (c.

1150 to 1270), which succeeded the Aksumite state (p. 25). The chapter
discusses the Zagwe's shift southwards, their administration from Roha
(Lalibela), and their renowned architectural achievements, specifically the

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construction of monolithic churches in Lalibela (p. 31). It explores the
legends surrounding King Lalibela and the dynasty's efforts to create a
"New Jerusalem" (p. 25). The chapter also examines the factors
contributing to the Zagwe dynasty's eventual decline, including internal
conflicts, royal succession disputes, and claims of illegitimacy (p. 25).

Finally, the chapter provides detailed profiles of various regional states that
coexisted and competed within Ethiopia and the Horn, including Bizamo,
Damot, Enarya, and Gafat (p. 26). It examines their geographical locations,
political organization, economic activities (such as gold production in
Gafat), and their interactions with neighboring entities. The chapter draws
upon a range of historical sources, including chronicles, inscriptions, and
archaeological evidence, to construct a comprehensive and nuanced
understanding of the political, economic, and social landscape of Ethiopia
and the Horn during this transformative period.
References:
History of Ethiopia and the Horn module,pp 21-33

Chapter 4 summary

Chapter 4, "Politics, Economy, and Society from the Late Thirteenth to the
Beginning of the Sixteenth Centuries," examines the transformations and
continuities in Ethiopian history during this period. The chapter begins by
discussing the “Restoration” of the “Solomonid” Dynasty (p. 34), marking
the end of the Zagwe dynasty and the rise of Yekunno-Amlak, who claimed
descent from the ancient Aksumite kings and Solomon. This transition
involved both political and ideological shifts, framing the Zagwe as
"usurpers" and emphasizing the Solomonid lineage to legitimize their rule.
The chapter also addresses internal political conflicts (p. 34) within the
Solomonid kingdom, including challenges in establishing a consistent
succession and managing relations between Christian and Muslim
populations.

The chapter explores power consolidation and spatial extension (p. 35)
under rulers like Yekunno-Amlak and Amde-Tsion, detailing their military

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campaigns to expand the kingdom's territory into regions like Eritrea,
northern Shewa, and territories occupied by Muslim sultanates such as Ifat
and Hadiya. Amde-Tsion's reign (1314-1344) is highlighted for its focus on
solidifying the power of the "Solomonids" and enlarging the kingdom by
suppressing revolts and strategically placing imperial garrisons (p. 35). The
chapter also discusses administration and military organization (p. 37)
within the Ethiopian Christian kingdom, noting the hybrid administrative
system based on concentric circles and the role of the army in maintaining
control over the provinces. It describes the organization of the military into
different types of regiments (p. 38) and the introduction of new military
technologies.

The economic bases of the kingdom are examined (p. 39), emphasizing the
importance of control over land, labor, and trade routes in generating
revenue. The chapter also addresses cooperation, competition, and conflict
between Christian and Muslim rival powers (p. 40), particularly the relations
between the Christian kingdom and the Sultanates of Ifat and Adal. The
chapter highlights the efforts to establish amicable relations and the
challenges posed by economic and political hegemony. Integration of
peoples and cultures (p. 42) within the expanding Christian kingdom is also
discussed, noting the absorption of new populations and the emergence of
a shared sense of belonging.

The chapter further explores the expansion of the Christian kingdom in the
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries (p. 42), including the integration of
diverse groups and the influence of the Christian kingdom's ideology.
Population movement, interaction, and integration are examined (p. 43),
noting the movement of people for trade, pilgrimage, and religious reasons.
The role of the roving court (p. 43) in maintaining political and economic
activity is also discussed. The chapter also covers the establishment of
military garrisons (p. 44) and the role of market centers as cultural melting
pots (p. 44).

The chapter addresses the Ethiopian Orthodox Church and monastic

networks (p. 45) and their role in fostering integration and expanding

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Christianity. Finally, the chapter examines relations with Egypt and
Christian Europe (p. 47-48), including diplomatic missions and religious
interactions. The chapter concludes by discussing the temporal decline of
the kingdom (p. 39) in the late fifteenth century due to internal political strife
and the failure of political integration.

References:
History of Ethiopia and the Horn Module, pp. 34-48

Q 2. The Balance of Power and Interplay Between the Christian Highland

Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates (Late 13th–Early 16th Centuries)

The period from the late thirteenth to the early sixteenth centuries in
Ethiopia and the Horn was marked by a dynamic and often adversarial
relationship between the Christian highland kingdom (the Solomonic
dynasty) and the Muslim sultanates (notably Ifat and Adal). This interplay
fundamentally shaped the region’s political, religious, and economic
trajectories.

The Christian kingdom, reestablished under the Solomonic dynasty in

1270, sought to consolidate and expand its authority across the highlands
and adjacent lowlands. The Muslim sultanates, particularly Ifat and later
Adal, controlled strategic trade routes and access to the Red Sea, making
them both valuable partners and formidable rivals (Bahru Zewde, 2002).

The balance of power shifted frequently due to military campaigns, shifting

alliances, and the intervention of external actors. For instance,
Amde-Tsion’s campaigns in the fourteenth century resulted in the
subjugation of Ifat and the incorporation of Muslim territories into the
Christian kingdom, temporarily tipping the balance in favor of the highland
state (Taddesse Tamrat, 1972). However, the resurgence of Adal in the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, especially under the leadership of Ahmed
Gragn, posed an existential threat to the Christian kingdom, leading to
prolonged warfare that devastated much of the region (Pankhurst, 1998).

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Religious identity became increasingly politicized during this period, as both
sides sought to rally support by emphasizing their religious legitimacy. The
Christian kings positioned themselves as defenders of the faith, while the
Muslim sultanates invoked the cause of jihad against the Christian state
(Trimingham, 1952). This religious polarization not only fueled conflict but
also shaped the region’s cultural landscape, as both sides invested in the
construction of churches, monasteries, mosques, and Islamic schools.

Economically, the competition for control of trade routes and resources

drove much of the conflict. The Red Sea ports, such as Zeila, were vital for
the export of Ethiopian goods and the import of foreign commodities.
Control over these routes allowed the sultanates to prosper and challenge
the economic dominance of the Christian kingdom (Quora, 2024).

In summary, the interplay between the Christian highland kingdom and the
Muslim sultanates during this period was characterized by a complex mix of
rivalry, warfare, and occasional cooperation. This dynamic not only
determined the political boundaries of the region but also had lasting
impacts on its religious and economic development (Bahru Zewde, 2002;
Taddesse Tamrat, 1972; Pankhurst, 1998).

3. Nature of Relations Between the Peoples of the Christian Highland

Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates

The relationship between the peoples of the Christian highland kingdom

and the Muslim sultanates was multifaceted, encompassing periods of
conflict, coexistence, and cultural exchange.

While political rivalry and religious differences often led to warfare,

especially during periods of expansion or resistance, there were also
significant instances of peaceful interaction. Trade was a major factor that
fostered interdependence between the two groups. Muslim merchants

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played a crucial role in facilitating the exchange of goods between the
highlands and the Red Sea coast, serving as intermediaries in the lucrative
trade of gold, ivory, and slaves (Pankhurst, 1998).

Diplomatic relations, including marriage alliances and treaties, were

sometimes used to manage tensions and secure mutual benefits. For
example, the Christian kings occasionally recognized the authority of
Muslim rulers in exchange for tribute or military support (Taddesse Tamrat,
1972). Socially, there was a degree of cultural blending, particularly in
border regions where intermarriage and shared economic interests created
hybrid communities (Bahru Zewde, 2002).

However, religious identity remained a significant source of division,

especially during times of heightened conflict. The campaigns of Ahmed
Gragn in the sixteenth century, for example, were marked by religious zeal
and resulted in the destruction of churches and monasteries, deepening
animosities between the two communities (Trimingham, 1952).

Despite these tensions, the long history of interaction between the Christian
highland kingdom and the Muslim sultanates contributed to the rich cultural
and religious diversity of Ethiopia and the Horn (Quora, 2024).

Q 4. Theories on the Rise of Ancient States and Key Factors in Early State
Development

Scholars have proposed various theories to explain the rise of ancient

states in Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa. One prominent theory is the
integrationist model, which suggests that states emerged through the
unification of smaller communities for mutual defense, economic
cooperation, and the management of resources (Bahru Zewde, 2002). This
process was often facilitated by the development of agriculture, which
enabled the accumulation of surplus food and supported population growth.

Another theory is the conflict model, which posits that competition for
control of resources, trade routes, and strategic locations drove the

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formation of centralized states. The need to defend against external threats
or assert dominance over rival groups led to the creation of more complex
political structures (Taddesse Tamrat, 1972).

Environmental factors also played a significant role. The availability of

fertile land, water sources, and access to trade routes influenced the
location and success of early states. For example, the rise of Aksum was
closely linked to its strategic position at the intersection of trade routes
connecting Africa, Arabia, and the Mediterranean (Pankhurst, 1998).

Technological innovations, such as the adoption of iron tools and weapons,

facilitated agricultural expansion and military conquest. The development of
writing systems, such as Ge’ez, enabled more effective administration and
record-keeping (SlideShare, 2023).

In summary, the rise of ancient states in Ethiopia and the Horn was the
result of a complex interplay of social, economic, environmental, and
technological factors, as well as the influence of external contacts through
trade and migration (Bahru Zewde, 2002; Taddesse Tamrat, 1972;
SlideShare, 2023).

5. Major Cultural Achievements of Early Polities in Ethiopia and the Horn

The early polities of Ethiopia and the Horn made significant contributions to
the region’s cultural heritage. Three major achievements include:

1. Monumental Architecture: The Aksumite kingdom is renowned for its

massive stone stelae, obelisks, and royal tombs, which demonstrate
advanced engineering and artistic skills. The rock-hewn churches of
Lalibela, constructed during the Zagwe dynasty, are considered
masterpieces of medieval architecture and remain important pilgrimage
sites (Pankhurst, 1998).

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2. Development of the Ge’ez Script: The creation and use of the Ge’ez
script facilitated the recording of religious texts, royal chronicles, and legal
documents. Ge’ez became the liturgical language of the Ethiopian
Orthodox Church and played a crucial role in preserving the region’s literary
and religious traditions (Taddesse Tamrat, 1972).

3. Coinage and Trade: The Aksumite kingdom was among the first African
states to mint its own coins, which were used in both local and international
trade. The coins, inscribed in Greek and Ge’ez, reflect the kingdom’s
cosmopolitan character and its integration into global economic networks
(Bahru Zewde, 2002).

These achievements reflect the creativity, adaptability, and resilience of the

early societies of Ethiopia and the Horn (Pankhurst, 1998; Taddesse
Tamrat, 1972; Bahru Zewde, 2002).

Q6. Formation of Relationships Between Ancient States in Ethiopia and the

Horn

The relationships between ancient states in Ethiopia and the Horn were
shaped by a combination of trade, diplomacy, warfare, and religious
interaction. Trade networks connected the highlands with the Red Sea
coast and the wider world, facilitating the exchange of goods, ideas, and
technologies (Bahru Zewde, 2002).

Diplomatic marriages and alliances were common strategies for securing

peace and mutual benefit. States often negotiated treaties to regulate
trade, resolve disputes, or coordinate defense against common enemies
(Taddesse Tamrat, 1972).

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Warfare was another important factor, as states sought to expand their
territories or defend against external threats. Military campaigns could lead
to the incorporation of conquered peoples and the formation of larger
political entities (Pankhurst, 1998).

Religious missions and the spread of Christianity and Islam also played a
role in forging connections between different states. Religious leaders often
acted as intermediaries in diplomatic and cultural exchanges (Quora,
2024).

In summary, the formation of relationships between ancient states in

Ethiopia and the Horn was a dynamic process influenced by economic,
political, military, and religious factors (Bahru Zewde, 2002; Taddesse
Tamrat, 1972; Pankhurst, 1998).

Q7. Historical and Ideological Basis for the Solomonic Dynasty’s Claim to
Power After the Zagwe Dynasty

The Solomonic dynasty’s claim to power following the Zagwe dynasty was
rooted in both historical precedent and ideological construction. The
Solomonic rulers asserted their legitimacy by claiming direct descent from
the biblical King Solomon of Israel and the Queen of Sheba (Makeda), a
narrative enshrined in the Kebra Nagast, a foundational text of Ethiopian
identity (Taddesse Tamrat, 1972).

This claim was not merely genealogical but also ideological, as it linked the
Ethiopian monarchy to a sacred and ancient lineage, conferring divine
sanction on their rule. The restoration of the Solomonic line in 1270 by
Yekuno Amlak was presented as a return to rightful governance after the
perceived usurpation by the Zagwe dynasty, who were depicted as
outsiders or illegitimate rulers (Bahru Zewde, 2002).

The Solomonic ideology emphasized the close relationship between the

monarchy and the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, portraying the king as both
a political and spiritual leader. This fusion of religious and royal authority

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helped to legitimize the dynasty’s rule and unify the diverse peoples of the
kingdom (Pankhurst, 1998).

In summary, the Solomonic dynasty’s claim to power was based on a

combination of historical tradition, religious ideology, and political necessity,
which together shaped the course of Ethiopian history for centuries
(Taddesse Tamrat, 1972; Bahru Zewde, 2002; Pankhurst, 1998).

References :

Bahru Zewde. (2002). A History of Modern Ethiopia, 1855–1991. Addis

Ababa University Press.

Pankhurst, R. (1998). The Ethiopians: A History. Blackwell.

Taddesse Tamrat. (1972). Church and State in Ethiopia, 1270–1527.

Oxford University Press.

Trimingham, J. S. (1952). Islam in Ethiopia. Oxford University Press.

SlideShare. (2023). The Rise of Ancient States in Ethiopia and the Horn.
Retrieved from https://www.slideshare.net/

Quora. (2024). How did ancient states in Ethiopia interact? Retrieved from
https://www.quora.com/

History of Ethiopia and the Horn Module, pp. 45 -81

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