THE UNION PARLIAMENT

The Union Parliament comprises of the President and the two houses of Parliament – the House of the People
(Lok Sabha) and the Council of States (Rajya Sabha)

LOK SABHA

Composition
 maximum strength is 550 members
 number of members elected from the states is 530
 number of members elected from the Union territories is 20

Term
 The term of the Lok Sabha is 5 years
 Lok Sabha can be dissolved before the expiry of its normal term by the President on the advice of the
Prime Minister in case of national emergency or when the Prime Minister loses the No-Confidence
motion.

Method of election
 The Lok Sabha members are elected directly by the people of the country during the general elections
 It involves the process of Universal Adult Franchise and secret ballot

Qualifications for membership

 He/She should be an Indian citizen
 He/She should be 25 years of age or above
 He/She should not hold any office of profit under the government
 He/She should not be an undischarged insolvent

Parliamentary Procedures

(i) Sessions
 The President summons each house of the Parliament for deliberations.
 There are three sessions in a year
- Budget session (February – May)
- Monsoon session (July – August)
- Winter session (November – December)
 Maximum gap allowed between two parliamentary sessions is 6 months.

(ii) Quorum
 It is the minimum number of members required to be present in order to begin the proceedings of the
House.
 It is one-tenth of the total membership of each house.

(iii) Question Hour

 It is the first hour of each working day of the Lok Sabha which is reserved for asking questions from the
government by the opposition on matters of public concern
 It is aimed to keep the functioning of the government open to scrutiny

(iv) Adjournment Motion

 The agenda of the house is pre-decided but suddenly if there is a matter of grave national concern, the
pre-decided agenda is kept aside and the urgent matter is taken up by the house.
 It can be introduced only in the Lok Sabha.
(v) No-Confidence Motion
 It is a formal proposal expressing lack of faith in the government
 It can be moved only by the opposition against the government with the support of 50 members
 If the motion is passed, the government has to resign
 It can be introduced only in the Lok Sabha

Speaker of Lok Sabha

 The Speaker is the presiding officer of the Lok Sabha.
 He conducts the business of the house.

Election of Speaker
 The speaker is elected from amongst its own members during the very first session of the newly elected
Lok Sabha by simple majority of members present and voting.

Term of Speaker
 The speaker is elected for a term of 5 years.
 Even if the house is dissolved, the speaker does not vacates office until his successor takes charge.
 The speaker can resign from post by submitting resignation to the Deputy Speaker.
 The speaker can be removed from office if majority of members pass a resolution against him.

Functions of the Speaker

(i) Business of the house

 presides over the meetings of the house.
 interprets the rules and regulations of the house.
 all the bills of the house are signed by the speaker and then sent to the Rajya Sabha
 he decides whether a bill is a money bill or not.

(ii) Administrative functions

 receives all petitions and documents in the house.
 communicates the decisions of the house to the concerned authorities
 regulates the admission of visitors to the house

(iii) Disciplinary functions

 maintains order in the house
 may suspend a member if they disregard the authority of the chair
 can adjourn the house in case of grave disorder
 can remove a word or words from the proceedings if they are indecent or unparliamentary

(iv) Parliamentary Committees functions

 speaker is the ex-officio chairman of the committees of the house
 appoints chairmen of all the committees of the house
 issues directions to the chairmen in their working

RAJYA SABHA

Composition
 maximum strength is 250 members
 members elected from the states and union territories is 238
 12 members are nominated by the President from the fields of literature, science, social service etc.

Method of election
 The members of Rajya Sabha are elected indirectly by the elected members of the Vidhan Sabha
  The process involves proportional representation and single transferable vote.

Term
 Each member is elected for a period of 6 years
 It is a permanent house and cannot be dissolved as 1/3rd of its members keep retiring after every 2 years

Qualifications for membership

 He/She should be an Indian citizen
 He/She should be atleast 30 years of age
 He/She should not hold an office of profit under the government
 He/She should not be an undischarged insolvent

Presiding Officers
 The Vice-President of India is the ex-officio chairman of the Rajya Sabha
 Rajya Sabha elects a Deputy Chairman from amongst its own members who performs all duties of
chairman in case of his/her absence

POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE LOK SABHA AND RAJYA SABHA

(i) Legislative Powers

 It makes laws on 97 subjects in the Union List
 It makes laws on 47 subjects in the Concurrent List
 It makes laws in the Residuary List
 Ratification of ordinance within 6 weeks when the Parliament is back in session
 It makes laws on 66 subjects in the State List. The Parliament can even make laws on the subjects in the
State List under 3 circumstances –
- during emergency
- when Rajya Sabha passes a resolution by 2/3rd majority that a subject in the State List has gained
national importance
- when two or more states are of the opinion that the Parliament should legislate on the subjects
mentioned in the State List

(ii) Financial Powers

 The Parliament passes the annual budget for a financial year
 The government may ask for supplementary grant if the amount authorized for the financial year is
insufficient
 The Parliament decides the salaries and allowances of ministers
 No tax can be imposed on the people without the approval of the Parliament
 If the Union Budget is not passed before the beginning of new financial year, there would be no money to
spend. Therefore, Vote on Account authorizes the executive to draw funds from the Consolidated Fund
until the budget is passed by the Parliament

(iii) Judicial Powers

 The Parliament has the right to remove the President through impeachment
 The Parliament can remove the Vice-President, judges of the Supreme Court and High Court
 The Parliament can punish a person for contempt if he tries to lower the prestige of the Parliament

(iv) Electoral functions

 Both the MPs and MLAs elect the President of India
 The Vice-President is elected by the members of Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha
 The members of the Lok Sabha elect the Speaker and Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha
 The members of Rajya Sabha elect its Deputy Chairman
(v) Amendment of the Constitution
 Both the houses have equal power in the amendment of the Constitution
 The amendment must be passed by 2/3rd majority vote by both the houses

(vi) Control over the executive

 The Parliament exercises control over the executive by –
- Question Hour
- passing a vote of no-confidence
- adjournment motion
- monetary control

(vii) Exclusive power of the Rajya Sabha

 It is a permanent house and cannot be dissolved as 1/3rd of its members retire after every 2 years
 If the Rajya Sabha passes a resolution by 2/3rd majority, the Parliament can make laws on subjects
mentioned in the State List if it has gained national importance
 It can declare the creation of All India Service by 2/3rd majority
 When the Lok Sabha gets dissolved, the Rajya Sabha becomes the de facto and de jure parliament

(viii) Exclusive powers of the Lok Sabha

 No-Confidence motion can only be introduced and passed in Lok Sabha
 Money Bills can only be introduced in Lok Sabha
 The Speaker of the Lok Sabha presides over the joint session of both the houses in case of a deadlock
 It is the will of the Lok Sabha that prevails during the joint session due to its numerical strength

(ix) Co-equal powers of the Parliament

 passing ordinances
 passing ordinary bills
 constitutional amendment
 election of the President
 impeachment of the President
 removal of the Vice-President
 removal of the judges of Supreme Court and High Court
 THE FIRST WAR OF INDEPENDENCE, 1857

Causes of the first war of independence

(a) Political Causes

(i) Doctrine of Lapse – Lord Dalhousie enacted Doctrine of Lapse in which he stated that if the ruler of a native
state died without a natural male heir, his kingdom would be annexed by the British. Jhansi, Satara, Jaitpur,
Sambalpur were annexed by this doctrine.
(ii) Disrespect shown to Bahadur Shah Zafar –
 Lord Dalhousie said that after the death of the Mughal emperor, his family would not be allowed to
reside in the Red Fort.
 Lord Canning said that after the death of the Mughal emperor, his successors will not be allowed to use
the imperial titles.
(iii) Ill-treatment given to Nana Saheb – Nana Saheb was not accepted as the next Maratha ruler since he was
the adopted son of Peshwa Bajirao II. He was also not given the pension that was being given to his father by the
Britishers.
(iv) Alleged misrule – The British annexed Awadh on the pretext of alleged misrule from Nawab Wajid Ali Shah.
(v) Absentee Sovereignty of the British – India was being ruled by the British government from England which
was resented by the Indians. Indians felt that their wealth was being drained to England and not utilized for their
welfare.

(b) Socio-religious Causes

(i) Interference with social customs – The British banned the practice of Sati and legalized the Widow
Remarriage Act which was not liked by the Indians.
(ii) Taxing of religious places – The religious sentiments of the Indians were hurt when the British started taxing
lands belonging to temples and mosques which were previously exempted from taxes.
(iii) Fears regarding western education – The introduction of the western system of education was not received
well by the Pandits and Maulvis. They thought that it is an attempt to discourage traditional Islamic and Hindu
studies and to encourage their children to become Christians.
(iv) Policy of racial discrimination – The British looked down upon the Indians as they considered them inferior
in race therefore they abused and ill-treated them.
(v) Law of Property – The Religious Disabilities Act changed the Hindu law of property. According to this act, if an
Indian embraced Christianity, he would have a legal right on their father’s property.

(c) Economic Causes

(i) Drain of Wealth – The transfer of wealth from India to England from which India got no proportionate
economic return was the root cause of all the problems.
(ii) Inhuman treatment of indigo cultivators – The British forced the farmers to grow indigo which acted as a raw
material for the British textile industries. If the farmers tried to grow anything else, their fields were destroyed,
cattle taken away and the houses were burnt down.
(iii) Inam Commission – According to this act, the Indian landlords were asked to show the original title deeds of
their lands. If the landlords failed to show the title deeds, their land was confiscated and sold at a public auction
to the highest bidder by the British.
(iv) Decay of cottage and handicraft industries – Heavy export duties on Indian silk and cotton textiles and the
drain of raw materials from India to England destroyed Indian industries and they could not compete with the
British goods.

(d) Military Causes

(i) General Service Enlistment Act – According to this act, Indian soldiers could be sent for overseas duty on
behalf of the British army. The Brahmin soldiers considered it a danger to their caste. It was introduced by Lord
Canning.
(ii) Low chances of promotion – All the higher post in the British army were reserved only for the British. The
Indian soldiers could not rise above the rank of a Subedar.
(iii) Low wages - The Indian soldiers used to get eight times lesser wages than a British solider doing the same
work.
(iv) Large number of Indian soldiers in the British army – The number of Indian soldiers in the British army was
more than the number of European soldiers, therefore it motivated the Indians to throw the British out of India.

(e) Immediate Cause

 The British introduced a new rifle in the army known as Enfield Rifle.
 The loading process of the rifle involved bring the cartridge to the mouth and biting off the top greased
paper with the teeth.
 A rumour spread in the Bengal regiment that the greased cartridge had the fat of cow or pig.
 The soldiers refused to use these cartridges as cow is sacred to Hindus and pig is a taboo to Muslims.

Consequences of the first war of independence

(a) End of Company’s rule/administrative changes

 Transfer of power from Company to Crown.
 Company’s board of control and its directors were abolished.
 A Secretary of State for India was appointed by the British cabinet.
 The Governor General was given the title of Viceroy.

(b) Queen Victoria’s proclamation/Promises made by Queen Victoria

 Policy of non-interference in social and religious matters of the Indians.
 The Europeans and Indians will be treated equally.
 Encouragement of Indian industries
 Promote the works of public utility

(c) End of Mughals and Peshwas

 Bahadur Shah Zafar was deported to Rangoon and his sons were shot dead.
 Nana Saheb also fled to Nepal after the failure of the uprising.

(d) Relation with the princely states

 Abolition of the policy of Doctrine of Lapse
 All those indian rulers who helped in suppressing the revolt were awarded by the Queen.
 Queen Victoria assumed the title of Empress of India and all the indian rulers became the junior partners
of the British Crown.

(e) Changes in the army

 The number of British soldiers in the army was increased.
 Arms and ammunitions were kept under the charge of a British officer only.
 European soldiers were kept at important geographical locations.
 Newspapers and magazines were not allowed in army cantonments.
(f) Economic exploitation
 India was turned into a colonial economy.
 The salaries and allowances of the Secretary of State, civil servants and military officer were to be taken
from India.
 Spinning and weaving industries collapsed.
 Farmers had to pay heavy land taxes.

(g) Policy of divide and rule

The British divided the Indians in the following ways –
 turning the ruler against the subjects
 turning the people of one caste against another caste
 division between the Hindus and Muslims
 GROWTH OF NATIONALISM

Factors leading to the growth of nationalism

(a) Economic exploitation

(i) Farmers and Peasants
 They had to pay heavy land revenue to British every year.
 Not allowed to grow food grains which led to famines.
(ii) Artisans and Craftsmen
 Drain of raw materials from India to England.
 High export duties on Indian goods and commodities.
(iii) The working class or factory workers
 Long working hours and lesser wages.
 Inhuman living and working conditions along with scarcity of food.
(iv) The educated Indians
 All the high posts in the administration was only reserved for the Europeans.
 There was a stiff competition amongst the Indians for the limited seats in government jobs.

(b) Repressive colonial policies (Lord Lytton)

(i) Organising the Grand Delhi Durbar to proclaim Queen Victoria as the Empress of India during the time of
widespread famine.
(ii) He introduced the Vernacular Press Act and the Indian Arms Act.
(iii) He reduced the maximum age limit to qualify Indian Civil Services examination from 21 to 19 years.
(iv) Import duties on British textiles were removed.

Ilbert Bill Controversy

 The Ilbert Bill provided for the trial of British or European convicts by Indian judges.
 The purpose of the bill was to introduce equality between the British and Indian judges.
 The Act was opposed by the British and the government was compelled to withdraw the bill.
 It was enacted during the viceroyalty of Lord Ripon.

(c) Socio-religious reform movements

(i) Swami Dayanand Saraswati and Swami Vivekanand proclaimed the superiority of the Indian culture.
(ii) The reformers condemned untouchability and caste system practiced in India.
(iii) The reformers taught people to respect women.
(iv) Swami Dayanand Saraswati was the first to use the word ‘Swaraj’ and gave the slogan ‘India for the Indians’.

(d) Role of Press

(i) It spread the ideas of liberty, equality and patriotism.
(ii) It criticized the unjust policies of the British.
(iii) It helped in the exchange of ideas amongst different groups of people.
(iv) It made the Indians aware of what was happening in the world.
Contributions of Raja Ram Mohan Roy

Photo of
Raja Ram
Mohan Roy

 It was due to his efforts that Lord William Bentinck abolished the practice of Sati.
 He was the founder of Brahmo Samaj.
 He wrote a Persian newspaper called ‘Mirat-ul-Akhbar’
 He wrote a book in Persian called Gift to Monotheists.

Contributions of Jyotiba Phule

Photo of
Jyotibe
Phule

 He was the founder of Satya Shodhak Samaj.

 He along with his wife Savitribai Phule opened the first girls school in Pune.
 He established a school for untouchables and a private orphanage for widows.
 He wrote a book called ‘Ghulamgiri’ in which he described the harships faced by the lower castes.

Forerunners of Indian National Congress

 East India Association formed by Dadabhai Naoroji in London.
 Indian Association formed by Surendra Nath Banerjee.
 Indian National Conference was organised by Surendra Nath Banerjee.

Formation of the Indian National Congress

Photo of
A.O.Hume

 The Indian National Congress was formed on 28th December, 1885.

 The INC was founded by Allan Octavian Hume, who wanted to set up an organization to highlight the
drawbacks of the British government and suggest ways to correct them.
 Lord Dufferin favoured the formation of INC because he wanted the Congress to act as a ‘safety-valve’ for
popular discontent and to save the British Empire in India.
 The first meeting of the INC was held at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College in Mumbai under the
presidentship of Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee.

Sessions of the Indian National Congress

 First session in 1885 in Mumbai under the presidentship of Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee
 Second session in 1886 in Kolkata under the presidentship of Dadabhai Naoroji
 FIRST PHASE OF THE INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT

Objectives of the Early Nationalists

 Swaraj – Self autonomy under the British rule
 They wanted adequate representation of Indians in the executive council of the Viceroy
 Reduction in expenditure on the army
 Development of banking, irrigation, medical and health facilities

Methods of struggle of the Early Nationalists

 They made the use of three P’s – Petition, Prayer and Protest
 They held meeting in town halls
 They made the use of the press to criticise the government policies
 They sent delegation of Indian leaders to England to highlight the problem of the Indians

Contributions of the Early Nationalists

(a) Dadabhai Naoroji (also known as Grand Old Man of India and India’s Unofficial Ambassador)

Photo of
Dadabhai
Naoroji
 He was the first Asian to become the member of the British House of Commons.
 He gave the popular ‘Drain of Wealth’ theory in his famous book Poverty and Un-British Rule in India.
 He founded the London India Society.
 It was due to his efforts that the House of Commons passed a resolution for holding the ICS examination
in England and India simultaneously.
 He edited the newspaper ‘Rast Goftar’.

(b) Gopal Krishna Gokhale (also known as the political mentor\guru of Gandhi)
Photo of
Gopal
Krishna
Gokhale

 He is the political mentor of Gandhi because he went to South Africa and persuaded him to return to
India and join the Indian national movement.
 He founded the Servants of India Society to train national leaders.
 His efforts led to the reduction of toll tax in India.
 He played an important role in the passage of Minto-Morley reforms.
 He was awarded the title of CIE (Companion of the Indian Empire).

(c) Surendra Nath Banerjee (also known as the Father of Indian Nationalism)

Photo of
Surendra
Nath
Baneerjee

 He was the first Indian to qualify the ICS examination.

 He founded the Indian Association.
 He edited a newspaper called Bengalee.
 He wrote a book called Nation in the Making which gives his views about self-government.
 He started protest against the Arms Act, Vernacular Press Act and Partition of Bengal.
 SECOND PHASE OF THE INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT

 Bengal was partitioned on 16th October 1905 by Lord Curzon.

 Bengal was divided into two parts – First part which consisted of Western Bengal, Bihar and Odisha with
its capital as Calcutta.
 Second part which consisted of Eastern Bengal and Assam with its capital as Dacca.

Photo of
Lord
Curzon

Official reason given by Lord Curzon for the partition

 Lord Curzon said that the province of Bengal was too big in area and population to be administered
efficiently.

Main motive of Lord Curzon behind the partition/Real reason given by the nationalists for the partition
 The British wanted to crush the growth of nationalism in Bengal.
 They wanted to create a divide between the Hindus and the Muslims.
 They wanted to reduce the Bengalis to minority in Bengal itself.
 They wanted to show the strength of the British Raj.

Surat Split of 1907

 In 1907, the Congress session was held at Surat where there was a difference in the ideologies of the
Early Nationalists and the Assertive Nationalists over the issue of Swadeshi, Boycott and National
Movement. The Assertive Nationalists wanted to extend the Swadeshi and Boycott movement to whole
India whereas the Early Nationalists wanted it to be confined to Bengal only.
 There was also a difference between the two groups over the issue of the next president of INC – the
Early Nationalists proposed the name of Rashbehari Ghosh whereas the Assertive Nationalists proposed
the name of Lala Lajpat Rai.
 This led to the split in the Congress and the Assertive Nationalists were expelled from the Congress for
9 years.

Objective of the Assertive Nationalists

 Poorna Swaraj or Complete Independence

Methods of struggle of the Assertive Nationalists

 Boycott – economic boycott of British goods to encourage Indian industries and generate employment
 Swadeshi – use of goods made in one’s own country
 National education – national college and universities were opened which were free from government
control
 Mass movement – middle classes were made a part of the movement who were willing to sacrifice their
lives and property for the sake of their country

Contribution of the Assertive Nationalists

(a) Bal Gangadhar Tilak (also known as the Father of Assertive Nationalism)
(also gave the popular slogan – “Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it”)

Photo of Bal
Gangadhar
Tilak
  He started the akharas and lathi clubs where physical training was given to the youth.
 He was the first one to openly declare the demand for Swaraj.
 He started using the Ganpati and Shivaji festivals to spread nationalist ideas and encourage the youth.
 He started two newspapers – Mahratta and Kesari

Tilak as the forerunner of Gandhi

 Tilak’s idea of Swaraj was same to the Gandhi’s idea of complete independence.
 Tilak sought close contact with the masses as Gandhi did.
 Tilak preached the ideas of Swadeshi, Boycott and Prohibition which were preached by Gandhi later on.
 Tilak went to jail several times for the sake of the country just like Mahatma Gandhi.

(b) Bipin Chandra Pal (also known as the Father of Revolutionary thought in India)

Photo of
Bipin
Chandra Pal

 He worked for Bengal Public Opinion, The Tribune and New India.
 He demanded 48 hours of work in a week and increase in the wages.
 To establish equality in society, he wanted to tax the rich more heavily than the poor.
 He wanted national education to be the basis for freedom movement.

(c) Lala Lajpat Rai (also known as Punjab Kesari, Sher-e-Punjab)

Photo of Lala
Lajpat Rai

 He protested against the Simon Commission in Lahore.

 He started a magazine – Young India to spread the message to attain Swaraj.
 He helped in the expansion of DAV College in Lahore.
 He went to America and joined the Ghadar party to highlight the problems of the Indians.
 THE MUSLIM LEAGUE

Factors leading to the formation of Muslim League

(i) Loss of sovereignty by Mughal rulers

 The British dethroned the Mughal rulers and became the masters of India.
 The Muslims participated in the Wahabi Movement and the Revolt of 1857. Therefore, the British did not
trust them.

(ii) British policy of divide and rule

 After the revolt of 1857, the British played the policy of divide and rule to break the unity between
sections of the society by playing the caste card.
 They divided the Hindus and the Muslims through Partition of Bengal, increasing government aid to
muslim educational institutions etc.

(iii) Relative backwardness of the Muslims – The Muslims remained backward due to the following reasons –
 The upper class muslims did not accept the western education.
 They were not given jobs in civil and military services.
 They were not involved in the growth of any organised industry.

(iv) Role of Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan

 He founded the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College and regarded the Hindus and Muslims as one
nation.
 Under the influence of Mr. Beck, Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan changed his views and stated that the political
interests of Hindus and Muslims were different.
 He asked the muslims to be loyal towards the British as they would reward them with government jobs
and other special favours.
 He founded the United Indian Patriotic Association to oppose the Congress.

(v) Wrongful interpretation of history

 The British divided Indian history into Hindu and Muslim period. In the Hindu period, they portrayed
Hindu rulers as cruel kings to Muslim subjects and under Muslim period, they portrayed Muslim rulers as
plunderers.
 They did not give any importance to the contribution of the medieval period to the development of
Indian economy, art, culture and literature.

(vi) Rise of assertive nationalism

 The assertive nationalists highlighted the role of Shivaji, Maharana Pratap etc. which was not liked by the
Muslims.
 The concept of India as mother and nationalism as religion was also not liked by the Muslims.

(vii) Economic backwardness of the country

 There was acute unemployment in the country which to the demand for reservation of jobs on the basis
of caste or religion.
 The British used this to divide the Indians in India.

(viii) Hind – Urdu Controversy

 Urdu was the official court language in United Provinces under the British.
 Due to the efforts of Nagari Pracharini Sabha of Benaras, Hindi in Devnagri script also became the official
language along with Urdu which was not liked by the Muslims.
 Formation of Muslim League
 The All India Muslim League was founded on 30th December, 1906 by Nawab Salimullah of Dacca.
 The first president of the Muslim League was Nawab Salimullah.
 Agha Khan was the permanent president of the Muslim League.

Aims and Objectives of the Muslim League

 To promote, among the Muslims in India, support for the British government.
 To promote and advance the political rights and interests of the Muslims.
 To prevent the rise of feeling of hostility between the Muslims and other communities of India.

Lucknow Pact
It is the joint scheme of political reforms agreed by the Congress and Muslim League in 1916.

Significance of Lucknow Pact

 It developed a feeling of unity amongst the members of Hindus and Muslims.
 It was due to the efforts of Mrs. Annie Besant that the differences between the early nationalists and
assertive nationalists was resolved.
 The government could now make no excuse in delaying any political reforms due to the unity of the
leaders.
 The government accepted the political demands of the people to gain their loyalty.
 THE FIRST WORLD WAR (1914 – 1918)

Causes of the First World War

(i) Nationalism and Imperialism

 The feeling of oneness or unity felt by the people of a country who share a common history, language or
culture is known as nationalism.
 In the later half of the 19th century, this national pride turned into aggressive nationalism which means
love for one’s own nation and hatred for other nations.
 Aggressive nationalism led to the development of expansionist policies. For example – France wanted to
get back its provinces of Alsace and Lorraine from Germany, Italy wanted to get back Trentino Trieste
from Austria etc.
 Imperialism refers to the state policy by which powerful nation establishes its control over another
country, either by territorial acquisition or by gaining economic or political control.
 This led to a clash of interests amongst various countries like Germany, Italy, Russia etc. to acquire more
colonies and get rich.

(ii) Race for armaments

 Every major European country began producing more arms and ammunition in the name of self-defense
and preservation of peace.
 Germany began to build a powerful navy to give tough competition to Britain.
 Germany left Britain and France behind in the production of iron and steel.
 Germany built the Imperator to combat Britain’s naval strength.
 Germans dug the Kiel Canal so that its battleships could enter its waters.

(iii) Division of Europe into two hostile groups

 There were two kinds of states in Europe. Single nation states like Britain, France etc. and Imperial states
like Austria-Hungarian Empire and Russian Empire.
 Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy formed the Triple Alliance. Groups formed before WWI
 Britain, France and Russia formed the Triple Entente to counter Triple Alliance.

(iv) Sarajevo Crisis (Immediate Cause)

 Archduke Francis Ferdinand was the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary. He was assassinated by
Gavrilo Princip (member of Black Hand or Union of Death) at Sarajevo, capital of Bosnia on 28th June,
1914.
 Austria served an ultimatum on Serbia. Serbia accepted most of the demand except those that would
lead to the loss of her sovereignty.
 Austria declare war on Serbia on 28th July, 1914.

Groups formed during the First World War

 Britain, France and Russia came to be known as the Allied Powers.
 Germany, Austria-Hungary and allies came to be known as Central Powers.
 Results of the First World War

(i) Treaty of Versailes

 The winning nations (Allied Powers) signed the Treaty of Versailles on 28th June, 1919.
 The terms of treaty were decided by –
 Woodrow Wilson, President of the United States of America
 Lloyd Goerge, Prime Minister of Britain
 George Clemenceau, Prime Minister of France
 The defeated countries were not represented and Russia was excluded from the conference.

Terms of the Treaty of Versailles

 Germany was declared guilty of aggression.
 Germany was supposed to 33 billion dollars as compensation to the Allied Powers.
 Germany lost all her colonies to Britain, Belgium, South Africa and Portugal.
 Rhine valley was to be demilitarized and occupied by the Allied troops for 15 years.
 The coal mines in the German area called ‘Saar’ was given to France for 15 years.
 German army was restricted to 1 lakh soldiers.
 German navy was limited to 15,000 men and 24 ships. Air force and submarines were completely banned.
 Belgium, Poland, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia gained complete independence.

(ii) Territorial rearrangements

 Three ruling dynasties were destroyed – Romanov in Russia, Hohenzollern in Germany and the Hapsburg
in Austria-Hungary
 Austria and Hungary became separate independent states.
 Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia became independent states.
 Rule of the Ottomans ended in Turkey.
 Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania became independent states.

(iii) Formation of the League of Nations

 The League of Nations was created after the end of the First World War to prevent future wars and
promote international co-operation.
 Germany and Soviet Union were not made the members of the League.
 USA did not join the League of Nations.
 The rise of dictatorships in Germany and Italy weakened the League of Nations.
 The League of Nations came to an end when Hitler committed aggression on Poland which began the
Second World War.

Aims and Objectives of the League of Nations

 Member states were not supposed to maintain huge armies, warships and destructive armaments.
 All nations had to respect each other’s independence.
 All nations were prohibited from entering into any secret treaties or alliances.
 Member states would bring their disputes to the League of Nations for a peaceful settlement.
 MAHATMA GANDHI & NATIONAL MOVEMENT
The Indian National Movement from 1915 to 1947 is also known as the Gandhian era primarily because the
period was dominated by Gandhi and his policies.

NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT

Causes that led to the Non-Cooperation Movement

(1) Rowlatt Act

 To suppress the rising national sentiments in the country, Justice Rowlatt’s recommendations led to
formation of Rowlatt act which authorised the government to imprison any person without trial.
 The Rowlatt Act had the following provisions –
(a) Arrest of a person without warrant
(b) In-camera trial (trial in seclusion)
(c) Restriction on the movement of individuals
(d) Suspension of the Right of Habeas Corpus

(2) Khilafat movement

 In WWI, Turkey was defeated fighting against the British.
 The Sultan of Turkey who was regarded as the Caliph (religious head of the Muslims) was deprived of
all authority.
 The Muslim population in India started a powerful agitation known as the khilafat movement under
the leadership of Ali brothers – Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Hakim
Ajmal Khan and Hasrat Mohani.
 The Khilafatists formed a three-point programme -
(a) The Ottoman Caliph should retain his empire
(b) The Caliph must be left with sufficient territory to enable him to defend the Islamic faith
(c) The Arab lands (Arabia, Syria, Iraq and Palestine) must remain under the Muslim rule

(3) Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy

 A large but peaceful crowd gathered at the Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar on April 13, 1919 to protest
against the arrest of leaders like Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlu and Dr. Satyapal.
 General Dyer blocked the exit of the bagh and without giving any warning, fired on the unarmed crowd
till the ammunitions were exhausted.
 The killing of innocent people shocked the entire nation.
 The British government refused to annul the Rowlatt Act and make amends for the atrocities in
Punjab.

Objectives of the Non-Cooperation Movement

 Attaining Swaraj for India
 Suspension of the Rowlatt Act
 Remedying the Punjab wrong
 Restore the old status of the Sultan of Turkey

Programmes of the Non-Cooperation Movement

 The Non-Cooperation Movement emphasised on the use of Swadeshi and Boycott programmes. Some
of these were –
(a) to boycott government schools and colleges
(b) to boycott foreign goods
(c) to popularise the use of Swadeshi and Khadi clothes
(d) to establish national schools and colleges
Suspension of the Non-Cooperation Movement
 The Non-Cooperation Movement was suspended by Gandhi because of the incident which occurredon
February 4, 1922 at Chauri Chaura, a village in Gorakhpur in Uttar Pradesh.
 A procession of 3000 peasants marched towards the local police station demanding the release of the
arrested leader.
 After being fired upon, the mob turned violent and set the police station on fire killing 22 police men.
 The incident shocked Gandhi and suspended the Non-Cooperation Movement as he wanted to gain
freedom by following the methods of non-violence.

Impact of the Non-Cooperation Movement

 It became a mass movement in India
 It developed Hindu-Muslim unity
 The Congress became a revolutionary movement
 It popularised the cult of Swaraj

CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT

Causes that led to the Civil Disobedience Movement

(1) Simon Commission

 The British government appointed a committee of seven people (under the leadership of Sir John
Simon) popularly known as the Simon Commission to look into the need for further constitutional
reforms in India.
 The commission was opposed by Indians as it had all British and no Indian members in it.
 The Congress decided to boycott the commission at every stage. The Muslim League and Hindu
Mahasabha also supported the decision of the Congress.
 Wherever the commission went, it was greeted with hartals and black flag demonstrations under the
slogan ‘Simon Go Back’.
 Brutal repression measures were used by the government to suppress the opposition. At Lahore, Lala
Lajpat Rai was mercilessly beaten up and he died as a result of lathi blows.

(2) The Lahore session of the Congress and the declaration of Poorna Swaraj
 The Lahore session of Congress of 1929 passed a resolution declaring Poorna Swaraj (Complete
Independence) to be the objective of Congress under the presidentship of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru.
 On the midnight on 31st December 1929, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru led a procession to the banks of
River Ravi at Lahore and hoisted the tricolor flag.
 The following programmes were adopted by the Congress Working Committee –
(a) to prepare for Civil Disobedience Movement
(b) Poorna Swaraj was declared as the main aim of the Indian National Movement
(c) to observe 26th January as Poorna Swaraj Day
(d) resignation of members of the legislature
Dandi March

Picture of
Dandi March

 The breaking of the Salt Law at Dandi marked the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
 Gandhi began the march from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi on March 12, 1930. He reached Dandi, a
coastal village in Gujarat on April 6, 1930 and violated the Salt Law.
 He had selected to attack the Salt Law because the Salt Tax affected all sections of the society,
especially the poor.

Programmes of the Civil Disobedience Movement

 to defy the salt law by making salt
 boycott of liquor
 boycott of foreign cloth and other foreign goods
 non-payment of taxes and revenues

Gandhi-Irwin Pact
 The government started negotiations with Gandhi (who was in jail) through Tej Bahadur Sapru and M
R Jayakar, to bring an end to the Civil Disobedience Movement.
 This resulted in the signing of a pact between Lord Irwin, the then Viceroy of India and Gandhi which
came to be known as the Gandhi-Irwin Pact.
 The British government agreed to –
(a) to withdraw all ordinances and end prosecutions
(b) to release all political prisoners except those guilty of violence
(c) to allow peaceful picketing of liquor shops and foreign clothes
(d) to restore the confiscated properties of the Satyagrahis
 The Congress agreed to –
(a) to suspend the Civil Disobedience Movement
(b) to participate in the Second Round Table Conference
(c) not to press for investigations into police excesses

Second Round Table Conference

 It was attended by Gandhi as the sole representative of the Congress.
 The conference was deadlocked on the minority issue as separate electorates were now being
demanded not only by the Muslims but also by the people of the depressed classes such as
Anglo-Indians, Indian Christians and Europeans.
 The British government refused to grant dominion status to India.

Impact of the Civil Disobedience Movement

 It caused a tide of patriotic fervour in the country.
 It widened the base of freedom struggle.
 It made the people understand the significance of the principles of non-violence.
 It brought women out of their homes to participate in politics.
 It popularised new methods of propaganda. For example – Prabhat Pheris, handwritten patrikas,
Vanara Sena, Manjari Sena became popular.
 QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT (1942)

Causes of the Quit India Movement

(1) Failure of the Cripps Mission

 Sir Stafford Cripps, a member of the war cabinet was sent to India to garner the support of Indians and
to break the political deadlock.
 The Cripps Mission failed and was not accepted by the political parties in India because –
(a) it did not promise complete independence to the country
(b) the plan involved partitioning the country
(c) the Muslim League rejected the proposal as it did not talk about giving a separate state to the
muslims
(d) the Sikh, Anglo-Indians, Indian Christians and labour leaders also opposed because it did not
safeguard their interests
(e) Congress opposed the principle of non-accession of the provinces. It wanted all subjects including
defence to be handed over to the national government

(2) Japanese Threat

 Japan was a part of the Axis Powers in the Second World War. It was determined to capture the
countries of South-East Asia one after the other.
 Gandhi felt that the presence of the British in India was an invitation to the Japanese troops to invade
the country.
 So, the leaders decided to launch the Quit India Movement asking the British government to quit India.

Quit India Movement

 The Congress Working Committee met at Wardha and adopted a resolution known as the Quit India
Resolution.
 The All-India Congress Committee met at Bombay on August 8, 1942 and passed the Quit India
Resolution adopted at Wardha. Gandhi declared that it was a decision “To Do or Die”.
 The Quit India Movement started leaderless because Gandhi and other Congress leaders were arrested
on August 9, 1942.
 Popular leaders of the underground movement were Achyutrao Patwardhan, Jai Prakash Narayan,
Ram Manohar Lohia, Aruna Asaf Ali and Nana Patil. These underground leaders kept the movement
alive despite brutal suppression by the British.

Impact of the Quit India Movement

 It demonstrated the depth that nationalist feelings have reached in the country.
 It was the mass uprising before attaining independence.
 It strengthened the Congress Socialist Party because of its heroic role in the movement.
 The constitutional question remained dormant till the close of the war in 1945.
 FORWARD BLOC AND INA
Forward Bloc
 Forward Bloc was a political party founded by Subhash Chandra Bose.

Immediate objective of Forward Bloc

 Liberation of India with the help of workers, peasants and youth and other organisations

Objectives of Forward Bloc (after attaining independence)

 Reorganisation of agriculture and industry on socialist lines
 Abolition of zamindari system
 Introduction of new monetary and credit system

Indian National Army (INA)

 The founder of INA was Captain Mohan Singh, an Indian officer in the British Indian Army.
 INA was formed with the help of Indian Prisoners of War after the defeat of Singapore and Malaya at
the hands of the Japanese army.
 Subhash Chandra Bose was the supreme commander of the INA.

Objectives of Indian National Army (INA)

 To organise an armed revolution and fight the British with modern arms.
 Since it was not possible for Indians to organise an armed revolution from their homeland, this task
must be assigned to the Indians living abroad.
 To organise a provisional government of Free India.
 Total mobilisation of Indian man-power and money for a total war.
 The motto of INA was ‘unity, faith and sacrifice’.

Contributions of Subhash Chandra Bose

Picture of
Subhash
Chandra Bose

 He was the founder of a political party named Forward Bloc.

 He was the supreme commander of the Indian National Army (INA).
 He set up the provisional government of Free India at Singapore.
 He set up a women’s regiment called the Rani Jhansi regiment in the INA. (led by Dr. Laxmi
Swaminthan)
 Under his leadership, INA captured Mowdok, Ukhral, Klang Klang, Kohima from the British forces.
 He renamed the Andaman and Nicobar Islands as Shaheed and Swaraj Islands.
 He gave the famous slogan “Give me blood and I shall give you freedom”.
His battle cries were ‘Delhi Chalo’ and ‘Jai Hind’.
 INDEPENDENCE AND PARTITION OF INDIA
Clauses of the Cabinet Mission Plan

(i) Federal Union

 The Cabinet Mission proposed the formation of a federal union of the British provinces and princely
states in India.
 The central government was to have control of the defence, foreign affairs and communications of the
country.
(ii) Powers of the Union – The Union of India would have its own legislature and executive.
(iii) Provincial autonomy – The provinces had full autonomy for all subjects other than the Union subjects.
(iv) Grouping of provinces – The British provinces were to be divided into groups. There were three major
groups and a province could opt out of any group and join another by a majority of votes.
(v) Formation of a Constituent Assembly
 It proposed the setting up of Constituent Assembly to frame the Constitution of India.
 It was to consist of 389 members. The members of the Constituent Assembly were to be elected by the
Provincial Legislative Assemblies.
(vi) Representation of minorities – Separate representation was to be given to Muslims and Sikhs.
(vii) Formation of Interim government – An interim government was to be formed at the Centre with 14
members.
(viii) Freedom to join the Commonwealth – India had the choice to decide if it wanted to remain with the
British Commonwealth or separate from it.
(ix) Transfer of Power – A treaty would be worked out between the Constituent Assembly and Britain for
settling matters which would arise out of transfer of power.

Mountbatten Plan
Photo of Lord
Photo of Mountbatten
Lord swearing Nehru as
Prime Minister of
Mountbatten Free India

Lord Mountbatten assumed office as the Viceroy and Governor General of India in 1947. His original task was
to resolve the deadlock between the Congress and the Muslim League. He realized that the differences could
never be resolved. Therefore, he came up with the solution of partition of the country. He told the British
government to start the procedure of transfer of power without any delay.

Clauses of the Mountbatten Plan

(i) Partition – The country would be divided into two parts namely, India & Pakistan.
(ii) Relation between the two new dominions –
 The national government of both the countries would decide what kind of relations they would have
between each other (India & Pakistan).
 The national government of both the countries will also decide whether they want to join the British
Commonwealth.
(iii) Boundary Commission – A boundary commission would be set up to decide the boundaries of the two
new nations.
(iv) Princely states –
 All the treaties between the princely states and the British government would come to an end.
 The princely states would be free to join India or Pakistan or remain independent.
(v) Bengal & Punjab – The legislative assembly of both the provinces would decide whether to join India or
Pakistan.
(vi) Sindh – The legislative assembly of Sindh would decide whether to join India or Pakistan.
(vii) NWFP – A plebiscite would be held in NWFP to decide whether the people will join India or Pakistan.
(viii) District of Sylhet – A referendum would be held in Sylhet to decide whether the people will join India or
Pakistan.
(ix) Constituent Assembly –
 The existing constituent assembly would frame the Constitution of India.
 A separate constituent assembly would be established for those provinces which were in the favour of
partition.
(x) Transfer of power – The British parliament will pass an act for the transfer of power before 15th August
1947.

Acceptance of the Mountbatten Plan

 It would resolve the problem of communal riots in India.
 Further delay in transfer of power could lead India into the middle of a civil war.
 The leaders believed that a smaller India with strong centre is better than a bigger India with weak
centre.
 The partition would remove all the undemocratic procedures established by the British government.

Clauses of the Indian Independence Act, 1947

(i) Two new dominions – India would be partitioned and two new nations, India and Pakistan would be
created on 15th August, 1947.
(ii) Provisions of partition –
 The legislative assemblies of both Punjab and Bengal would decide whether they would be a part of
India or Pakistan.
 A plebiscite would be held in NWFP to decide by the people whether they want to join India or
Pakistan.
(iii) Governor General for each dominion – Two new governor generals would be appointed by the British
King on the advice of the cabinet ministers of the two new nations.
(iv) Constituent assemblies to serve as central legislatures –
 The constituent assemblies of both the nations were to act as the central legislatures of the respective
countries.
 They would have full power to make laws for their respective countries.
(v) End of jurisdiction of the British Parliament –
 The authority of the British Parliament would come to an end on 15th August, 1947.
 The power to veto laws by the King of England was abolished.
 There would be abolition of the use of the title of ‘Emperor of India’.
(vi) Princely states –
 All the treaties between the British government and the princely states came to an end.
 The princely states were free to join India or Pakistan or remain independent.
(vii) Treaties and agreement – All the treaties and agreements between the Indian rulers, tribal areas with the
British government came to an end.
(viii) Division of the army and the assets –
 The Indian army was divided between the two new nations, India & Pakistan.
 The assets and liabilities were also divided between the two new nations, India & Pakistan.
(ix) Bringing the act into operation – The Governor General was given the power to bring Indian
Independence Act into effect.
(x) Office of the Secretary of State and interest of the existing officers –
 The office of the Secretary of State of India was abolished.
 The ICS officers were inducted into the administrative organs of the new states, India & Pakistan.
 THE UNION EXECUTIVE
THE PRESIDENT AND THE VICE-PRESIDENT

THE PRESIDENT
 President is the executive head of the Indian Union.
 President is the Head of the State, first citizen of the nation and the supreme commander of the
Defence Forces of India.
 The Constitution makes it necessary for the President to exercise his/her functions on the advice of the
Prime Minister and Council of Ministers.

QUALIFICATIONS FOR ELECTION

 should be a citizen of India
 has completed the age of 35 years
 should be eligible to become a member of the Lok Sabha
 should not hold any office of profit under the government of India or any state

COMPOSITION OF THE ELECTORAL COLLEGE

 President is elected indirectly by the members of an electoral college which consists of –
- the elected members of both the Houses of Parliament
- the elected members of legislative assemblies of states including the National Capital
Territory of Delhi and Union Territory of Puducherry.
 Nominated members of the Rajya Sabha and State legislative assemblies are not eligible to be included
in the Electoral College.

ELECTION OF THE PRESIDENT

 President is elected indirectly
 the method of election is based on proportional representation by means of single transferable vote
 the system adopted for voting is secret ballot

REASONS FOR INDIRECT ELECTION

 The President is elected indirectly because –
- if elected directly, he would become a rival centre of power to the Council of Ministers
- it makes the President the elected representative of the whole nation and prevents him from becoming
a nominee of the ruling party
- prevents loss of time, energy, manpower and money

TERM OF OFFICE
 5 years from the date he enters office
 shall continue to hold office until the successor takes charge

PROCEDURE OF IMPEACHMENT OF THE PRESIDENT

 Either house of the Parliament can level the charge.
 A written notice to be served to the President atleast 14 days prior signed by not less than 1/4th of the
total membership of the House.
 The resolution should be passed by a majority of not less than 2/3rd of the total membership of the
House.
 The other House will now investigate the charges and the President has the right to appear and be
represented.
 If the other House passes the resolution by a majority of not less than 2/3rd of the total membership
of the House, the President stands impeached.
POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT OF INDIA

(a) Executive Powers

(i) Head of the Union administration – All executive orders are issued in the name of the President.
(ii) Appointment of officials of the State – The President appoints the following to run government’s
administration. They are –
- The Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers
- The Chief Justice of India
- The judges of the Supreme Court and High Court
- The governors of the states
- The Lt-Governors and Chief Commissioners of the Union Territories.
- The Attorney General of India
- The Comptroller and Auditor General of India
- The Chairman and the members of Union Public Service Commission
(iii) Control over state governments – During President’s rule, the state government is completely under the
control of the union government.
(iv) Union territories and border areas – Administration of the union territories and border areas is the
responsibility of the President.

(b) Legislative Powers

(i) Addresses sessions of Parliament – The President addresses both Houses of Parliament assembled
together for the first session after each general election to the Lok Sabha.
(ii) Summons & prorogues the House – The President has the power to summon and prorogue the Houses of
Parliament.
(iii) Dissolve the Lok Sabha – The President can dissolve the Lok Sabha and order fresh elections.
(iv) Nomination of members – The President nominates 12 members to the Rajya Sabha.
(v) Assent to bills – No bill can become a law without the assent and signature of the President.
(vi) Promulgate ordinance – The President has the power to promulgate an ordinance which has the same
status as an act of Parliament.
(vii) Formation of new states – President’s recommendation is necessary for the formation of new states and
alteration of boundaries of existing states.

(c) Financial Powers

(i) Money bills can be introduced only on the recommendation of the President.
(ii) The Annual Budget is placed before the Parliament by the Finance Minister on behalf of the President.
(iii) The President can authorise withdrawl of advance from the Contingency Fund of India.
(iv) The President appoints a Finance Commission after every five years to give recommendations on financial
matters.

(d) Judicial Powers

(i) The President is not answerable before any Court of law for the exercise of his/her duties.
(ii) No criminal suit can be initiated against the President during his/her tenure.
(iii) The President has the power to grant pardons or remission of punishment.

(e) Discretionary Powers

(i) Appointment of a Prime Minister when no single party gets the majority of the Lok Sabha members and
there is a hung parliament.
(ii) When a vote of no-confidence has been passed against the ruling party, then the President can either
dissolve the Lok Sabha or ask another party to prove its majority on the floor of the House.
(iii) Appointment of Prime Minister in case of the sudden death of the incumbent.
(iv) The President can dismiss ministers in case the Council of Ministers loses the confidence of the House but
refuses to resign.
(f) Emergency Powers
(i) National Emergency – When there is a danger to the peace and security of the nation because of foreign
aggression, or civil war, or insurgency, the President can declare national emergency.
(ii) Breakdown of Constitutional Machinery or President’s rule – If the President on receiving a report from
the Governor of the state, is satisfied that the governance of the state cannot be carried out according to the
provisions of the Constitution, he/she may declare President’s rule.
(iii) Financial Emergency – If the President is satisfied that the financial stability of the nation is in danger,
he/she can declare financial emergency.

VICE-PRESIDENT

QUALIFICATIONS FOR ELECTION

 should be a citizen of India
 has completed the age of 35 years
 should be eligible to become a member of the Rajya Sabha
 should not hold any office of profit under the government of India or any state government

TERM OF OFFICE
 shall hold office for 5 years from the date he/she enters office
 shall continue to hold office until successor takes charge
 will submit resignation in writing to the President who will communicate the same to the Speaker of
the Lok Sabha
 can be removed from office by the process of Impeachment for the violation of the Constitution

POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE VICE-PRESIDENT

(a) Chairman of the Rajya Sabha

 The Vice-President of the India acts as the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha.
 In his/her absence, the Deputy Chairman heads the Rajya Sabha who is elected from amongst the
members of the Rajya Sabha.

(b) Taking over as the President

 The Vice-President takes over the office of the President under the following situations –
- death of the President
- resignation of the President
- removal of the President
- when the President cannot discharge his duties due to absence, illness or any other cause.
 THE UNION EXECUTIVE
PRIME MINISTER AND COUNCIL OF MINISTERS

 India is a parliamentary form of government. Therefore, President is only a nominal head of the state.
Thus, the Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister is the most powerful institution in the
country. The Prime Minister is the de facto head of the state.

APPOINTMENT OF THE PRIME MINISTER

 The Prime Minister is appointed by the President of India.
 The President invites the leader of the majority party in the Lok Sabha to form the government.

COUNCIL OF MINISTERS
 Council of Ministers comprises of the Prime Minister and other ministers (Cabinet ministers, Ministers
of State & Deputy Ministers) appointed by the President on Prime Minister’s advice.
 Normally, only MP’s are appointed as ministers. In case a non-MP is appointed as a minister, he/she
must be elected to the Lok Sabha or nominated to the Rajya Sabha within 6 months from the date of
his/her appointment.
 The Constitution 91st Amendment Act, 2003 has put a restriction on the size of the Council of
Ministers at the Centre and in the States to 15% of the strength of the Lok Sabha and State
legislatures.
 However, the minimum number of ministers allowed both in the Lok Sabha and State legislatures is 12.
 The Council of Ministers consist of 3 categories of ministers –
a. Cabinet Ministers
- They are most important members of the Council of Ministers holding important portfolios like
defence, finance, railways, external affairs etc.
- Cabinet Minister is incharge of a ministry or sometimes more than one ministry.
- Cabinet Ministers attend cabinet meetings.
- They together determine the policies and programme of the government.
- Prime Minister consults them in day-to-day working.
- Cabinet Ministers meet frequently.

b. Ministers of State
- They are the second category of ministers who may or may not hold any independent charge or
any portfolio.
- Prime Minister may or may not consult them. They may be consulted when matters concerning
their departments are being considered.
- Ministers of State do not attend cabinet meetings.

c. Deputy Ministers
- They are the third category of ministers who assist the Cabinet Ministers and Ministers of State.
- Deputy Ministers do not attend cabinet meetings.

TENURE OF OFFICE
 The ministers hold office during the pleasure of the President.
 The Council of Ministers are collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha.
 The President administers the oath of secrecy to the Council of Ministers.
POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE CABINET

(a) Administrative powers

(i) The Cabinet formulates both external and domestic policies of the government such as defence,
economic policy, formation of new states etc.
(ii) Once a policy decision is taken by the Cabinet on any subject, it is conveyed to the Minister of State
and Deputy Minister and civil servants of the concerned ministry for its implementation.
(iii) The Cabinet coordinates the working of various departments for the smooth implementation of
government policies.
(iv) All major appointments made by the President such as judges of Supreme Court and High Court,
governors of state etc. are decided upon by the Cabinet.

(b) Legislative powers

(i) The Cabinet pilots the bill through various stages of legislation from introduction to the final
passage of the bill.
(ii) The Cabinet is instrumental in planning and moving an amendment to the Constitution.
(iii) Although the Houses are summoned by the President, it is decided upon by the Ministry of
Parliamentary Affairs.
(iv) The Cabinet prepares the President’s special address to the Parliament.
(v) Cabinet also advises the President to issue ordinances when the Parliament is not in session.

(c) Financial Powers

(i) The Finance Minister prepares the Annual Budget containing the estimates of income and
expenditure. No changes are made in the Budget against the wishes of the Cabinet.
(ii) The Cabinet is responsible for the expenditure and raising the income of the government.
(iii) A Money Bill can only be introduced in the Lok Sabha.

(d) Emergency Powers

(i) The Cabinet’s written approval is necessary for the President to declare any kind of emergency.

POSITION AND POWERS OF THE PRIME MINISTER

(a) Prime Minister and the President

(i) Prime Minister is the principal advisor of the President.
(ii) President summons, prorogues and dissolves the Lok Sabha on the advice of the Prime Minister.
(iii) President appoints important officials on the advice of the Prime Minister.
(iv) The Prime Minister is the link between the President and the Council of Ministers.
(v) The President can ask for information regarding the affairs of the government and the Prime
Minister has to furnish such information.

(b) Prime Minister and the Cabinet

(i) The Prime Minister is the head of the Cabinet.
(ii) The Prime Minister has the power to select and dismiss the minister.
(iii) The Prime Minister has the power to allocate portfolios or reshuffle the Council of Ministers.
(iv) The resignation of the Prime Ministers means the resignation of the entire Cabinet.

(c) Prime Minister inside the Parliament

(i) Since Prime Minister is the leader of the majority party in the Parliament, he is the leader of the
House.
(ii) The Prime Minister is the chief spokesperson of the government in the Parliament.
(iii) The Prime Minister defends the policies of the government in the Parliament.
(iv) If an ugly situation arises in any of the Houses, the matter generally ends with the intervention of
the Prime Minister.
 (d) Prime Minister as the leader of the nation
(i) The Prime Minister is the leader of the nation and represents the nation.
(ii) During a national crisis like war, even the opposition parties support the Prime Minister.
(iii) The Prime Minister decides what kind of relations India will have with other nations.
(iv) The Prime Minister protects the interests of the country on international forums.
(v) The Prime Minister is ex-officio chairman of the Niti Aayog and the Atomic Energy Commission.

(e) Check on the authority of the Prime Minister

(i) Though the Prime Minister is the leader of the majority party, he has to ensure the support of his
ministers as well as the party.
(ii) In case of coalitions, the position of the Prime Minister becomes vulnerable.
(iii) Opposition parties always look for a chance to criticize the Prime Minister.
(iv) The press and public opinion act as effective check on the authority of the Prime Minister.

COLLECTIVE RESPONSIBILITY
 The Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers are collectively responsible for all their acts of
omission and commission to the Lok Sabha. They swim and sink together in all the decisions they take
collectively.

INDIVIDUAL RESPONSIBILITY
 Individually, the Council of Ministers are responsible for their acts of omission and commission to the
President. They enjoy office till the pleasure of the President.

DISTINCTION BETWEEN COUNCIL OF MINISTERS AND THE CABINET

COUNCIL OF MINISTERS CABINET

1. The Council of Ministers consists of all categories 1. The Cabinet is a smaller group consisting of
of ministers – Cabinet Ministers, Ministers of State senior ministers holding important portfolios such
and Deputy Ministers. as defence, finance, railways etc.
2. The PM may or may not consult ministers below 2. The PM always consults them in his day to day
the rank of Cabinet Ministers. working.
3. The Council of Ministers rarely meet. 3. The Cabinet Ministers meet frequently.
4. They are the de jure advisors of the President. 4. They are the de facto advisors of the President.
 RISE OF DICTATORSHIPS

 After the First World War, democracy was established in many parts of the world. But gradually,
dictatorial governments were established in Germany, Italy, Russia and Spain.
 These states refused to cooperate with the League of Nations and expanded their military.
 Their motto was “everything for the State, everything within the State and nothing outside the State.”
 The dictators in the following states were –
(i) Germany – Adolf Hitler
(ii) Italy – Benito Mussolini
(iii) Russia – Vladimir Lenin

Benito Mussolini Adolf Hitler

FASCISM
 The word ‘Fascism’ means autocracy or dictatorship where the power of the State is vested in one man
only and it is necessary for all to obey his orders.
 The word ‘Fascism’ has been derived from the Italian word fascio which means union or league.
 Benito Mussolini spread fascism in Italy. He was called Duce which means the leader.

Causes for the rise of Fascism in Italy

(i) Discontentment from the Treaty of Versailles – Italy joined WWI to gain territories of Turkey and Germany.
But, she could only get Southern Tyrol, Trentino and the coastal regions of Dalmatia.
(ii) Economic crisis – After WWI, there was large scale unemployment and shortage of food grains.
(iii) Political instability – After the war, no single party was able to get majority in the elections. The
government was not able to deal with rising unemployment, strikes and riots.
(iv) Threat of Socialism or Communism – The communists began to conspire overthrowing the government
and capture power. Landlords and industrialists viewed communism with danger and provided financial
support to fascism.
(v) Failure of the League of Nations – The League of Nations was a weak organization which was not able to
check the growing influence of Fascism and Nazism.

NAZISM
 Adolf Hitler joined a small party called the ‘The German Workers Party’. Soon, he became its leader
and changed its name to National Socialist Party or Nazi Party.
 Hitler spread Nazism in Germany and adopted the designation of “Fuhrer” means the Leader.
 Hitler is the author of the book Mein Kampf.

Causes for the rise of Nazism in Germany

(i) Discontentment from the Treaty of Versailles – Germany was blamed for WWI and had to pay heavy
reparations of 33 billion dollars. Hitler openly opposed the Treaty of Versailles and asked the Germans to
support him into building a new powerful Germany.
(ii) Economic Crisis – After the war, industrial and agricultural production declined thereby leading to
unemployment. Many countries raised tariffs on German manufactured goods.
(iii) Growing fear of communism – The communists occupied many seats in Reichstag. Hitler asked Germans
to vote for him as Nazis along could check the rising tide of communism.
(iv) Resurgence of militant nationalism – Hitler assured people that he would work to regain the lost prestige
and glory of Germany. Thus, people began to support him.
(v) Anti-Semitic Propoganda – The Nazis described the Jews as traitors. Hitler said that the Jews had
conspired with the Allies during the First World War. Because of the anti-Semetic propaganda, many Germans
began to support him.

Similarity between the ideologies of Fascism and Nazism

 to have faith in totalitarian rule

 to uphold one party and one leader
 to believe in aggressive nationalism and imperialism
 to hold that state is supreme and it could suppress the freedom of individuals
 to uphold intensely nationalistic, anti-communist, anti-democratic rule
 THE SECOND WORLD WAR
(1939 - 1945)

Causes of the Second World War

(i) Dissatisfaction from the Treaty of Versailles

 The treaty of Versailles was based on the spirit of revenge and Germany was forced to sign the treaty.
 Germany was divided into two parts for the benefit of Poland and all her colonies were taken away.
 Germany had to pay huge war reparations and her military power was also reduced.
 This humiliation gave rise to revenge and Germany started rearmament.

(ii) Rise of Fascism and Nazism

 Italy wanted to revive the glory of the Old Roman Empire.
 Italy joined the Anti-Comintern Pact and formed a 10 years alliance with Germany to strengthen her
position.
 Mussolini opposed the Treaty of Versailles and attacked Abyssinia.
 Hitler wanted to re-establish the prestige of Germany in the international field.
 Hitler flouted the military clauses of the Treaty of Versailles and declared re-armament.
 Hitler annexed Austria and dismembered Czechoslovakia.

(iii) Japanese invasion of China

 Japan’s ambition rose after WWI and was determined to dominate the Far East.
 Japan occupied Manchuria and set up a government there.
 China appealed to the League of Nations but leading members like Britain and France did not pay
attention.
 Japan joined the Berlin-Rome Axis to form the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis to further its policy of
expansion and conquest.
 Japan left the League of Nations and started occupying the British & American colonies in China.

(iv) Failure of the League of Nations

 League of Nations proved unsuccessful because member nations were not interested in the principle
of collective security.
 The League of Nations did nothing when Poland occupied a part of Lithuania, or when Japan occupied
Manchuria, or when Italy attacked Abyssinia.
 League of Nations failed to maintain international peace and order.

(v) Hitler’s invasion of Poland (Immediate Cause)

 Germany was divided into two parts to give a land route to Poland upto the port of Danzig.
 The city of Danzig was inhabited by German speaking people. Therefore, Hitler wanted to unify them
with Germany.
 The Port of Danzig would connect Germany with East Prussia.
 Germany had signed a Non-Aggression Pact with Russia promising it certain territories of Poland.
 Therefore, on 1st September 1939 on the excuse that Poland was committing atrocities on the
Germans living there, Hitler invaded Poland.

Groups during the Second World War

Axis Powers – Germany, Italy and Japan

Allied Powers – Britain, France and USA (Allied Powers won the Second World War)
Events of the Second World War

(i) Attack on Pearl Harbour

 America followed a policy of strict neutrality in the Second World War and was lending or leasing
armaments to Britain and China.
 Japan feared the military might of America. Under the premiership of General Tojo, Japan ordered a
surprise aerial attack on US Pacific Fleet based at Pearl Harbour in Hawaii on December 7, 1941.
 Japanese made two mistakes – they did not destroy the ship repair facilities and they did not destroy
the US carriers Lexington and Enterprise.
 On December 8, 1941, USA officially joined the Second World War against Japan.

(ii) Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

 America destroyed the Japanese fleet. However, Japan was not ready to surrender.
 In July 1945, America tested the first ever atomic bomb was detonated in the desert near Alamogordo,
New Mexico.
 On 6th August 1945, the first atomic bomb (Little Boy) ever to be used on humans, was dropped in the
city of Hiroshima in Japan.
 On 9th August 1945, another bomb (Fat Man) was dropped in the city of Nagasaki of Japan.
 With the surrender of Japan, Second World War comes to an end.

Consequences of the Second World War

(i) Defeat of the Axis Powers

(a) Germany
 At the end of the Second World War, Germany was divided into zones under the army of the Allied
Powers
 The Federal Republic of Germany commonly known as West Germany was administered by UK, France
and USA with Bonn as the capital.
 The German Democratic Republic commonly known as East Germany was administered by Soviet
Union with East Berlin as the capital.
(b) Japan
 After the attack on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan surrendered unconditionally.
 The American army was to occupy Japan till 1952. After this period, the Japanese would resume
control over their own affairs.
(c) Italy
 Italy became very weak after the war and was divided amongst the Allied Powers. Mussolini was
caught by his own people and killed when was he was trying to flee Italy.

(ii) Formation of the UN

 The leaders (Big Three) of the Allied governments like Franklin Roosevelt (President of the USA),
Winston Churchill (Prime Minister of Britain), Joseph Stalin (Premier of USSR) held discussions which
led to formation of United Nations Organisation on 24 th October 1945.

(iii) Cold War

 Cold War is defined as an atmosphere where there is no armed struggle, but the rivals continue to
maintain their peace time diplomatic relations along with their hostility.
 After the Second World War, two new power blocs emerged led by USA and USSR respectively.
 The power bloc led by the USA is also called the Democratic, Capitalist or Western Bloc. This bloc
comprised nations like Britain, France, Belgium, Italy, Canada, Australia etc. This bloc believes in liberal
democracy and is based on capitalism.
 The power bloc led by the USSR is also called the Communist, Eastern or Soviet bloc. This bloc
comprises nations like Poland, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia etc. This bloc believes in
communism based on Marxist theory.
 UNITED NATIONS

 The horrors of the two world wars led to the establishment of the UNO.
 UN Charter was drafted at San Francisco in 1945 and signed by 50 participating nations including
India.
 The United Nations formally came into existence on October 24, 1945. Therefore, October24th is
celebrated every year thorough out the world as the United Nations Day.
 Currently, 193 nations are members of the UNO.

UN Emblem Antonio Guterres, UN Secretary General

AIMS & OBJECTIVES OF THE UNITED NATIONS

 Disarm, decolonize and develop (new objective)
 To maintain international peace and security
 To develop friendly relations among nations
 To achieve international cooperation in solving international economic, social, cultural or
humanitarian problems
 To be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations

ORGANS OF THE UNITED NATIONS

 The United Nations has 6 principal organs. They are –
(i) General Assembly (ii) Security Council
(iii) International Court of Justice (iv) Economic and Social Council
(v) Trusteeship Council (vi) Secretariat

(i) The General Assembly

 The General Assembly is the main deliberative, policy making and representative organ of the UN.
It also called the World Parliament.
 Its headquarters are in New York, USA.

Composition
 All the members of the UN are members of the General Assembly.
 Each state has 5 representatives in the General Assembly, but each State has only one vote.
 At the beginning of each regular session, the Assembly elects a new President, 21 Vice-
Presidents and the Chairmen of the Assembly’s six main committees.
 The regular session of the General Assembly begins each year on the 3rd Tuesday in
September and continues usually until the 3rd week of December.
 The decisions on important matters are made by two-third majority vote.
Powers and functions of the General Assembly (any 4)
 To make recommendations for the peaceful settlement of disputes
 To receive and consider reports from the Security Council and other organs of the UN
 To consider and approve the budget of the UN
 To elect the non-permanent members of the Security Council
 To elect the judges of the International Court of Justice
 To appoint Secretary General on the recommendation of Security Council
Note – “Uniting for Peace” resolution, 1950 means that the General Assembly can take up an issue
which is likely to threaten international peace and security and which the Security Council has failed to
resolve as a result of a veto.

(ii) The Security Council

 It is the executive body of the United Nations.
 Its primary responsibility is the maintenance of international peace and security.
 Its headquarters are in New York, USA.

Composition
 The Council consists of 15 members.
 It has 5 permanent members – China, France, Russia, Britain and the USA.
 The 10 non-permanent members are elected by the General Assembly by a two-third majority for
a term of two years.
Note – The negative vote of a permanent member of the Security Council is called veto power. The
Council is powerless to act if any of the five permanent members uses the veto power.

Powers and functions of the Security Council (any 4)

 To maintain international peace and security
 To call on members to apply economic sanctions and other measures not involving the useof force
to prevent or stop aggression
 To take military action against an aggressor
 To recommend the admission of new members
 To recommend to the General Assembly in the appointment of the Secretary General
 To elect the judges of the International Court of Justice along with the members of the General
Assembly

(iii) International Court of Justice

 It is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations.
 Its headquarters are in the The Hague, Netherlands.

Composition
 The Court consists of 15 judges elected for a term of 9 years
 The judges are elected by the UN General Assembly and Security Council sitting
independently.
 Each judge is from a different country
 Elections are held after every 3 years for 1/3rd of seats and retiring judges may be re-elected.
 Elects its President and Vice-President for a period of 3 years.
Qualifications for being a judge of the International Court of Justice
The Judges must possess the qualifications required in their respective countries for
appointment to the highest judicial offices or Should be a renowned jurist in International
Law

Powers and functions of International Court of Justice

 Advisory opinion on legal matters to the organs and special agencies of the UN
 Decides disputes between member states when referred
 Disputes concerning interpretation of international law
 Compensation for breeding international law & treaty/agreements
 Certification of International law
 MAJOR AGENCIES OF THE UNITED NATIONS

The United Nations has several specialized agencies which work to improve the social andeconomic
conditions of a country.

UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S FUND (UNICEF)

Logo of UNICEF

Headquarter - New York, USA

Functions
 It provides help to children and mothers in emergencies.
 It provides funds for the training of health and sanitation helpers including teachers and
nutritionists.
 Works for the protection of children in respect of their survival, health and well-being.
 It makes efforts to prevent diseases like Tuberculosis, Malaria, Eye and Skin diseases.

WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (WHO)

Logo of WHO

Headquarter – Geneva, Switzerland

Functions
 It helps countries to improve their health system by building up infrastructure.
 It works towards providing safe drinking water and adequate water disposal system.
 To organize conferences and seminars for healthcare personnel from different countries.
 To set international standards for the strength and purity of medicines.
 It publishes health journals like the ‘Bulletin of the World Health Organization’ and ‘Public Health
Panorama’ to create health consciousness among people.
 UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION (UNESCO)

Headquarter – Paris, France

Functions of UNESCO in Education

 Helps in the education of women and girls.
 Financial assistance for the education of disabled children.

Functions of UNESCO in Science and Scientific Activities

 UNESCO organizes seminars and conferences of scientists.
Courier is the official monthlymagazine of UNESCO.
 It promotes research studies in Geology, Mathematics, Physics and Oceanography.

Functions of UNESCO in Communication

 It improves the quality of the Press, films and video devices.
 It upholds the freedom of press and media.

Functions of UNESCO in Preservation of Cultural Heritage

 It has prepared a World Heritage List to identify the monument which are to be protected.
 It protects works of ancient art and rare manuscripts.
 THE JUDICIARY
The Supreme Court

COMPOSITION
(a) The Supreme Court of India consists of a Chief Justice of India and not more than 33 other judges.
(b) The number of judges of the Supreme Court was increased from 30 to 33 according to Number of
Judges Amendment Act, 2019.

QUALIFICATION OF JUDGES
A person is eligible to be appointed as a Judge of the Supreme Court if:
(a) He/She is a citizen of India
(b) He/She should have been a judge in any of the High Court for not less than 5 years; or
Should have been an advocate in any of the High Court for not less than 10 years; or
he/she should be a distinguished jurist in the opinion of the President.

APPOINTMENT OF JUDGES
(a) The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court is appointed by the President on the advice of the senior most
judges of the Supreme Court along with the council of ministers.
(b) The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court is usually the senior most judge of the Supreme Court.
(c) The other judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President on the advice of the Chief Justice of
the Supreme Court and High Court and the council of ministers.

TERM OF OFFICE
(a) A Judge of the Supreme Court holds office until he attains the age of 65 years
(b) A judge may resign by submitting his resignation letter to the President.
(c) A Judge of the Supreme Court can be removed from his office on grounds of proven
misbehaviour or incapacity through the process of impeachment.

SEAT OF THE SUPREME COURT

The Supreme Court is situated in New Delhi but the seat of the Supreme Court can be changed to any of the
places across the country if the Chief Justice agrees to after taking approval from the President.

INDEPENDENCE OF THE JUDICIARY FROM THE CONTROL OF EXECUTIVE AND LEGISLATURE

(i) Appointment of judges – Every judge of the Supreme Court is appointed by the President in
consultation with the cabinet as well as the judges of the Supreme Court and the High Court.
(ii) Removal of judges – The judges can be removed from office when the investigation is thoroughly
investigated by an impartial tribunal followed by the process of impeachment.
(iii) Security of tenure - A judge can remain in office till he has attained the age of 65 years. He/She can only be
removed by the President on grounds of proven misbehaviour or incapacity.
(iv) Security of salaries and service conditions – The salaries of the judges cannot be reduced during their of
service except during the periods of financial emergency. Their salaries and allowances are charged on the
Consolidated Fund of India which are not subject to vote ofthe Parliament.
(v) Freedom to announce decisions – The judges are free to announce their decisions in thecourt without
the danger to their person, property or fame.
(vi) Punishment for Contempt of Court – The Supreme Court can punish for Contempt of Court if a person
or authority tries to lower the dignity of the Court.
(vii) Full control over its procedure of work and establishment – The Supreme Court is free todecide its own
procedures of work as well as the conditions of service of its employees.
 (viii) No discussion in the Parliament on the conduct of judges – No discussion can take place in the
Parliament regarding the conduct of any judge during his discharge of duties.
(ix) Prohibition of practice after retirement – The judges are paid handsome pensions but are not allowed to
practice after their retirement in any court of law.

JURISDICTION AND POWERS OF THE SUPREME COURT

Jurisdiction is the power that a court of law exercises to carry out judgements and enforce laws. The
Supreme Court is the protector and final interpreter of the Constitution.

(a) Original Jurisdiction

All those cases which are directly brought to the Supreme Court at the very first instance come
under the original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. The cases are –
(i) Centre – State dispute
(ii) Inter –State dispute
(iii) Dispute between the centre and state on one side and two or more states on the other side
(iv) Enforcement of fundamental rights
(v) Interpretation of the constitution

(b) Appellate Jurisdiction

All those cases which are brought to the Supreme Court through an appeal from the High Court come under
the appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. All kinds of civil, criminal and constitutional cases come under
appellate jurisdiction.

(c) Advisory Jurisdiction

(i) The Supreme Court has the power to provide an opinion on any question of law or facts of public
importance as may be referred to it for consideration by the President.
(ii) The advice given by the Supreme Court to the President is not binding in nature.
(iii) The Supreme Court is also not bound to give the advice every time a matter is sent for its consideration.

(d) Revisory Jurisdiction

The power of the Supreme Court to review any of its old judgement in order to rectify the error which might have
crept in the judgment is termed as revisory jurisdiction.

(e) Judicial Review

The Supreme Court is the final interpreter of the Constitution due to which it has the power to reviews the
laws passed by the Parliament or state legislatures in India. If these laws are not according to the provisions
of the constitution, the Supreme Court can declare it null and void.

(f) Court of Record

(i) The Supreme Court is a Court of Record whose judgements are recorded for evidenceand
testimony.
(ii)The judgements are in the nature of ‘precedents’
(iii) It cannot be questioned in any court of law. The Supreme Court can punish anyone for
Contempt of Court.

(g) ENFORCEMENT OF FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS

Any citizen whose fundamental rights are violated may move to the Supreme Court for the
enforcement of fundamental rights. The Supreme Court issues writs in the nature of Habeas Corpus,
Mandamus, Writ of Prohibition, Writ of Certiorari and Quo-Warranto.
 IMPORTANT WRITS
Habeas Corpus – It means ‘to have the body’. By issuing this writ, the Supreme Court or the High Court can get
the body of any person released if it has been unlawfully detained by a person or a group of persons or the
state.
Mandamus – It means ‘we order’. It is a command from a superior court to a lower court toperform certain
duty.
Writ of Prohibition – The Writ of Prohibition is issued by a superior court to a lower court tostop the
proceeding in a case which might be in excess of the jurisdiction of the lower court.
Writ of Certiorari – It is issued by a superior court to a judicial authority ‘to be informed ofwhat is going
on’.
The difference between the Writ of Prohibition and the Writ of Certiorari is that – Writ of
Prohibition is issued when the proceeding in the case are going on and Writ of Certiorari is issued
after the order has already been passed by the lower court.

Quo-Warranto – It means ‘by what order’. It is issued when a person has usurped any office.This writ prevents
public officers from forcibly holding a high office.
 THE JUDICIARY
The High Courts and SubordinateCourts

COMPOSITION
Each High Court consists of one Chief Justice and as many other judges as the President of India may appoint from
time to time.

QUALIFICATION OF JUDGES
(a) He/She should be a citizen of India.
(b) He/She should not be above 62 years of age.
(c) He/She should have worked as a judge in any of the Subordinate Court for not less than 10 years; or
He/She should have been an advocate in any of the Subordinate Court for not less than 10 years

APPOINTMENT OF JUDGES
(a) The Chief Justice of a High Court is appointed by the President in consultation with the Chief
Justice of Supreme Court and the Governor of the state.
(b) The other judges of the High Court are appointed by the President on the consultation of the
Chief Justice of Supreme Court, Chief Justice of High Court and Governor of the concerned
State.

POWERS AND JURISDICTION OF THE HIGH COURT

(i) Original Jurisdiction - All those cases which are directly brought to the High Court at the very first
instance come under the original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. The cases are –
(i) cases related to state revenue and collection
(ii) cases related to divorce, marriage, will, contempt of court and company act.
(iii) cases related to election petitions dealing with state vidhan sabha and local bodies
(iv) Enforcement of fundamental rights
(v) Interpretation of the constitution

(i) Appellate Jurisdiction – All those cases which come to the High Court through an appeal from the
subordinate courts, come under the appellate jurisdiction of the Highcourt. All the civil and criminal
cases decided by the district judge and the sessions judge come under the appellate jurisdiction of the
High Court.

(ii) Revisory Jurisdiction – It means that the High Court can review the judgement of the Subordinate Court
in cases where the Subordinate Court has exceeded its jurisdiction or not followed the proper
procedure. In such cases, the High Court reviews the case and takes necessary action on the case.

(iii) Judicial Review – If any law, executive order or any ordinance passed by the Vidhan Sabha or any other
authority violates the fundamental rights or any provision of the Constitution, the High Court can declare
it null and void.

(iv) Court of Record – All the judgments of the High Court are recorded for future evidence and testimony.
The judgements are in the nature of precedents. The law laid down by the High Court is binding on all
the Subordinate Courts in the state. The High Court can punish anyone for contempt of court.

(v) Enforcement of fundamental rights – Any citizen whose fundamental rights are violated may move to
the High Court for the enforcement of his/her rights. The High Court has the power to issue writs in the
 nature of Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Quo-Warranto, Writ of Prohibition and Writ of Certiorari for the
enforcement of any of the fundamental rights.

LOK ADALAT
(i) Lok Adalat means ‘People’s Court’
(ii) It is a legal forum where cases are brought for redressal in the spirit of compromise and
understanding between the two parties. There is no involvement of lawyer for representation
of the case. It can be done by the individual himself/herself.

ADVANTAGES OF LOK ADALAT

(i) Disputes are settles through compromise and understanding between the two parties
(ii) delivers fast and inexpensive justice
(iii) reduces the workload of other courts
(iv) promotes social justice by providing legal help to the weaker sections of the society

DISTINCTION BETWEEN COURT OF THE DISTRICT JUDGE AND SESSIONS COURT

Court of the District Judge Sessions Court

(a) It is the highest civil court of the district. (a) It is the highest criminal court of the
district.
(b) It is presided over by a District Judge. (b) It is presided over by a Session Judge.
(c) The District Judge decides civil cases related to (c) The Sessions Judge decides criminal caseslike
land, property, money transactions, murders, theft, dacoity, pick-pocketing
marriage, divorce, will etc. etc.
(d) The District Judge performs administrative (d) The Sessions Judge does not perform any
functions. administrative functions.
 NON-ALIGNED
MOVEMENT
 The Non-Aligned Movement started after the Second World War.
 After the Second World War, the world was divided into two power blocs –the Capitalist bloc led by
USA and the Socialist bloc led by USSR
 Many Asian and African nations who has become independent after the Second World War refused to
join any of the power bloc and follow the policy of Non-Alignment.
Meaning of Non-Alignment
Non-Alignment is the international policy of a sovereign state according to which it does not align with any of
the power blocs and at the same time actively participates in world affairs to promote international peace and
harmony. The features are –
 Not to join any of the power bloc
 They are opposed to any kind of military alliance such as NATO, SEATO etc
 Freedom to take independent decision relate to country’s foreign policy
 To participate in world affairs
Architects of Non-Aligned Movement
 The first summit of NAM took place in September 1961 in Belgrade in Yugoslavia.
 It was attended by 25 countries. Cyprus was the only European country which attended the session.
 The Conference was attended by Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru of India, President Joseph Broze
Tito of Yugoslavia, President Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt. They are the founding fathers of NAM.
 The fourth founding father of NAM is President Sukarno of Indonesia.
Panchsheel
In 1954, India and China signed an agreement containing five principles of peaceful co-existence called
Panchsheel which later became the guidelines for NAM. The five principles were –
 Mutual non-interference in each other’s internal affairs
 Mututal non-aggression
 Equality for mutual benefit
 Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty
 Peaceful co-existence
Role of Jawaharlal Nehru
 He is the founding father of Non-Aligned Movement.
 Called for disarmament and abolishment of nuclear weapon.
 Advocated the principles of peaceful co-existence known as ‘Panchsheel’.
 Discourage the formation of military alliances such as NATO, Warsaw Pact etc.
 Oppose the policy of colonialism and imperialism.
Objectives of NAM
 To eliminate all those causes which could lead to war.
 To oppose colonialism, imperialism and racial discrimination.
 To encourage friendly relations amongst nations.
 To oppose the use of nuclear weapons in war.
 To work towards strengthening UNO as an organ of world peace.
 To protect human rights and protect the environment.