Summary
Between 1450 and 1750, five major land-based empires—the Ottomans, Safavids,
Mughals, Tsardom/Russian Empire, and Qing China—expanded through military conquest
and consolidation, built complex administrative and fiscal systems (standing armies,
bureaucracies, examination systems), and used religion and ideology to legitimize rule and
integrate diverse populations. These empires employed new military technologies
(gunpowder, cannon), professional standing armies (Janissaries, Mansabdars, Banners),
and meritocratic recruitment (mansabdari system, Table of Ranks, civil service
examinations) while sponsoring state-sponsored faiths (Sunni Islam, Twelver Shiʿism,
Orthodox Christianity, Confucianism) and sometimes fostering syncretic cults (Akbar’s
Din-i Ilahi).
3.1 Empires Expand, 1450–1750
Ottoman Empire
• Originating with Osman I c. 1300 in Anatolia, the Ottomans conquered Byzantine
and Anatolian territories amid Seljuk decline Encyclopedia Britannica.
• Under Mehmed II (“the Conqueror”), they captured Constantinople in 1453—using
massive cannon and the Rumeli Fortress—to establish Istanbul as capital and
extend into the Balkans Encyclopedia BritannicaEncyclopedia Britannica.
• By Süleyman I’s reign (1520–66), Ottoman domains spanned Southeast Europe,
North Africa, and the Middle East at their greatest extent Encyclopedia Britannica.
Safavid Empire
• Founded by Ismāʿīl I in 1501 after seizing Tabrīz, the Safavids imposed Twelver
Shīʿism as Iran’s state religion to unify Persian-speaking subjects and differentiate
from Sunni Ottomans Encyclopedia BritannicaEncyclopedia Britannica.
• Despite Ottoman–Safavid rivalry (Battle of Chaldiran 1514), Shah ʿAbbās I (r. 1588–
1629) revitalized the realm, relocating the capital to Isfahan, sponsoring a standing
army, and monopolizing silk trade Encyclopedia BritannicaEncyclopedia Britannica.
Mughal Empire
• Babur defeated Delhi’s Lodī Sultan in 1526 at Panipat, founding Mughal rule in
North India; by Akbar’s reign (1556–1605), the empire covered almost the entire
subcontinent Encyclopedia BritannicaEncyclopedia Britannica.
• Akbar centralized authority through marriage alliances, religious conciliation
(abolishing the jizya tax for non-Muslims), and promotion of a self-styled Divine
Faith (Din-i Ilahi) to integrate Hindu and Muslim elites Encyclopedia
BritannicaWikipedia.
Russia (Tsardom → Empire)
• Ivan III (r. 1462–1505) threw off Mongol yoke and annexed Novgorod; Ivan IV (“the
Terrible,” r. 1547–1584) expanded east into Kazan and Astrakhan, creating the
oprichnina to subdue boyars Encyclopedia BritannicaEncyclopedia Britannica.
• The Romanov dynasty began with Michael I in 1613; Peter the Great (r. 1682–1725)
westernized the state, won Baltic access in the Great Northern War, and
transformed Russia into a major European power Encyclopedia
BritannicaEncyclopedia Britannica.
Qing Dynasty
• The Manchus, under Nurhaci and Hong Taiji, organized into the Eight Banners and
conquered Ming China by 1644, establishing the Qing dynasty (1636–1912)
Encyclopedia BritannicaEncyclopedia Britannica.
• Under Kangxi and Qianlong (r. 1735–96), Qing rulers expanded China’s borders over
Taiwan, Tibet, Xinjiang, and Mongolia, tripling population to ~450 million and
fostering a vibrant imperial economy Encyclopedia BritannicaEncyclopedia
Britannica.
3.2 Empires: Administration, 1450–1750
Ottoman:
• Janissaries: Elite infantry corps recruited via devşirme from Christian youths,
professionalized Ottoman military and garrisoned frontiers; politically influential
until their massacre in 1826 Encyclopedia BritannicaEncyclopedia Britannica.
• Sipahis & Timar: Cavalry fiefs (timars) granted to sipahis in exchange for military
service formed the provincial power base Encyclopedia Britannica.
• Millet System & Divan: Religious communities self-administered under a sultan’s
council (Divan), balancing diversity with central authority.
Safavid:
• Kizilbash: Turkmen tribal warriors instrumental in Safavid rise, later integrated into
a standing qurchi corps under Shiʿite clerical patronage Encyclopedia
BritannicaEncyclopedia Britannica.
• Silk Monopoly: State-controlled silk trade financed court patronage and military
upkeep, centralizing revenue flows Encyclopedia Britannica.
Mughal:
• Mansabdari System: Rank-and-pay framework assigning officers (mansabdars)
civil and military duties, linked to jagir revenue grants; grades (zat and sawar)
determined salary and troop quotas Wikipedia.
• Provincial Administration: Subahdars (governors), diwans (finance), and qazis
(judges) reported to the emperor via the Mir Bakhshi (military/intel head) Wikipedia.
Russia:
• Oprichnina: Ivan IV’s policy (1565) splitting lands under direct tsarist control,
suppressing boyar opposition Encyclopedia Britannica.
• Table of Ranks: Peter I’s 1722 merit-based hierarchy of 14 grades for military, civil,
and court service opened state careers beyond hereditary nobility
WikipediaEncyclopedia Britannica.
Qing:
• Eight Banners: Hereditary military-administrative divisions (Manchu, Mongol, Han
banners) forming elite garrisons, later supplemented by the Green Standard Army
Wikipedia.
• Civil Service Examinations: Competitive Confucian exams (prefectural →
provincial → metropolitan) staffed the bureaucracy through merit, overseen by the
Hanlin Academy, until their abolition in 1905 Encyclopedia BritannicaEncyclopedia
Britannica.
3.3 Empires: Belief Systems, 1450–1750
Ottoman:
• Sunni Islam & Caliphate: Ottoman sultans assumed the caliphal title in the 16th
c., projecting themselves as defenders of Sunni orthodoxy and guardians of Mecca
and Medina Encyclopedia Britannica.
Safavid:
• Twelver Shīʿism: State religion from 1501 unified Persia under clerical authority,
differentiating it sharply from Sunni neighbors Encyclopedia
BritannicaEncyclopedia Britannica.
Mughal:
• Islamic-Hindu Syncretism: Akbar’s Din-i Ilahi (c. 1582) blended elements of Islam,
Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, and Christianity to foster elite loyalty; later emperors
oscillated between tolerance (Jahangir) and orthodox Sunni revival (Aurangzeb)
Encyclopedia BritannicaEncyclopedia Britannica.
Russia:
• Russian Orthodoxy: The Orthodox Church legitimized tsarist autocracy; Peter I
subordinated the church via the Holy Synod, making clergy state functionaries
Encyclopedia Britannica.
Qing:
• Confucian State Ideology: Qing emperors adopted Confucian rhetoric, sponsored
state rituals (sacrifices, examinations), and patronized literati projects to legitimize
non-Han rule and integrate elites Encyclopedia Britannica.
• Local Religions & Missionaries: Tibetan Buddhism in Tibet, Islam in Xinjiang, and
Jesuit presence at court exemplified the dynasty’s pragmatic accommodation of
diverse faiths.
These topics (3.1–3.3) chart the rise, governance, and ideological foundations of the
great land-based empires from 1450 to 1750, highlighting their shared reliance on
gunpowder technology, centralized bureaucracy, and state-sponsored religion to
manage vast, culturally diverse territories.
Below is an in‐depth exploration of AP World History Unit 4: Transoceanic
Interconnections (c. 1450–1750), organized by its four major parts (4.1–4.4). Citations
follow each statement.
Between 1450 and 1750, European maritime states—especially Portugal and Spain—built
global empires by harnessing new navigational technologies and maritime knowledge,
triggering the Columbian Exchange of plants, animals, people, and pathogens. They
established lucrative colonial regimes in the Americas, Asia, and Africa, underpinned by
mercantilist policies and plantation economies reliant on coerced labor. The Atlantic slave
trade and silver flows from Potosí further integrated Afro-Eurasia into a nascent global
economy, reshaping societies ecologically, demographically, and culturally.
4.1 Maritime Exploration and State Sponsorship
European rulers sponsored voyages to find new trade routes to Asia, driven by “God, glory,
and gold”—the spread of Christianity, national prestige, and access to spices and luxury
goods.
• Portuguese Leadership: Prince Henry “the Navigator” of Portugal pioneered
systematic maritime exploration down the West African coast, founding a
navigation school at Sagres and investing in navigational instruments and ship
design (caravels) to reach gold-producing regions and spread Christianity
Encyclopedia Britannica.
• Cape Route to India: Vasco da Gama’s voyage (1497–99) rounded the Cape of
Good Hope and linked Europe directly to Indian Ocean markets, opening lucrative
spice trade for Portugal and bypassing overland Islamic intermediaries
Encyclopedia Britannica.
• Spanish Ventures: Backed by Ferdinand and Isabella, Christopher Columbus’s
1492 voyage, seeking a western route to Asia, instead encountered the Caribbean,
initiating sustained European contact with the Americas Encyclopedia Britannica.
• Diplomatic Agreements: The 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas divided newly discovered
lands along a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands, granting most
of the Americas to Spain and Brazil to Portugal—shaping colonial spheres for
centuries Encyclopedia Britannica.
4.2 The Columbian Exchange
The Columbian Exchange was the widespread transfer of organisms and diseases between
the Old World and New World following 1492.
• Biological Transfers: European introduction of wheat, rice, sugarcane, horses, and
cattle transformed American ecosystems and diets, while New World crops—
maize, potatoes, cassava, tomatoes—and tobacco spread globally, underpinning
population growth in Afro-Eurasia Encyclopedia Britannica.
• Disease Devastation: Smallpox, measles, and influenza, to which indigenous
Americans had no immunity, caused mortality rates of up to 90% in some
communities, collapsing empires like the Aztecs and altering demographic
structures Encyclopedia Britannica.
• Ecological Impact: Introduction of Old World weeds and pests disrupted native
agriculture, while deforestation and plantation agriculture in the Americas
generated ecological feedbacks still visible today Encyclopedia Britannica.
4.3 Formation and Administration of Colonial Empires
Spanish Empire in the Americas
• Territorial Organization: Spain divided its New World holdings into viceroyalties—
New Spain (Mexico) and Peru (Andes)—each governed by a viceroy answerable to
the Council of the Indies in Madrid Encyclopedia Britannica.
• Labor Systems: The encomienda granted conquistadors labor and tribute from
indigenous communities; the later repartimiento (mita in Peru) imposed rotational
forced labor in mines and plantations, extracting silver and other resources
Encyclopedia Britannica.
Portuguese Brazil
• Captaincy System: In the 1530s, Portugal divided Brazil’s coast into hereditary
captaincies (capitanias), granting donatários (proprietors) judicial and
administrative control to encourage settlement and resource extraction
Encyclopedia Britannica.
• Sugar Plantations: Pernambuco’s donatário, Duarte Coelho, established
sugarcane estates that by the 17th century made Brazil the world’s largest sugar
producer, heavily reliant on African slave labor imported via the Atlantic trade
Encyclopedia Britannica.
• Economic Cycles: Early exploitation of brazilwood gave way to a “sugar boom”
(16th–17th c.) and later silver and gold rushes (e.g., Minas Gerais), embedding Brazil
in global commodity markets Encyclopedia Britannica.
Northern European Trading Companies and Colonies
• Dutch East India Company (VOC): Chartered in 1602 to monopolize Dutch trade in
the Indian Ocean, the VOC established fortified bases in Indonesia, implemented
export-oriented spice plantations, and maintained private armies, pioneering joint-
stock capitalism Encyclopedia Britannica.
• British North America: Thirteen colonies along the Atlantic seaboard grew
tobacco, rice, and later grain under family farms and indentured servitude, evolving
commercial ties with Britain under mercantilist Navigation Acts Encyclopedia
Britannica.
• French and Others: France built colonies in the Caribbean (sugar) and Canada
(fur), while smaller states (Denmark, Sweden) participated in transatlantic trade,
demonstrating the competitive colonial landscape.
4.4 Global Trade Networks and Labor Systems
Atlantic Slave Trade
• Scale and Routes: From the 16th to 19th centuries, over 12 million Africans were
forcibly transported across the Atlantic (“Middle Passage”) under brutal conditions,
fueling labor shortages on New World plantations Encyclopedia Britannica.
• Middle Passage: Enslaved men, women, and children endured overcrowded ships,
disease, and high mortality rates (up to 20%), before being sold throughout the
Americas Encyclopedia Britannica.
• African Impacts: West and Central African polities (Asante, Kongo, Dahomey)
became entangled in slave raiding and trade, altering demographics and political
dynamics in interior regions.
Triangular Trade and Mercantilism
• Three-Legged Commerce: European manufactures (textiles, guns) sailed to Africa,
exchanged for captives; slaves were transported to the Americas; New World
commodities (sugar, tobacco, cotton, rum) returned to Europe in a triangular circuit
Encyclopedia Britannica.
• Mercantilist Policies: European powers regulated colonies to supply bullion and
raw materials while serving as protected markets for mother-country goods,
embodied in Navigation Acts and monopoly charters Encyclopedia Britannica.
• Silver Trade: Massive silver extraction from Potosí (Bolivia) and Mexican mines
flowed to Europe and especially to Asia (via Manila galleons), underpinning global
price revolutions and financing imperial ambitions Encyclopedia Britannica.
These detailed sections on Unit 4’s four parts illustrate how new maritime capabilities,
biological exchanges, imperial administrations, and coerced labor networks forged an
interconnected global system by 1750.
