BACKPACKING

Overview

You're used to car camping, but now you want to level up. What equipment will you need to
bring? How can you have everything you need, but still be able to carry it? Backpacking opens
up a new world of camping by taking you away from crowded campgrounds. Experience nature
away from the hustle and bustle of human activity and see how different that can be!

Investiture Achievement Connection: This Honor is related to

the Investiture Achievement requirements for FRONTIER
VOYAGER Outdoor Living and FRONTIER GUIDE
Outdoor Living which require completion of this Honor or
one of 4 other Honors, not previously earned.

The Challenging Part

The most challenging requirement of this honor is probably this:

13. Participate in a weekend backpack trip of at least five miles (8 km) to a site not
accessible by a vehicle and cook your own meals.

REQUIREMENTS

1. Discuss with your instructor the meaning of the motto: "Take nothing but pictures and
leave nothing but footprints."
2. Know the essentials of proper clothing, shoes, and rain gear to use in backpacking.
3. Know the principles in selecting a good quality backpack. In an emergency, what might
be used in place of a backpack?
4. Know the essential items to be taken on a backpack trip.
5. What kind of sleeping bag and pad are best for your camping area? Know at least three
kinds of each that are available.
6. Know how to pack a pack properly.
7. What types of food are best for backpacking? Visit a grocery store and list the foods
found there that are suitable for backpacking. With your instructor:
a. Prepare a menu for a weekend backpack trip using foods obtained from a grocery
store.
b. Learn the techniques of measuring, packaging, and labeling backpack foods for
your trip.
c. Make a trail snack.
8. Know the prevention and symptoms of, and the first aid for:
 a. Sunburn
b. Blisters
c. Frostbite
d. Hypothermia
e. Heat stroke
f. Heat exhaustion
g. Snake bite
h. Cramps
i. Dehydration
9. Have a first aid kit in your pack and know how to use it.
10. According to your weight, what is the maximum number of pounds you should be
allowed to carry?
11. Know three ways to find direction without a compass. Demonstrate at least two.
12. Show the proper way to put on and take off a backpack alone and with a partner.
13. Participate in a weekend backpack trip of at least five miles (8 km) to a site not accessible
by a vehicle and cook your own meals.

Backpacking Answer Key

1-Discuss with your instructor the meaning of the motto: "Take nothing but
pictures and leave nothing but footprints."

"Take nothing but pictures, leave nothing but footprints" is pretty self-explanatory. It
means you do not disturb nature while you are out enjoying it. If you see a pretty rock,
leave it there for someone else to enjoy. If you eat a piece of candy on the trail, don't
toss the wrapper — take it with you.

There are a few exception to both these rules. If you see trash, by all means, take it.
Throw it in the trash when you get to a proper trash receptacle. Also be aware that
footprints are not always harmless. Many tundra plants that take years to grow can be
destroyed by a single footprint. Stay on the trail.

One of the most important ways people leave their mark on the land is by building a
campfire. For "no trace" camping, bring a camp stove. Unfortunately, the campfire is one
of the primary attractions for many people, so it is not easy to follow this advice. If your
campsite has a fire ring or an existing fire pit, use that. If it does not and you must have
a campfire, lay a small tarp on the ground and cover it with six to eight inches of mineral
sand. Mineral sand is sand containing no organic material, and can be found on a beach
or where a large tree has fallen over and raised a rootwad. The sand must be piled deep
so the heat does not affect the tarp beneath. Stop putting new fuel on the fire well
before you are ready to put it out, and push in the ends of sticks that have not yet
burned. Allow them to burn down to white ash. When you are ready to leave, douse the
fire well, and spread the ashes over a wide area. Return the sand to the place where you
found it and pack up your tarp.

"Take nothing but pictures, leave nothing but footprints" is a good summary of the
more common Leave No Trace 7 Principles. Memorize and practice these:

1. Plan ahead and prepare.

2. Travel and camp on durable surfaces.
3. Dispose of waste properly.
4. Leave what you find.
5. Minimize campfire impacts (be careful with fire).
6. Respect wildlife.
7. Be considerate of other visitors.

© 1999 by the Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics

2
Know the essentials of proper clothing, shoes, and rain gear to use in
backpacking.

Warm Weather Clothing

Keep in mind that the weather can change suddenly. Just because it is warm when you
begin your outing does not mean it will be warm the whole time. If there is a chance
that the weather will turn cold, take along some cold weather gear as well. Check an
almanac to see how cold it can get during the time you are planning to be out.

Here is a list of clothing appropriate for a warm-weather outing.

• Thick socks
• Jeans
• Light Shirt (short sleeve)
• Light Shirt (long sleeve)
• Hat with a wide brim
• Boots
Cold Weather Clothing Remember to dress in layers. This will allow you to control your
temperature better. In cold weather, you do not want to sweat, because that will soak
your clothing and chill you. If you find yourself working up a sweat, remove a layer of
clothing, or open a zipper. Rely on wool rather than on cotton, because wool stays warm
even when wet. There is a popular saying among experienced outdoorsmen that
"Cotton kills." This is because when cotton gets wet, it steals the body's heat which can
lead to hypothermia and death. Your outer layer should be wind-proof, as this greatly
increases the warmth of your clothing. Here is a list:

• Thermal Underwear
• Light shirts (polyester or some other synthetic)
• Heavy Shirts
• Wool Sweater
• Wind Breaker
• Fleece Pants (synthetic)
• Nylon Pants (as the outside layer) or snow pants
• Overcoat
• Wool Socks
• Boots
• Warm Hat

Sleepwear For comfortable sleeping and for modesty on overnight trips, bring pajamas
or a sweat suit. In many places where it is warm during the day it gets cold at night, so
be prepared.

Rain Gear Be ready for bad weather on your backpacking trip by bringing along a
poncho and rain pants. In a pinch, you can use a garbage bag as a raincoat by cutting a
hole in th bottom, turning it over, and poking your head through the hole. A slit along
each seam on the side will make arm holes. It will not cover your head like that, but it
will keep the rest of you dry.

3
Know the principles in selecting a good quality backpack. In an emergency,
what might be used in place of a backpack?

There are a lot of products on the market these days that are called "backpacks," but
don't be fooled. Some of them are entirely unsuited to backpacking. Most of the cheap
ones you will find in a store are intended for carrying school supplies between the
house, school bus, and classroom. They are not designed to carry all the gear you'll
need for an overnight trip over miles of rough terrain. A backpack suited for
backpacking will have a hip strap on it that fastens around the hips. Most of the weight
of the backpack will thus be carried on your hips. The shoulder straps will carry a small
percentage of the weight as well, but they are really intended to keep the backpack
from tipping off. If you find that you are carrying most the weight on your shoulders,
you need to adjust the backpack to shift the weight to your hips. You will be able to
walk much farther distances in greater comfort that way.

Book bags do not come with hip straps. All the weight is thus placed on the shoulders
which is fine for a short trek from the house to the bus stop, but miserable on a 3-mile
hike.

Backpacking backpacks come in two basic designs: the Internal Frame backpack, and
the External Frame backpack.

The external frame backpack (or EF backpack) has a rigid frame made from aluminum,
plastic, or both. The pack itself attaches to the frame, and the frame is attached to the
body via shoulder and hip straps. The frame holds the pack away from the back so that
air may circulate back there, making an EF backpack cooler to carry. The downside to an
EF is that the body tends to twist and flex as a hiker moves, and the frame resists this.
Some EF packs take this into account, and provide a frame that will flex. The main
measure of comfort on an EF backpack is the degree to which it flexes.

The internal frame backpack (IF backpack) drapes over the back. It gets its structure
from the gear placed inside it. This allows the IF backpack to flex and move as the body
does, making it generally more comfortable to carry. Furthermore, the IF pack lies
against the hikers back. This allows it to distribute its weight over a greater area, but it
also prevents air circulation, making it hotter to wear. The IF pack uses foam in the
straps to add even more comfort. There are two basic types of foam: open-cell foam,
and closed-cell foam. Open cell foam is highly compressible. While this may add
comfort in some places, it should not be used in the straps. In the straps, the foam
compresses too much, leaving the webbing to dig into the shoulders. Closed cell foam
compresses much less than open-cell foam, and is therefore preferred in the straps. You
can easily tell the difference by squeezing the padding. If it compresses to about a
quarter its original thickness, it is open-cell foam.

Whether you choose an EF or an IF pack, the next thing to consider is the material from
which the pack itself is made. Avoid cotton. It is cheap, but it is also not waterproof. If
you set a cotton pack on the wet ground, you will transfer the moisture from the ground
to your gear. Some packs made of Kevlar are appearing on the market, and those
should be avoided as well. Though Kevlar is renown for its puncture resistance (think
bullet-proof vests), it does not offer much in the way of abrasion resistance. Your pack is
far more likely to be subjected to abrasion than puncture. Nylon is a far better choice
than either of these, and of course, it comes in a variety of configurations. All of them
are acceptable, but rip-stop is probably the best suited to the job.

Look for 8 to 10 stitches per inch in the seams. More than 10 stitches per inch decreases
the strength of the cloth, and with fewer than 8, the thread is being asked to do too
much.

In an emergency, you can toss your gear into a blanket, gather the corners, and throw it
over your shoulders. Another option would be to stuff your gear into a closed sleeping
bag and sling that over your shoulders. Either of these solutions are obviously going to
be far inferior to even the least adequate backpack though, so this substitution should
be reserved for only emergencies.

4
Know the essential items to be taken on a backpack trip.

• Good quality map of the area

• Compass
• Knife
• Flashlight
• Water treatment equipment
• Water bottle
• Food
• Change of clothes
• First aid kit
• Rain gear
• Backpack
• Firelighting equipment
• Sleeping bag
• Sleeping pad
• Extra socks
• Good quality hiking boots or hiking shoes
• Eating and cooking utensils
• Cooking gear (mess kit)
• Backpacking stove and fuel
 • Tent or tarp
• Toiletries (toothbrush, toilet paper, soap, etc.)
• Compact shovel

5
What kind of sleeping bag and pad are best for your camping area? Know at
least three kinds of each that are available.

Sleeping Bags
Rectangular
The rectangular sleeping bag is probably the most common and are popular for
light use. They are not suitable for backpacking because they provide the least
amount of warmth and the most amount of weight. As the name implies, they are
rectangle-shaped. While this makes them comfortable and roomy, the wide opening
near the top is a major source of heat loss. Unlike a mummy bag it does not have a
hood that can be drawn around the head to retain heat.

Mummy Bag
The mummy bag is shaped like a sarcophagus. It is narrow at the feet (but tall
there to allow just enough room for the feet), tapers at the waist, widens again at
the shoulders, and then tapers down near the head. The top is very much like the
hood of a winter coat, complete with drawstrings to close up the gap and keep
heat in. Because they conform so well to the human shape, there is very little
wasted space inside. This is good because your body has to heat all that space,
and because the extra insulation and material thusly removed does not have to
be carried (meaning it's lighter).

Barrel Bag
The barrel bag is a modified mummy bag. It is roomier than the mummy bag
and provides almost the same warmth at the cost of additional weight.

Sleeping Pads
Sleeping pads can perform two main functions:

1. Provide cushioning
2. Provide insulation between the sleeper and the ground.
Air mattresses
Air mattresses are inflatable cushions that can provide a lot of comfort
when it comes to sleeping on the ground. Unfortunately, they are not
very warm as they provide next to no insulation beneath the sleeper. This
may not be an issue, though it is well worth knowing.

Open-cell foam pads

Open-cell foam is a type of foam padding that is sometimes found in
furniture cushions or even in regular mattresses. It is lightweight -
though somewhat bulky. Its chief disadvantage is that it soaks up
water like a sponge.

Closed-cell foam pads

Closed-cell foam makes the ideal sleeping pad. The closed cells do
not soak up water. They are lightweight, comfortable, and
compact. Often, they are only half an inch (12 mm) thick, so they
can be rolled into a small tube and strapped to a backpack. They
also serve as an excellent thermal barrier between the sleeper and
the ground.

6
Know how to pack a pack properly.

1. Lay out all your gear where you can see it, next to your
pack.
2. Look for empty spaces in your gear - for instance, there
may be room inside your cooking pot. Put any small items
that will fit inside that to conserve space. Look for other
"hidden" space as well.
3. For an internal frame backpack, put the sleeping bag in
first, at the bottom. For an external frame, tie it underneath
the pack.
4. Load the heavy items next, placing them as close to your
back as you can. This will shift the center of gravity forward
which will help your balance and improve comfort. Be sure
nothing is going to poke you in the back though.
 5. Put the lighter items such as clothing in towards the
outside of the pack.
6. Put the things you'll need on the trail (like water, trail mix,
compass, map, etc.) in the outer pockets where you can get
to them. If they're hard to get to, you'll be unlikely to use
them. And if you don't use them, why bring them at all?

7
What types of food are best for backpacking? Visit a
grocery store and list the foods found there that are
suitable for backpacking. With your instructor:

The best type of food to take backpacking is dehydrated food, as

it is very lightweight, compact, and nutritious. You can buy food
pre-packaged or you can dehydrate it yourself. For details on
dehydrating your own food, see the Food Drying honor in
the Household Arts section of this book.

7a
Prepare a menu for a weekend backpack trip using foods
obtained from a grocery store.

Although you can buy prepared dehydrated foods for

backpacking at an outdoor outfitter, getting your food this way
can be fairly expensive. Instead, try getting dehydrated food at a
regular grocery store. Here's a short list of possibilities:

• Instant mashed potatoes

• Instant oatmeal
• Quick-cooking rice
• Powdered milk
• Powdered eggs
• Pasta
• Nuts and peanuts
• Dry soup mixes
• Dry beans, lentils, peas
• Granola
• Dried fruits (apricots, apples, and banana chips)
 • Flour, mixed with other dry ingredients to make pancakes
or biscuits

7b
Learn the techniques of measuring, packaging, and
labeling backpack foods for your trip.

Once you've bought the food you plan to eat on your backpacking
trip, the last thing you will want to do is toss it unthoughtfully into
your backpack in its original packaging. Food packaging is
designed to catch your eye at the grocery store, and to do this, it
does not come in space-efficient sizes. Empty all of your food and
repack it into sealable plastic bags (such as Ziplock bags). Make up
a menu before you do this, and pack each meal into a separate
bag. Then clearly label the bag with a permanent marker or a
mailing label. The label should be legible even in dim light - you
never know when you'll have to cook your food in the dark. This is
a lot of trouble to go through, but it is well worth it during the
trip.

If you wish to make pancakes, first determine how many pancake

meals your party will eat, and mix it all up at once. It is a lot easier
to accurately measure large amounts of flour, salt, and baking
powder than it is to measure small amounts of the same. Mix it all
together thoroughly, and when it is well mixed, scoop out enough
to make one serving and place it in a baggie. Make as many
single-serving baggies of pancake mix as you'll use. You can use
the same technique for making soup mixes and other delectables.
Just keep all the ingredients dry and be prepared to add water at
the campsite.

7c
Make a trail snack.

There are millions of recipes for trail mix, and every seasoned
backpacker has a favorite. "Gorp" is a perennial favorite - the
name tells its ingredients: Good old raisins and peanuts. Choose
half a dozen (or more! or less!) of items such as these, mix them
together, and put them in a baggie:

• Raisins
• Peanuts
• Chex cereal
• Frosted Flakes or other sweetened cereal
• Pretzels
• M & M's
• Chocolate chips
• Dried fruit
• Shelled sunflower seeds

Put the baggie in an easy to reach place in your pack so you can
nibble on it while you hike. Don't worry about getting low-fat
items. You'll be doing enough walking (and carrying a heavy pack)
to burn a lot of calories - you'll need the fat.

8
Know the prevention and symptoms of, and the first aid
for:

8a
Sunburn

Sunburn is from over-exposure to the harmful ultraviolet rays of

the sun. While the symptoms are usually temporary (such as red
skin that is painful to the touch), the skin damage is often
permanent and can have serious long-term health effects,
including skin cancer.

• There is no such thing as a "healthy tan." Unprotected sun

exposure causes premature aging of the skin.
• Sun exposure can cause first and second degree burns.
 • Skin cancer usually appears in adulthood, but is caused by
sun exposure and sunburns that began as early as
childhood. You can help prevent skin cancer by protecting
your skin and your children's skin from the harmful rays of
the sun.

Factors that make sunburn more likely:

• Infants and children are especially sensitive to the burning

effects of the sun.
• People with fair skin are more likely to get sunburn. But
even dark and black skin can burn and should be protected.
• The sun's rays are strongest during the hours of 10:00 a.m.
to 4:00 p.m. The sun's rays are also stronger at higher
altitudes and lower latitudes (closer to the tropics).
Reflection off water, sand, or snow can intensify the sun's
burning rays.
• Sun lamps can cause severe sunburn.
• Some medications (such as the antibiotic doxycycline) can
make you more susceptible to sunburn.

First Aid

• Try taking a cool bath or shower. Or place wet, cold wash

cloths on the burn for 10 to 15 minutes, several times a day.
You can mix baking soda in the water to help relieve the
pain. (Small children may become easily chilled, so keep the
water tepid.)
• Apply a soothing lotion to the skin.
• Aloe gel is a common household remedy for sunburns. Aloe
contains active compounds that help stop pain and
inflammation of the skin.
• An over-the-counter pain medication, such as
acetaminophen or ibuprofen may be helpful. DO NOT give
aspirin to children.

Do Not

• DO NOT apply petroleum jelly, benzocaine, lidocaine, or

butter to the sunburn. They make the symptoms worse and
can prevent healing.
 • DO NOT wash burned skin with harsh soap.

8b
Blisters

Blister Prevention

When it comes to blisters on the feet, it is always best to avoid

them. Blisters are caused when your foot rubs against something
repeatedly. Blisters can be avoided by wearing footwear that fits
you correctly. Also, be sure to break your footwear in before
embarking on a long hike. It also helps to wear two pairs of socks.
When you do this, the inner sock moves with your foot and the
outer sock moves with your boot. All the rubbing takes place
between the two socks rather than between your foot and the
sock. This will eventually wear a hole in your sock, but replacing
socks is a lot less painful than hiking with a blister.

Blister Treatment

Try not to break the blister open. It is far better if the skin
continues to cover the injury, as this will keep out germs and
prevent infection. If you must open the blister in order to be able
to walk, do it as follows.

• Clean the affected area

• Sterilize a needle
• Pierce the blister in several places around its perimeter to
drain the fluid, but try to leave as much of the skin intact as
possible.
• Wipe the injury down with rubbing alcohol.

Whether you open the blister or not, you should then treat it as
follows:
 • Cut a hole a little larger than the blister in a piece of
moleskin from your first aid kit, and place the hole over the
blister. The thickness of the surrounding moleskin protects
the blister from further friction. If you do not have a
moleskin, you can do the same thing with an adhesive
bandage.
• Cover a large blister with gauze and adhesive tape.
• Be sure to allow the blister to breathe.

8c
Frostbite

Frostbite occurs when ice crystals form in the skin or deeper

tissues after exposure to a temperature of 32°F (0°C) or lower.
Depending upon the temperature, altitude, and wind speed, the
exposure time necessary to produce frostbite varies from a few
minutes to several hours.

The areas most commonly affected are the face and extremities.
The symptoms of frostbite are progressive. Victims generally incur
this injury without being acutely aware of it. Initially, the affected
skin reddens and there is an uncomfortable coldness. With
continued heat loss, there is a numbness of the affected area due
to reduced circulation. As ice crystals form, the frozen extremity
appears white, yellow-white, or mottled blue-white, and is cold,
hard, and insensitive to touch or pressure. Frostbite is classified as
superficial or deep, depending on the extent of tissue
involvement.

Superficial Frostbite

In superficial frostbite the surface of the skin will feel hard or

rubbery, but the underlying tissue will be soft, allowing it to move
over bony ridges. On the exposed skin on the neck and face it is
common to first notice patches that are white or waxy in
appearance. This is evidence that only the skin and the region just
below it are involved. Very little information is available in
wilderness first aid training on the appearance of mid and dark
toned skin that has been exposed to mild or superficial frostbite.
General treatment for superficial frostbite is as follows:

1. Take the victim indoors, or at a minimum, increase their

shelter from the elements.
2. Superficial frostbite around the head can typically be
reversed quickly by sheltering from the elements with a
scarf, hat, or even a gloved hand.
3. Rewarm hands by placing them under the armpits, against
the abdomen, or between the legs.
4. Rewarm feet by placing them in the armpit or against the
abdomen of the buddy.
5. Gradually rewarm the affected area by warm water
immersion, skin-to-skin contact, or hot water bottles.
6. Place hot water bottles into a dry sock/glove to avoid
overheating skin.
7. Never rub a frostbite area.

Deep Frostbite

In deep frostbite, the freezing reaches into the deep tissue layers.
There are ice crystals in the entire thickness of the extremity. The
skin will not move over bony ridges and will feel hard and solid.
The objectives of treatment are to protect the frozen areas from
further injury, to rapidly thaw the affected area, and to be
prepared to respond to circulatory or respiratory difficulties.

1. Carefully assess and treat any other injuries first. Constantly

monitor the victim’s pulse and breathing since respiratory
and heart problems can develop rapidly. Be prepared to
administer CPR if necessary.
2. Do not attempt to thaw the frostbitten area if there is a
possibility of refreezing. It is better to leave the part frozen
until the victim arrives at a medical treatment facility
equipped for long-term care. Refreezing of a thawed
extremity causes severe and disabling damage.
3. Treat all victims with injuries to the feet or legs as litter
patients. When this is not possible, the victim may walk on
the frozen limb, since it has been proven that walking will
 not lessen the chances of successful treatment as long as
the limb has not thawed out.
4. When adequate protection from further cold exposure is
available, prepare the victim for rewarming by removing all
constricting clothing such as gloves, boots, and socks.
Boots and clothing frozen on the body should be thawed
by warm-water immersion before removal.
5. Rapidly rewarm frozen areas by immersion in water at
100°F to 105°F (38°C to 41°C). Keep the water warm by
adding fresh hot water, but do not pour the water directly
on the injured area. Ensure that the frozen area is
completely surrounded by water; do not let it rest on the
side or bottom of the tub.
6. After rewarming has been completed, pat the area dry with
a soft towel. Later it will swell, sting, and burn. Blisters may
develop. These should be protected from breaking. Avoid
pressure, rubbing, or constriction of the injured area. Keep
the skin dry with sterile dressings and place cotton between
the toes and fingers to prevent their sticking together.
7. Protect the tissue from additional injury and keep it as
clean as possible (use sterile dressings and linen).
8. Try to improve the general morale and comfort of the
victim by giving hot, stimulating fluids such as tea or coffee.
Do not allow the victim to smoke or use alcoholic
beverages while being treated.
9. Transfer to a medical treatment facility as soon as possible.
During transportation, slightly elevate the frostbitten area
and keep the victim and the injured area warm. Do not
allow the injured area to be exposed to the cold.

8d
Hypothermia

Hypothermia is caused by continued exposure to low or rapidly

falling temperatures, cold moisture, snow, or ice. Those exposed to
low temperatures for extended periods may suffer ill effects, even
if they are well protected by clothing, because cold affects the
body systems slowly, almost without notice. As the body cools,
there are several stages of progressive discomfort and disability.
he first symptom is shivering, which is an attempt to generate heat
by repeated contractions of surface muscles. This is followed by a
feeling of listlessness, indifference, and drowsiness.
Unconsciousness can follow quickly. Shock becomes evident as
the victim’s eyes assume a glassy stare, respiration becomes slow
and shallow, and the pulse is weak or absent. As the body
temperature drops even lower, peripheral circulation decreases
and the extremities become susceptible to freezing. Finally, death
results as the core temperature of the body approaches 80°F
(27°C). The steps for treatment of hypothermia are as follows:

1. Carefully observe respiratory effort and heart beat; CPR

may be required while the warming process is underway.
2. Rewarm the victim as soon as possible. It may be necessary
to treat other injuries before the victim can be moved to a
warmer place. Severe bleeding must be controlled and
fractures splinted over clothing before the victim is moved.
3. Replace wet or frozen clothing and remove anything that
constricts the victim’s arms, legs, or fingers, interfering with
circulation.
4. If the victim is inside a warm place and is conscious, the
most effective method of warming is immersion in a tub of
warm (100° to 105°F or 38° to 41°C) water. The water
should be warm to the elbow - never hot. Observe closely
for signs of respiratory failure and cardiac arrest (rewarming
shock). Rewarming shock can be minimized by warming the
body trunk before the limbs to prevent vasodilation in the
extremities with subsequent shock due to blood volume
shifts.
5. If a tub is not available, apply external heat to both sides of
the victim. Natural body heat (skin to skin) from two
rescuers is the best method. This is called “buddy warming.”
If this is not practical, use hot water bottles or an electric
rewarming blanket. Do not place the blanket or bottles next
to bare skin, however, and be careful to monitor the
temperature of the artificial heat source, since the victim is
very susceptible to burn injury. Because the victim is unable
 to generate adequate body heat, placement under a
blanket or in a sleeping bag is not sufficient treatment.
6. If the victim is conscious, give warm liquids to drink. Never
give alcoholic beverages or allow the victim to smoke.
7. Dry the victim thoroughly if water is used for rewarming.
8. As soon as possible, transfer the victim to a definitive care
facility. Be alert for the signs of respiratory and cardiac
arrest during transfer, and keep the victim warm.

8e
Heat stroke

Heat stroke is a less common but far more serious condition than
heat exhaustion, since it carries a 20 percent fatality rate. The main
feature of heatstroke is the extremely high body temperature,
105º F (41º C) or higher, that accompanies it. In heat stroke, the
victim has a breakdown of the sweating mechanism and is unable
to eliminate excessive body heat built up while exercising. If the
body temperature rises too high, the brain, kidneys, and liver may
be permanently damaged.

Sometimes the victim may have preliminary symptoms, such as

headache, nausea, dizziness, or weakness. Breathing will be deep
and rapid at first, later shallow and almost absent. Usually the
victim will be flushed, very dry, and very hot. The pupils will be
constricted (pinpoint) and the pulse fast and strong.

When you provide first aid for heat stroke, remember that this is a
true life-and-death emergency. The longer the victim remains
overheated, the higher the chances of irreversible body damage or
even death occurring. First aid treatment for heat stroke is
designed to reduce body heat. Reduce body heat immediately by
dousing the body with cold water, or applying wet, cold towels to
the whole body. Move the victim to the coolest possible place and
remove as much clothing as possible. Maintain an open airway.
Place the victim on his/her back, with the head and shoulders
slightly raised. If cold packs are available, place them under the
arms, around the neck, at the ankles, and in the groin. Expose the
victim to a fan or air-conditioner since drafts will promote cooling.
Immersing the victim in a cold water bath is also effective. Give the
victim (if conscious) cool water to drink. Do not give any hot
drinks or stimulants. Get the victim to a medical facility as soon as
possible. Cooling measures must be continued while the victim is
being transported.

8f
Heat exhaustion

Heat exhaustion is the most common condition caused by

working or exercising in hot spaces. Heat exhaustion produces a
serious disruption of blood flow to the brain, heart, and lungs. This
causes the victim to experience weakness, dizziness, headache,
loss of appetite, and nausea.

Signs and symptoms of heat exhaustion are similar to those of

shock: the victim will appear ashen gray; the skin will be cold,
moist, and clammy; and the pupils of the eyes may be dilated
(enlarged). The vital (blood pressure, temperature, pulse, and
respiration) signs usually are normal; however, the victim may
have a weak pulse together with rapid and shallow breathing.

Body temperature may be below normal. You should treat heat

exhaustion victims as if they were in shock. Loosen the clothing,
apply cool wet cloths, move the victim to either a cool or an air-
conditioned area, and fan the victim. Do not allow the person to
become chilled. If the victim is conscious, administer a solution of
1 teaspoon of salt dissolved in a quart of cool water. If the victim
vomits, do not give any more fluids. Transport the victim to a
medical facility as soon as possible.
8g
Snake bite

First aid
Snakebite first aid recommendations vary, in part because
different snakes have different types of venom. Some have little
local effect, but life-threatening systemic effects, in which case
containing the venom in the region of the bite by pressure
immobilization is highly desirable. Other venoms instigate
localized tissue damage around the bitten area, and
immobilization may increase the severity of the damage in this
area, but also reduce the total area affected; whether this trade-off
is desirable remains a point of controversy.

Because snakes vary from one country to another, first aid

methods also vary. As always, this article is not a legitimate
substitute for professional medical advice. Readers are strongly
advised to obtain guidelines from a reputable first aid
organization in their own region, and to be wary of homegrown or
anecdotal remedies.

However, most first aid guidelines agree on the following:

1. Protect the patient (and others, including yourself) from

further bites. While identifying the species is desirable in
certain regions, do not risk further bites or delay proper
medical treatment by attempting to capture or kill the
snake. If the snake has not already fled, carefully remove
the victim from the immediate area. If possible, take a
photograph of the snake (many cell phones are equipped
with cameras). If you do not know what type of snake it is,
someone else might be able to identify it from the photo. A
poor photo is better than no photo.
2. Keep the victim calm. Acute stress reaction increases blood
flow and endangers the patient. Keep people near the
patient calm. Panic is infectious and compromises
judgment.
 3. Call for help to arrange for transport to the nearest hospital
emergency room, where antivenin for snakes common to
the area will often be available.
4. Make sure to keep the bitten limb in a functional position
and below the victim's heart level so as to minimize blood
returning to the heart and other organs of the body.
5. Do not give the patient anything to eat or drink. This is
especially important with consumable alcohol, a known
vasodilator which will speed up the absorption of venom.
Do not administer stimulants or pain medications to the
victim, unless specifically directed to do so by a physician.
6. Remove any items or clothing which may constrict the
bitten limb if it swells (rings, bracelets, watches, footwear,
etc.)
7. Keep the victim as still as possible.
8. Do not incise the bitten site.

Many organizations, including the American Medical Association

and American Red Cross, recommend washing the bite with soap
and water. However, do not attempt to clean the area with any
type of chemical. Australian recommendations for snake bite
treatment strongly recommend against cleaning the wound.
Traces of venom left on the skin/bandages from the strike can be
used in combination with a snake bite identification kit to identify
the species of snake. This speeds determination of which antivenin
to administer in the emergency room.&

8h
Cramps

Cramps

There are two basic causes of cramping. One is inadequate

oxygenation of muscle, and the other is lack of water or salt.
Cramps from poor oxygenation can be improved by rapid deep
breathing, and stretching the muscle. Cramps from lack of salt and
water can be treated by stretching the muscle, drinking water and
eating salt. Pounding on the muscle can increase soreness.

What happens in a cramp is that lactic acid builds up because of

normal anaerobic muscle metabolism. When the muscle burns
sugar without enough oxygen, it makes lactic acid. The lactic acid
finally becomes concentrated enough to trigger the contraction of
the muscle. When the muscle lacks salt, the nerves firing the
muscle are unable to recharge properly, causing a similar effect.

8i
Dehydration

Dehydration is the depletion of water from the body. It can be

prevented by drinking plenty of water, especially during periods of
physical exertion. One to five percent dehydration will make you
lose your appetite, become sleepy and nauseated, and begin to
vomit. As dehydration goes up to 10 percent, dizziness results.
You will have headaches, difficulty in breathing, tingling of the
legs and arms caused by poor circulation, indistinct speech, and,
finally, an inability to walk. Still, 10 percent dehydration generally
causes no permanent ill effects. When dehydration exceeds 10
percent, you will become delirious, spastic, almost deaf, and barely
able to see. The skin shrivels and becomes numb. At temperatures
above 90°F, dehydration over 15 percent is generally fatal. At 85°
and less, the body can stand up to 25 percent dehydration.
Dehydration is quickly cured by water—in fact, only water can cure
it. When you are dehydrated, you don’t have to worry about how
much water you drink or how quickly you drink it, or if the water is
warm or cool. Cold water, though, will upset the stomach.
9
Have a first aid kit in your pack and know how to use it.

Compact, lightweight firsts aid kits are available at many retailers

and outdoor outfitters. But don't just go out, buy one, and toss it
in you pack without another thought. It is important for you to
open it up and examine every item. Then review the answers for
the First Aid honor, so that you know how to use each item.

10
According to your weight, what is the maximum number
of pounds you should be allowed to carry?

An adult should carry no more than a fifth to a third of his or her

body weight in a backpack, depending on the level of fitness. A
kid should not carry more than a quarter his body weight.

Your aim should not be to load your pack until you hit the
maximum, but rather, to bring as little as you can get by with. But
don't carry anything you aren't going to need. When it comes to
backpacking, less is more! Don't kill yourself. Evaluate every item
you put into your backpack. Little things add up quickly, so try not
to duplicate functionality. For instance, if you're brining a pocket
knife, you can probably leave the butter knife behind. Bring a
spork rather than a spoon and a fork. Use parachute cord for a
clothesline - it's very strong and can be used as rope. Distribute
"group" gear among the group. Take the tent apart and have one
person carry the fly, another the canopy, and a third the poles.
Instead of bringing a pillow, stuff tomorrow's clothes into a sack
and use that.

11
Know three ways to find direction without a compass.
Demonstrate at least two.
 Northern hemisphere instructions

Finding Polaris
North Star
In the northern hemisphere on a clear night you can determine which direction is
north by finding Polaris (the North Star). You can find Polaris by following the two
"pointer stars" in the Big Dipper. Unfortunately, this method is only effective on
clear nights.
Using a Watch
You can use an analog watch to figure out which way is south during the day. To
do this, it is easiest if you remove the watch from your wrist first. Hold the watch
so that the face is pointing upwards. Then rotate it until the hour hand points to
the sun. You can use a blade of grass to cast a shadow on the watch face to make
this easier - just line the hour hand up with the shadow. Once the hour hand is
pointing towards the sun, you can find south by bisecting the angle between the
hour hand and the 12 o'clock position. In other words, if it is 4:00pm, south will
lie in the 2:00 o'clock direction (because 2:00 is halfway between 4:00 and 12:00).
At 7:00 am, south will lie in the 9:30 direction (because 9:30 is halfway between
7:00 and 12:00).
Using a shadow
Find a straight stick at least 12 inches long (30 cm) and drive it into the ground
such that it points directly at the sun. You can tell the stick is pointing directly at
the sun because its shadow will disappear. Then wait until the earth rotates
enough so that you can see the shadow. The shadow will point directly east.
Southern hemisphere instructions
Southern Cross to find south at night

With the lack of a significant pole star in the southern

sky (Sigma Octantis is closest to the pole, but is too
faint to be useful for the purpose), two of the stars of
Crux (Alpha and Gamma, Acrux and Gacrux
respectively) are commonly used to mark south.
Following the line defined by the two stars for
approximately 4.5 times the distance between them
leads to a point close to the Southern Celestial Pole.

Alternatively, if a line is constructed perpendicularly

between Alpha Centauri and Beta Centauri, the point
where the above line and this line intersect marks the
Southern Celestial Pole. The two stars are often referred
to as the "Pointer Stars" or "White Pointers", allowing
people to easily find the top of Crux.

The junction of these two lines is the SCP Southern

Celestial Pole. If you were at the South Pole this would
be directly above you. This is the point where the night
sky revolves around. Point to this spot then lower your
arm to the horizon. Where you are pointing is South.

Watch method

Southern Hemisphere method only. Point the 12 to the

sun. Halfway between the hour hand and the 12 is
North. You still have to use your intelligence for this as
early morning time and evening time care must be
taken as to which half you use. E.g. 8am sun is rising in
the East; point 12 to the sun North is halfway between
the 8 and the 12 at the 10. BUT late evening the sun is
heading to set in the west say time is 8pm you point
the 12 at the sun. North is halfway between the 8 and
the 12 at the other side of watch at the 4. This should
be used only as a guide as in some countries the real
time has been adjusted and sometimes there is
daylight saving time etc.
 Stick method

This method is a waste of time. We all know the sun

rises in the East and sets in the West. The stick shadow
shows you this. Also when the sun is at its zenith the
highest it gets in the Southern Hemi look at the sun
and it is towards the North the opposite in the
Northern Hemi. So we learn that at mid day is the best
time to find North (or South).

But if you must... place a stick in the ground on an open

area. Mark the shadows at times through out the day.
From this you can find North or South (depending what
side of the equator you are on) from the shortest
shadow and also East and West by drawing a line from
the ends of the longest shadows assuming you had an
early morning and late evening marking with equal
time from mid-day. But for this you have to be lucky to
have sunshine for most of the day, which usually is not
the case if you are lost. Anyhow it is something to know
if you do not have a watch to know when mid-day is.

12
Show the proper way to put on and take off a
backpack alone and with a partner.

Alone
Set the backpack on a table (or a large rock), put your arms through the straps
(loosened off), and lift with your legs. You can also set it on a rock or a log and sit
down in front of it. Again, lift with your legs, not with your back. If there is
nothing available to set your pack on; stand with your feet apart, one leg ahead
of the other, knee bent enough to set your pack on it. With shoulder straps
loosened off, slip one arm through the shoulder strap, lean into your pack and
slightly downward, and roll it up onto your back. Once in place, slide your other
arm through the shoulder strap. Always tighten your hip belt first, shoulder straps
next and lastly your chest strap. Reverse this procedure for removing your pack.
With a Partner
Have your partner lift your pack and hold it while you slip your arms into the
straps. If you have to stoop, bend your knees. Remember to lift with your legs!

13
Participate in a weekend backpack trip of
at least five miles (8 km) to a site not
accessible by a vehicle and cook your own
meals.

Five miles is a good backpacking trip for a

beginner. Find a trail near you by visiting your
local outdoor outfitter. These stores are most
often staffed by people who enjoy backpacking
and can provide you with valuable advice on
destinations. Once you've got a 5-mile trip
under your belt, why not look at
the Pioneering honor and make your next trip a
15-miler? If you make it a 15-mile hike, you can
also count this backpack trip toward the hardest
requirement of the Hiking Honor.

References
• http://www.patc.net/hiking/gear/packs.ht
ml
• http://gorp.away.com/gorp/eclectic/famil
y/expert/ask_exp.htm

1. ↑ Chris Thompson. "Treatment of

Australian Snake Bites". Australian
anaesthetists' website.