Research and development,
Scientific Method
Research Methodology is a way to systematically solve a research problem. It is a science of
studying how research is done scientifically. It aims to give the work plan of research. It
provides training in choosing methods materials, scientific tools and techniques relevant to
the solution of the problem. Systematic, Logical, Empirical, Replicable, creative and use of
multiple methods,
The scientific method has five basic steps, plus one feedback step:
Make an observation.
Ask a question.
Form a hypothesis, or testable explanation.
Make a prediction based on the hypothesis.
Test the prediction.
Iterate: use the results to make new hypotheses or predictions
Components of Scientific Research
Statement of the Problem (Introduction)
Hypothesis (possible solutions)
Collection of Data (Experiment or any other means)
Treatment of Data (Statistical Analysis)
Results and conclusion
Research and Development (R&D)
Research and Development (R&D) is the term commonly used to describe the activities
undertaken by firms and other entities such as individual entrepreneurs in order to create new
or improved products and processes. The broadest meaning of the term covers activities from
basic scientific research performed in universities and laboratories all the way to testing and
refining products before commercial sale or use. The performance of, incentives for, and the
contributions of R&D are topics that are widely studied in management, economics, and
other social science disciplines. Total spending on R&D activities is also one of the most
widely used indicators of the innovative performance of firms, industries, and countries.
Informal R&D has existed at least since the first person experimented with methods of
knapping flint to make stone age tools. In a formalized sense, it became part of the arsenal of
the modern corporation beginning with the creation of industrial labs in the late 19th century
and today it comprises about 2-3 per cent of the GDP (Gross Domestic Product i.e., health of
national and global economies) in advanced economies (for a history of the rise of organized
R&D in the U.S). R&D is defines as “creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order
to increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of man, culture and society, and the
use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications.”
R&D is generally thought to consist of three main activities: basic research, applied research,
and developmental research.
Basic research is research undertaken primarily to acquire new knowledge without a view as
to its application.
Applied research is research directed towards a specific objective and developmental
research is a work drawing on existing research results and directed specifically towards the
creation of new and improved products and processes. In general, more than two-thirds of
R&D spending by firms or countries is directed toward development rather than research.
The 2003 OECD (The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) Science,
Technology, and Industry Scoreboard reports that in developed countries with high R&D
intensities, basic research is less than one fifth of total R&D spending.
Economic analysis of R&D
In the theoretical economics literature, the term “R&D” is commonly used to describe the
conscious choice of firms and individuals to invest in the invention and commercialization of
new products and processes. Although the activity being described is seldom made precise in
these models, in practice this kind of investment is assumed to correspond roughly to the
spending on R&D that is reported in firm accounts and to various governmental surveys. The
performance of R&D therefore generates positive externalities or spillovers that benefit the
country.
Research and development (R&D) is a process intended to create new or improved
technology that can provide a competitive advantage at the business, industry, or national
level. While the rewards can be very high, the process of technological innovation (of
which R&D is the first phase) is complex and risky.
R&D vs. Applied Research
Applied research involves the activities used to gain knowledge with a specific goal in mind.
The activities may be to determine and develop new products, policies, or operational
processes. While basic research is time-consuming, applied research is painstaking and more
costly because of its detailed and complex nature.
Our Nation’s economic growth depends on our capacity to educate, innovate, and build.
Long-term national investments in basic and applied research and development (R&D) play
an important role in the flow of market-based innovations through a complex system that
leverages the combined talents of scientists and engineers, entrepreneurs, business managers
and industrialists.
Investment in R&D is not the only factor that affects the rate of and capacity for innovation.
Public policies, including monetary policy, tax policy, standards, procurement, regulatory
policy, the availability of a skilled technical workforce, and market access are also important
in establishing an environment that fosters innovation. Given this critical time in our Nation’s
economic trajectory, careful consideration of our portfolio of innovation policies—including
R&D investment practices and public policy—is needed to foster national prosperity and to
increase national access to the global economy.
Innovation has long been recognized as an important driver of economic growth.
CONCLUSIONS of R&D
1. Businesses and industries that perform R&D exhibit a greater likelihood of innovation.
Though very few businesses conduct R&D (3%), the private sector accounts for the
majority of R&D performed in the U.S. (71% in 2009).
2. Basic and applied R&D that the private sector is unlikely to support sufficiently requires
sustained, direct funding by the Federal Government to create a knowledge base of
potentially transformative ideas that are critical building blocks of innovation.
3. Investments in R&D by the private sector may decrease during times of economic distress.
The Federal Government has increased its own R&D investments during the last two
economic downturns, which – though not directed for that purpose – countervailed
industry declines in the early and late 2000s.
4. Public funding is essential to sustaining the excellence of public research institutions that
play a significant role in the U.S. innovation system. However, state funding for public
research universities decreased between 2001 and 2009 while enrollment and university
costs increased. As a result, funding per student declined significantly and the cost of
education that must be covered by other funding sources has increased substantially.
5. Federally funded academic R&D is instrumental in creating and sustaining a world-class
higher education system that prepares the next generation of American scientists and
engineers and also attracts and trains high ability international students, researchers, and
faculty.
6. Appropriate visa policies enable the attraction and retention of the best and brightest
foreign born students, faculty, researchers and S&E workers.
R&D-based innovation has long been a pillar of the economy, contributing importantly to the
Nation’s wealth, employment, security, and general quality of life. Federal policies have been
and will continue to be critical to a strong innovation ecosystem. With growing international
competition in high technology industries, the need for continued and enhanced public efforts
to strengthen national R&D-based innovation is clear.
