Decline of Tokugawa Shogunate/ end of feudalism

INTRO:-
In January 3, 1868, Japan experienced a transformative event that forever changed its political, social, and
economic fabric—the Meiji Restoration. This monumental turning point marked the collapse of the
Tokugawa shogunate, a feudal military government that had controlled Japan for over 260 years, and the
beginning of imperial rule under Emperor Meiji. Spearheaded by influential leaders from the Satsuma and
Chōshū domains, this political revolution sought to restore the emperor’s power and propel Japan into an
era of modernization and global prominence.
Tokugawa Shogunate, was a feudal military government that ruled Japan from 1603 to 1868. The Tokugawa
period is also known as the Edo period, named after the capital city of Edo (modern-day Tokyo). The
Tokugawa Shogunate played a crucial role in Japanese history, overseeing a long period of relative peace,
economic growth, and cultural development. However, it eventually faced internal and external challenges
that led to its decline and the beginning of the Meiji Restoration.
The Tokugawa Shogunate was established in 1603 AD when Tokugawa Ieyasu, its founder, established the
hegemony of his family and its collaterals over a large part of Japan and exerted indirect control throughout
the three great islands of Honshu, Kyushu and Shikoku. Nevertheless, end came with Meiji Restoration,
more than two centuries later in 1868.

The fall of the Tokugawa Shogunate in 1868 marked a turning point in Japanese history, ending over two
centuries of feudal rule and ushering in the rapid modernization of the Meiji era. Historians have long
debated whether the collapse of this regime was the result of internal failings—a kind of political suicide—
or the consequence of external pressures and intervention—a murder. Internally, the shogunate struggled
with economic stagnation, social rigidity, and political inflexibility that eroded its legitimacy. Externally, the
sudden arrival of Western powers and the imposition of unequal treaties exposed Japan’s vulnerability and
hastened calls for reform.

BACKGROUND:-
Japan in the 19th century was an isolated country and the Tokugawa shogunate, also called bakufu,
meaning "tent government", tried to keep it that way by restricting trade with other nations. The Tokugawa
bakufu was a feudal military dictatorship established in 1603 and led by the Tokugawa clan until 1868. It
was founded when Tokugawa Ieyasu became the ruler of Japan after defeating the Toyotomi clan in
the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. The Tokugawa shogunate lasted for over 250 years and instituted the
policy of sakoku, meaning "closed country”, which was a period of isolation from most of the world. This
isolated Japan for more than 200 years.
The Tokugawa Shogunate consolidated its power during the reigns of Ieyasu(1603-1605), his son
Hidetada(1605-1623) and his grandson Lemitsu(1623-1651). The Tokugawa Shogunate was the most
effective government that Japan had experienced so far in history but it was not a centralized monarchy.
The Shogun shared power and authority with the local Daimyo in a system known as Bakuhan.
There has been a debate regarding the nature of the Tokugawa Shogunate, i.e., whether it was feudal or
not. Most historians, such as Barrington Moore Jr. and others have argued that Tokugawa Japan was a
feudal state, which came to an end due to Western influences, leading to modernization.
E.H Norman opines that a society in which political power derived exclusively from control over agricultural
produce and the agricultural producer regardless of the extent of sub-infeudation might fairly be called
feudal, even though he disagrees with the regard of the west.
However some western scholars like Andrew Gordon and some Japanese historians such as Asakawa and
Fukuda Tokuzo have denied that a state so highly centralized as Tokugawa Japan could be described as
feudal.
Fairbank has adopted the terminology of the Japanese social historian, Professor Honjo, who spoke of early
or ‘decentralized feudalism’ and late or ‘centralized feudalism’ to describe the nature of the Tokugawa state
as ‘centralized feudalism’. He says that in Japan, a centralization of political power occurred in the late 16th
century but through the use of a basic feudal pattern.
Tokugawa Shogunate had a system of ‘Centralised feudalism’, in words of John K. Fairbank. According to
him there was a centralization of political power during this period that was achieved through a very feudal
pattern that was decentralised. This uniqueness of its feudalism was the cause of its success as well as the
recipe for its downfall.
The Tokugawa society was Confucian based. Confucian concepts of natural law and social hierarchy were
applied in determining not only social control and status, but also a moral order and code of conduct for all
classes. This also became the basis of the four-fold class system, known as shi-no-ko-sho (warrior-farmer-
artisan-merchant), which placed samurai, farmer, artisan, and merchant in a natural order of merit and
importance.
The centralised feudalism in Japan can be better understood if briefly look at the structure of the society,
economy and polity. If one imagines a pyramidal structure, at the top was Emperor (Mikado). The Emperor
was divine in status and an object of worship, had only assumed position in a symbolic or a mere
ceremonial power. The empire was located in Kyoto where the court nobility or the kuge surrounded him.

The real power in Japan rested in the hands of the Shogun or the Bakufu although theoretically he was
second only to the emperor in hierarchy. The Shogun’s system of administration was called the Bakuhan or
the tent government and the seat of authority was in Edo/modern Tokyo, separate from the emperor. The
shogunate had been hereditarily with the Tokugawa family since 1603 and power was wielded from armed
strength and monopoly over the office of shogun. His power was centered on his own territory which grew
about a quarter of the agricultural produce of the whole of Japan. He directly exercised control over several
emerging new cities including port cities also.

Next in hierarchy was the daimyos or the feudal lords who controlled the rest of the land in Japan and were
called han. They varied greatly in strength ranging from those who produced rice ranging from 10,000
kokus of rice to 200,000 kokus. During this period, Japan had around 250 to 300 daimyos. In return for a
pledge of loyalty to the Tokugawa house, the emperor bestowed upon the daimyo the power to rule his
own domain. Hence the daimyo’s domain was the system of effective local administration. The feudal
system replicated itself in each daimyo’s domain. The feudal lords replicated what the shogun did in his
domain in terms of administration, issuing legal codes and taxation. They had a group of loyal samurai
under them in order to maintain their military superiority in their respective domains.

The samurai came below the daimyo in terms of hierarchy and owed their loyalty to their respective feudal
lords in return for fixed rice in payments.

Below the samurais were three classes namely the peasants, the artisans and the merchants (chonin).
These classes were accorded very scant respect and were not allowed to carry arms. While the peasants
were considered the basis of the agrarian economy and hence shown some recognition, the chonin were
considered non productive and hence seen as the lowest of the low.

In 1600, the Emperor transferred governance to the Tokugawa family in Japan. The Tokugawa polity was
divided into two authorities, with the Emperor (Tenno) residing in isolation at Kyoto and the Shogun, the
chief military lord, situated in the capital Edo (Tokyo). While the Emperor held a symbolic position, the
administrative role was vested in the Shogun, who served as the feudal sovereign over 250 daimyo (feudal
lords), each possessing a han (territory). The Shogun, functioning as the chief feudal authority, controlled
the entire country. In 1630, Iemitsu was patronized as the first shogun by the Emperor.
The military government of the shogun was termed the shogunate or bakufu, and its political system was
referred to as baku-han. According to J.W. Hall, there were two bakuhan political institutions: the
shogunate, serving as the national authority, and the daimyo, functioning as regional administrators. In
essence, the shogun oversaw critical areas such as mines, seaports in Osaka, Nagasaki, and Kyoto. The
remaining three-quarters of the country were governed by autonomous daimyo within their hans
(territories). Daimyo were categorized into Shimpan (relative), who were Tokugawa family members in the
administration, Fudai (hereditary) who pledged loyalty before the Battle of Sekigahara (1600), and Tozama
(outer) who acknowledged Tokugawa rule after the battle and were not part of the administration.
Approximately one-fourth of the land was directly administered by the Tokugawa family through their
samurai.
In remote areas like Satsuma and Choshu, specific hans were allocated, eventually playing a crucial role in a
coup against the Shogunate. The sankin kotai system required daimyo to alternate their residence between
their hans and Edo, leaving their families and wives as hostages in Edo. According to Richard Storry, this
system strategically connected the fragmented country, establishing transport routes, markets, and trading
opportunities, preventing daimyo from amassing financial power. The bakufu closely monitored daimyo
activities, marriages, and movements through the introduction of a passport system.
In Tokugawa society, Confucian principles of natural law and social hierarchy determine social status, order,
and conduct for all classes. This framework gave rise to the four-fold class system known as sheno-ke-sho,
consisting of samurai, farmers, artisans, and chonin (merchants). Samurai, forming the ruling class with
shogun, daimyo, and their retainers, held high status, wealth, and power. There were three ranks of
samurai - upper, middle, and lower. Peasants faced exploitation and deprivation of privileges, artisans
struggled due to peace times and a lack of patronage by samurai, and chonin merchants occupied the
lowest rung with restrictions on using palanquins, wearing silk, and carrying swords. According to J.W. Hall,
the Tokugawa lifestyle involved a deference to higher authority, with the four classes not allowed to
interact with each other, each adhering to codes of conduct like Bushido (way of the samurai) and
Chonindo (way of the chonins).
The entry of Christians in Japan was prohibited starting from January 26, 1614, leading to the destruction of
churches and an order for Christians to convert. Only Chinese and Dutch individuals were allowed, as they
were not entirely Christians and held less influence. Violation of this prohibition carried the risk of the
death penalty. The construction of large ships exceeding 50 tonnes was also restricted. These measures in
1630 effectively closed Japan to the outside world, maintaining peace for two centuries. The Shogunate
adeptly managed Western activities in the Pacific during the 19th century, showcasing achievements such
as urbanization, road networks, agricultural and proto-industrial development in Osaka and Edo, river
channeling, and advancements in education. All Shogunate policies were designed to preserve and
strengthen its power, aiming to centralize the previously decentralized feudal system. Scholars like J.
Fairbank and G.B. Sansom suggest that the shogunate's downfall resulted from imperfect and ineffective
internal policies, leading to decadence in feudalism.
DECLINE
Historians concur that the onset of modern Japan is marked by the "crise de regime" of the Tokugawa
Shogunate, the rulers of Japan from 1600. Understanding its political instability, foreign interactions, socio-
economic tensions, and internal conflicts is crucial in comprehending its decline. The question of whether
the preservation of the bakufu system was possible with an alternate policy by Tokugawa leaders is
debated. Some, like Andrew Gordon, attribute the decline to the crisis triggered by Commodore Matthew
Perry's arrival in 1853 and the subsequent opening of Japan through gunboat diplomacy. On the contrary,
G.B. Sansom suggests, "The factor contributing to its decline and opening the doors was not external
summons but an internal explosion."
The majority of historians see these two categories as the reasons behind the Tokugawa bakufu's demise.
The impact of "unequal treaties" was noteworthy for both the internal & international policies of Tokugawa
Japan. (i) Internal Elements highlighted the internal pressures for social, political, and economic change:
According to J.W. Hall, Perry's expeditions serve as an example of how western aggressiveness only serves
as the last push before an eventual collapse. (ii) External Factors: The impact of Japan's decision to open its
doors to Western commerce, which almost resulted in the colonization of the area. Although not as
important as the external elements, Richard Storry concurs that the internal aspects were noteworthy
Internal Factors:
Around the 19th century the Tokugawa system began to face serious problems. The very system that so
well preserved the feudal loyalties intact, the checks and balances led to social tensions. Financial crisis also
prevailed all through empire. All the classes in Japan - the daimyos, the samurai, the peasants, and
merchants - began to experience several profound changes. The regulatory measures used to keep them
aloof though ensured the feudal order but were leading to certain socio-economic changes that were not in
conformity with the spirit of feudalism. A money economy was had emerging as opposed to the rice
economy, due to the long period of peace. The Tokugawa rule had in turn promoted manufacturing and
industries too.

The causes of Daimyo discontent

The sankin kotai system which was a powerful system of check on daimyos further fuelled the money
economy. Under this system the daimyos had to undertake substantial expenditure to maintain his annual
journey to and from Edo and maintain his life both in Edo and his own domain. The daimyo had to finance
his whole retinue that travelled with him to the capital and this slowly started becoming an area of
competitive display among the daimyos. The daimyo was to also entertain the shogun. He was to keep his
castles in good condition and pay for irrigation and other land projects back in his own domain.

In order to maintain these expenses the daimyo began to sell the rice which was collected as tax into
money by selling rice in the markets such as Osaka which were known for its rice warehouses. The daimyo
were mostly at a disadvantage where they had to depend on the rice merchants and the volatile rice
market fluctuations. This further contributed to the growth of the money economy and this in turn led to
the social mobility of the merchant classes or the chonin. Prior to this they were considered the lowest in
the hierarchy and now even the daimyo fell into debts. This was further complicated by the standardization
of weights and measures, adoption of a national currency and the development of transport and
communication network. All these led to a kind of unnatural social formation which took the form of
daimyo-chonin alliance. This became possible because the chonin were accepted into daimyo families
though marriage or adoption. Thus, there was a mutual exchange of economic power and social status.

Tokugawa maintained political stability in Japan for a considerable amount of time and avoided conflicts
with different social groups. Later, these classes experienced significant upheaval and began to express
resentment toward laws that led to socioeconomic and ideological tensions, such as control measures,
sankin kotai, the expulsion of samurai from rural areas, urbanization, the rise of the money economy, and
long stretches of peace. Meenlochna Vatts claimed that although daimyo had several advantages, the costs
associated with the Sankin Kotai system had thrown them off balance. They had to borrow money from
Chonin to cover their bills, particularly for their families' opulent Edo lifestyle.
The shift of samurai from rural areas to the towns controlled by daimyo created challenges. T.G. Tsukahira
noted that samurai lost their status and began receiving rice stipends due to financial issues linked to
practices like sankin kotai. Many daimyo reduced stipends or dismissed samurai, turning them into ronin.
Although the appearance of traditional sword wearing persisted, it became superficial. The primogeniture
system, favouring the eldest son, posed issues for ronin. During times of peace, some samurai pursued
education, entering various fields and gaining awareness of their rights. Some engaged in arts, literature,
and business, while others indulged in city luxuries, often funded by loans from chonin. By 1700, the entire
samurai class faced chronic debt.
By the late 19th century, many samurai had lost their martial spirit, with a significant portion becoming as
vulnerable as women and having morale as low as merchants, as noted by EH. Norman. Facing financial
challenges, samurai began marrying for wealth to sustain their living standards. Appointments in the
bakufu and han bureaucracy favored social rank within samurai rather than merit, leading to discontent
among lower-ranking samurai. G.B. Sansom observed that important offices predominantly went to upper
samurai, fueling the discontent of the lower ranks. This dissatisfaction played a role in the movement to
overthrow the Tokugawa Shogunate and later contributed to the leadership during the Meiji era. Many
lower-ranking samurai left their daimyo, became free commoners, and shifted their loyalty from their
respective domains to the nation, especially with the arrival of Commodore Perry.
Peasants faced difficulties as they were not allowed to grow the crops they preferred, and they had to
provide free labour for building local roads and courier services. According to C. Totman, officials viewed
peasants as sources of taxes, taking away their surplus. T.G. Tsukahira mentioned that poverty forced some
peasants to push their daughters into prostitution, and some resorted to female infanticide (mabiki) to
preserve their dignity. The commercialization of agriculture led to the rise of a wealthy peasant class (gono)
that imitated the lifestyle of samurai, causing jealousy among the poorer peasants. The wealthy peasants
achieved higher social status by educating their sons and taking trips to big cities.
Artisans, including carpenters, weavers, sculptors, and craftsworkers, also faced challenges. With the long
period of peace, there was less construction work, leading to unemployment for unskilled artisans. Skilled
artisans suffered too, as their patrons, the samurai, had become bankrupt due to the lack of opportunities
for work. The societal changes in 19th century Japan were marked by the rise of the chonin (merchant)
class, challenging the traditional feudal order. The sankin kotai system, designed to regulate the samurai
class, contributed to the financial downfall of the samurai. The economic power of the chonin, especially in
cities like Edo and Osaka, led to increased urbanization. Sankin kotai's financial burden was transferred to
peasants through heavy rice taxes, which were then sold to merchants in urban markets.
The shift from a rice-based economy to a money-based one made Osaka a significant distribution center,
with udasashi (rice-brokers) becoming influential. Merchants emerged as key players, challenging the
authority of daimyo, samurai, and the bakufu, as they provided loans to these classes. The newfound
wealth allowed some merchants to adopt the lifestyle of samurai, even acquiring samurai weapons. By the
19th century, the traditional code of conduct, Bushido, became challenging to uphold. Social classes faced
psychological, economic, and social problems, leading to a desire for change. Interactions between classes
and resentment against the Tokugawa shogunate gave rise to alliances like ainyo-ronin-chonin, seeking to
overthrow the Tokugawa regime.
Historians such as Nathaniel Peifer, Peter Duus, Barrington Moore Jr., J.K. Fairbank, and W.G. Beasley
contribute to understanding these changes. According to Moore Jr., the breakdown of rigid social
hierarchies marked the end of centralized feudalism. Fairbank notes the diffusion of the merchant and
samurai classes as a factor in the breakdown of feudal government. Beasley emphasizes the Tokugawa's
fear of foreign influence, leading to the adoption of the sakoku policy (closed country). Chitoshi Yanaga
suggests that while Perry's arrival was a triggering event, internal pressures were already pushing Japan
towards openness.
External Factors:
In the mid-19th century, Japan faced a series of challenges with American naval officers, leading to
Commodore Matthew Perry's arrival in 1853 and the signing of the Treaty of Kanagawa in 1854. This treaty
opened Japan to Western powers and set conditions for extraterritoriality and port access. Richard Storry
argue that the Shogunate's collapse was inevitable due to its inability to resist the demands made by the
USA, Russia, Great Britain, and other nations. Beasley highlighted the threat posed by Western trade with
China. Townsend Harris expanded treaties in 1858, portraying the shogun as a defaulter. Andrew Gordon
noted parallels to the Opium War settlement without military conflict. Economic policies, like debasing gold
coins, caused inflation, leading to mass discontent. The controversial selection of the 14th shogun fueled
anti-Tokugawa sentiments, as did punitive measures against dissenters. Royalist movements, such as
"Sonno Joi," gained traction, reflecting middle and lower samurai class discontent as noted by E.H. Norman.
Shishi activists violently protested against Commodore Perry's treaties, reflecting philosophical roots in the
Mito School. E.H. Norman identified the decline of the Tokugawa as a result of conflicts between extremists
(Choshu) and moderates (Satsuma). Emperor Meiji's actions in 1864 and Choshu's victory in 1866 further
weakened the Tokugawa Shogunate. The Bakuhan system's flaws, along with financial instability, Western
influence, unequal treaties, and opposition from daimyo, contributed to its downfall. S.S. Christopher Jones
contends that Tokugawa's response wouldn't have changed the outcome. In 1868, the Meiji Restoration
marked the end of Tokugawa rule.
In the late 1860s, the Tozama clans, Satsuma and Choshu, exploited anti-Tokugawa sentiments, leading to
the overthrow of the Tokugawa Shogunate. The Satsuma-Choshu alliance's military success in 1866 and
subsequent move to Kyoto resulted in Emperor Mutsuhito's ascension in 1868, formalizing the end of
Tokugawa rule by May 1869. Treaties and the aristocracy's discontent further fueled the rebellion, with
Tozama daimyos calling for the shogun's resignation in 1867. This pivotal period marked a decline in social
stratification, the rise of the merchant class, the end of Japan's isolation, and the restoration of the
monarchy through the Meiji Restoration in 1868.
CONCLUSION:-
In conclusion, the fall of the Tokugawa Shogunate was a complex interplay of internal and external factors
that created a perfect storm leading to its demise. The anti-Tokugawa alliance, under the guise of restoring
tradition and the emperor, capitalized on worsening internal conditions in Japan, exacerbated by the
neglect of the Shogun and inherent flaws in the bakuhan system. The transition from feudalism to primitive
capitalism brought about social unrest, with external aggression serving as a catalyst to the accumulated
pressure within Japan. While the Shogunate's downfall may have been inevitable due to its inherent flaws
and various challenges, external events expedited the process. The culmination of financial instability,
Western influences, unequal treaties, feudal societal structures, alliances, the sankin-kotai system, and
opposition from certain daimyo ultimately led to the Tokugawa's collapse. It remains uncertain whether
different handling of events in the preceding decades would have altered the outcome significantly.
Nonetheless, the fall of the Tokugawa bakuhan system marked a pivotal moment, paving the way for the
transformative 'Meiji' Restoration.
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