WIP1698L001 | MACMILLAN DEVELOPMENT STUDIES | FIRST | POSITIVE PROOF | 8 JANUARY 2016

Development Studies

Theresa Thoko Mciza, Leokwane Dlamini,

Dira Khama, Matseliso Motsu

With:
Samuel Botchway, Bornwell Chikulo, Malan Naude,
Mokgadi Molope, Pinkie Olifant
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Development Studies

© Theresa Thoko Mciza, Leokwane Dlamini, Dira Khama, Matseliso Motsu 2015
© Illustration and design Macmillan Boleswa Publishers (Lesotho) (Pty) Ltd 2015

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ISBN 9789991139364
WIP 1698L001

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 WIP1698L001 | MACMILLAN DEVELOPMENT STUDIES | FIRST | POSITIVE PROOF | 8 JANUARY 2016

Contents
Chapter 1 Poverty and development..................1 Chapter 2 Industrial development, trade and
Unit 1.1 Understanding the concepts poverty globalisation ....................................39
and development..................................1 Unit 2.1 Industrialisation and the process of
Defining poverty ....................................................1 production ........................................39
Defining development.............................................4 Industrialisation and production............................39
Sustainable development.........................................6 The impact of industrialisation ..............................40
Lesotho’s efforts towards sustainable Industrialisation and an educated, skilled
development............................................................7 workforce ..........................................................41
The Millennium Development Goals.......................7 The factors of production......................................41
Poverty reduction strategies in Lesotho.................10 Types of technology .............................................42
Economies of scale................................................43
Unit 1.2 Levels of poverty and development....11 Labour-intensive and capital-intensive methods
Measuring development – examining different of production........................................................44
indicators ..........................................................11 Sectors of production............................................45
Aspects of development difficult to measure..........14 Employment in the formal and informal sectors....46
The role of consumers in promoting sustainable
Unit 1.3 Patterns of development ....................15 development .........................................................46
Understanding patterns of development................15
Economic activities and characteristics of Unit 2.2 The growth and role of world trade....47
developed, quickly developing and slowly Defining trade.......................................................48
developing countries..............................................15 The importance of trade........................................48
Patterns of development in the SADC region .......18 Free trade zones....................................................48
Development and world trade...............................49
Unit 1.4 Social and health issues in relation to Neo-colonialism, dependency and fair trade..........50
poverty and development...................20 Growth and changes in the pattern of world
The concept of basic needs for human life.............20 trade since 1950....................................................51
Education and standard of living...........................21 Types and values of Lesotho’s exports and
Social and health issues facing low-income and imports ..........................................................53
middle-income countries.......................................22
Basic development needs of low-income and Unit 2.3 T
 he function and impact of foreign aid and
middle-income countries.......................................24 investment on development....................54
The role and contribution of women in Foreign aid ..........................................................54
development of Lesotho and other countries.........24 The role of aid agencies and charities in
Issues affecting poverty alleviation.........................25 development .........................................................54
The reasons for and possible strategies to reduce The impact of foreign aid......................................55
inequality, discrimination and deprivation..............26 Evaluating the effectiveness of foreign aid..............56
Efforts to reduce inequality and discrimination by Foreign investment................................................57
the government of Lesotho...................................27 The role of special agencies....................................58
National debt........................................................59
Unit 1.5 Political issues and their effect on The role of foreign direct investment (FDI) in
poverty and development...................29 the development process.......................................61
The concept of human rights.................................30 The role of multinational (transnational) companies
The roles of the different institutions of government in the development process...................................62
and functions of the legislature, the executive and
the judiciary..........................................................30 Unit 2.4 Globalisation and its impact on
Political systems and the distribution of resources..31 development......................................64
Political actions that can promote or limit Defining globalisation...........................................64
development..........................................................34 Advantages and disadvantages of globalisation.......65
The importance of women in politics....................35 The role of telecommunications and transportation
Corruption as an obstacle to development.............36 services in globalisation.........................................66
International cooperation in solving global Outsourcing and globalisation ..............................67
issues ..........................................................37 International travel and the tourism industry.........68
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Lesotho’s travel and tourism industry ...................68 Unit 4.3 The impact of changes in agriculture
and strategies to ensure sustainable
Chapter 3 Population and development ..........70 development....................................101
Unit 3.1 Population change..............................70 The causes and impacts of the flight from the
Defining population..............................................70 land of origin.......................................................101
Reasons for changes in population ........................72 The causes and impacts of land degradation .......102
The pressure of population on resources................74 Modern farming systems versus organic
The impact of changes in the crude birth rate farming ........................................................103
and death rates on the population structure and The sustainability of farming methods in
growth rate ..........................................................75 Lesotho ........................................................103
Lesotho’s population pyramid versus other
countries’ population pyramids..............................76 Unit 4.4 Land use pressure and methods of
land conservation.............................105
Unit 3.2 Causes and impacts of urbanisation....78 Increasing world population and deforestation ...105
Urbanisation and urban growth.............................78 The use of marginal lands and desertification.......105
Development and urbanisation..............................79 Rapid urbanisation and development, and the
The effects of urbanisation on rural and urban increase in demand for land for utilities...............106
areas ..........................................................80 The impacts of the exploitation of land for mineral
Evaluating possible solutions to urbanisation extraction ........................................................106
problems ..........................................................81 The impact of mass tourism on the
environment........................................................107
Unit 3.3 Migration...........................................82 Land preservation and conservation methods to
Defining migration................................................82 retain biodiversity ...............................................107
Causes of different forms of migration ..................83
The impact of migration on low-income and Unit 4.5 Global environmental problems and
middle-income countries ......................................84 reduction strategies..........................109
Ways of managing migration ................................85 Causes and effects of deforestation and forest
degradation ........................................................109
Unit 3.4 Rapid population growth: implications Climate change....................................................111
and strategies......................................86 Acid rain ........................................................112
Policies related to population issues in Lesotho ....86 Urban air pollution and types of pollutants..........113
Rapid population growth......................................87 Water pollution as an environmental problem......114
Solid waste ........................................................114
Chapter 4 The environment and
development.....................................89 Unit 4.6 Natural and human-made disasters and
Unit 4.1 The nature of rural development .......89 development....................................115
Defining the term ‘environment’...........................89 Disasters ........................................................116
Lesotho’s environmental policy.............................90 Examples and case studies of disasters..................117
The nature of traditional societies and the The impact of disasters on development .............119
environment..........................................................91 Ways in which government, NGOs and
The impact of colonialism on the environment .....92 international agencies deal with the effects of
Types of agriculture...............................................93 disasters ........................................................120
Rural development schemes and strategies ............94
Problems involved in the implementation of rural Chapter 5 Research and investigation skills .122
development schemes and strategies......................95 Unit 5.1 Understand basic components of
research............................................122
Unit 4.2 The world market for agricultural Types of research.................................................122
products.............................................97 Steps in the research process for Development
The impact of population growth and the demand Studies ........................................................123
for food supplies....................................................97
Ways to modernise agriculture to increase output..97 Examination practice questions........................129
Impact of transport, preserving and freezing on Glossary 130
world markets for agricultural products.................98
Agricultural systems in Lesotho ............................99
Agricultural systems in other countries..................99
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Poverty and development

Chapter 1
Unit 1.1 Understanding the concepts poverty and development

Unit objectives
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
define poverty and related concepts (e.g. poverty trap, vicious circle, absolute poverty,
relative poverty, poverty line)
define the concepts development, economic development and sustainable development
understand the Millennium Development Goals, their targets and indicators for monitoring
progress and to take into account any reviews by the United Nations of the Millennium
Development Goals
outline poverty reduction strategies in Lesotho.

Introduction
While poverty exists everywhere, it differs from one household, nation and region to another. This
chapter will examine poverty and its relationship to development. You will learn about the definitions
of poverty and the concepts related to poverty. This chapter shows how poverty is related to economic
and sustainable development. You will see how the Millennium Development Goals address
development and see how Lesotho’s Poverty Reduction Strategy attempts to address the challenges it
faces in relation to poverty and development.

Defining poverty
Poverty is when people live under conditions that The United Nations (UN) defines poverty as the
prevent them from developing and realising their denial of choices and opportunities, violation of
potential. Poverty can involve a lack of access to human dignity and lack of basic needs. Poverty can
resources, healthcare and education. Poverty can
mean that people are unable to access political
processes and that they are denied opportunities
and choices that are basic to human development.
Poverty undermines human dignity and slows
down society’s progress towards sustainable
development. Therefore it has become a threat to
human development and democracy.

The conditions of poverty are also related to poor

economic growth and development. Lesotho, like
many other Less Economically Developed
Countries (LEDCs), faces problems associated with Poverty can be defined as the lack of resources to
severe poverty. obtain material necessities.

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be seen as the lack of resources to obtain material landholdings. Drought and floods also reduce
necessities. The World Bank defines poverty as the the amount of food that they are able to
state in which people live on less than two dollars a produce. There may be too little food to
day and extreme poverty as the state in which nourish everyone.
people live on less than one dollar a day. Malnutrition and diseases: Many households
cannot afford to eat a balanced diet, so they
The following are some concepts related to poverty suffer from malnutrition and ill health.
which are important to understand: poverty trap, Malnutrition causes low birth weight, poor
the vicious cycle of poverty, absolute poverty, performance at school and low productivity.
relative poverty and the poverty line.
Absolute poverty
Poverty trap The World Bank describes absolute poverty as a
A poverty trap is a situation in which somebody situation in which incomes are so low that people
stays poor even after some of their problems cannot meet their most basic needs, such as
related to poverty are relieved. The Government of nutrition and shelter.
Lesotho offers free health services and primary
education to poor families. However, even with Relative poverty
this help, some families remain poor (read the case Relative poverty tells you how poor one group of
study about Lineo’s family on page xx). It is people is compared to another. It is determined by
difficult for some families to escape from poverty, looking at one situation against another. For
because they are trapped in the circumstances example, in relation to South Africa, Lesotho is
created by poverty. poorer. In relation to the United States, South
Africa is poorer. Relative poverty refers to people
The vicious cycle of poverty who can meet their basic needs, but who are still
The cycle of poverty is when poor people remain disadvantaged.
trapped in the circumstances of poverty. For
example, they do not have money to invest and The poverty line
therefore they cannot increase their assets. They The poverty line is an indicator (measure) used to
may be vulnerable to healthcare problems and determine how many people are poor in a specific
diseases and they may struggle to get enough food, region, city or country. A poverty indicator has
which results in poor nutrition. These conditions been developed to measure levels of poverty:
mean they cannot improve their circumstances and US$1.25 per day. This refers to the amount of
they may become even poorer. Some people call income that is needed to be able to buy basic
this the deprivation trap. Long periods of poverty necessities within a family. For example, if people
may lead to people becoming weak and unable to are living on more than US$1.25 per day to meet
perform productive work even if they have a job. their basic needs, they are living above the poverty
line; if people are living on less than US$1.25 per
Clusters of disadvantage day, they are living below the poverty line.
To understand the vicious cycle of poverty, you
need to understand the disadvantages that the poor
experience, classified into four clusters: Women and land tenure
Poverty: Poor people often cannot meet their In most parts of Africa, modern and traditional
basic needs because they do not have enough laws favour a patriarchal system (controlled by
resources for their households. men). The result is that women cannot make
Lack of investment: Many families living in any decisions about land ownership and resource
poverty may live far from employment control. This means that men have most of the
opportunities and do not have jobs or income decision-making power and women are relatively
to invest or save. This makes them vulnerable disempowered and are not allowed to make
to unexpected life events such a job losses, decisions. Women may have temporary access to
illness or disability. They also cannot provide resources through their fathers or husbands, but
for the future educational needs of their if they become widowed or divorced, they may
children. have to leave the land. However, with land
Low productivity: Poor families surviving on reform efforts progressing in Africa, including
subsistence farming are often not able to Lesotho, female access and ownership of land
produce large quantities of food, because the will hopefully be improved.
soil has lost its fertility and they have small

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Case studies Poverty is widespread among socially

disadvantaged people such as the landless, female-
Mpho’s story headed families and children.
Mpho is a 12-year-old girl living in Maseru
West with her younger brother and parents. In
the morning before they go to school, the Activity 1
children eat breakfast with their parents. The
parents prepare lunch for the children to take Work with a partner.
to school. Mpho’s mother drops them off at Read the three case studies carefully and answer
school on her way to work and fetches them these questions.
after school. The parents help Mpho and her 1. Define poverty in your own words.
brother with their homework just before the 2. Identify which case study represents absolute
family sits down together to eat dinner. poverty. Explain your answer.
3. Draw a diagram to show the effects of
poverty in Lineo’s family.
4. Identify the social issues that cause ongoing
poverty in ’Mathabang’s household. How
are they trapped in the vicious cycle of
poverty?
5. Think of another scenario you are aware of
Mpho’s house Lineo’s shack in which social issues bring about poverty.
Discuss the causes and effects of the social
Lineo’s story issues.
Lineo lives in a shack with her parents and her 6. Discuss how social issues bring about
younger brother and sister. Her mother poverty, based on the scenarios you have
performs odd jobs (piece jobs) for money. Her studied. Summarise your main points in a
father has been retrenched from his job at a bulleted list.
South African mine, so he stays at home most
of the time, or goes out to drink alcohol with
his friend. He returns home very late and fights
with Lineo’s mother. Lineo and her siblings Activity 2
often go without food. Lineo did not perform
well at school at the end of last year. She Research project: Investigating the Lesotho
became very depressed and ill. Her parents Land Act
could not afford to take her to the clinic, so her Work in groups.
health got worse. Her younger brother and 1. Research as much information as you can
sister had to stay out of school because there about the Lesotho Land Act, particularly:
was no money to pay their school fees. a) which rights it grants to women
b) how the reform will help to reduce
’Mathabang’s story poverty among women.
’Mathabang is a middle-aged woman who lives 2. Write up your findings in a formal report.
in a rural area in Lesotho. Her family owns a 3. Present your report to the other groups in
field on which they grow maize. She works the the class. Then compare your findings.
land and provides most of the labour to
produce the maize. But ’Mathabang lacks the
authority to decide when to sell maize. This is
because she does not own the piece of land; the Activity 3
field belongs to her husband. Her husband
works far away from home and forbids her to Work with a partner.
make any decisions about the land without his 1. Summarise factors that cause ongoing
permission. He has little contact with the poverty in Lesotho.
family. Due to her lack of power in decision- 2. Pretend you are the Prime Minister of a
making, ’Mathabang cannot decide when to coalition government. Which policies and
sell the maize, even when she needs money to strategies would you develop to reduce
pay school fees for her children. poverty in Lesotho?

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Defining development Activity 4

Development means change, growth and an
increase in the wealth of individuals and countries. Work with a partner.
It must bring changes and improvements in social, 1. Study the three illustrations of Khanya’s
economic, political, environmental and village. Identify the changes that have
technological aspects of a country, which will in occurred in the village over time.
turn improve standards of living of individuals and 2. Have the changes improved people’s lives? If
families. Development is about improving people’s so, how?
lives so that they become freer, happier and better 3. Look at what the learners are saying below.
equipped to fulfil their potential. In pairs, discuss how each change could
improve people’s lives for the better (making
To understand development, study the illustrations them happier and freer).
that follow. Khanya is a Mosotho man who has
lived all his life in a village called Katse in Lesotho. In our
village we need
During his life, his village has changed in a school.
important ways.

I think
we need a
clinic.

I think we
also need a clean
water supply.

We also need better

roads so that we can take
our products to the market
after harvest.

Aspects of development
Development should change a person or a
community in a number of ways.
Standard of living (social aspects): People
should have a good standard of living and their
basic needs should be fully met, so that their
lives become better, happier and freer. Social
development means improvement in people’s
quality of life. It refers to the extent to which
people can meet their basic needs, and have
access to wealth, jobs, nutrition, leisure and
safety.
Economic life (economic aspects): A country
needs to produce sufficient goods and services
to meet the needs of every person and create
the conditions to earn revenue, enabling
people to have sufficient income to meet their
needs. When a country produces enough
wealth and the whole society prospers, then we
can say there has been economic
development.

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Political life (political aspects): When people Classification of countries according to

have political freedom and justice, their political economic criteria and development
rights are recognised and they are able to have More Economically Developed Countries
control over their own lives. Political (MEDCs): The capitalist countries such as the
development should allow for citizens’ USA and countries in Western Europe are also
participation in political activities and grant likely to be seen as MEDCs, according to the
freedom of choice (for example, through United Nations definitions for development.
voting) so that people can make appropriate This means that most people in these countries
decisions that have a positive effect on their can meet their basic needs and the countries
experiences and lives. It also includes good have stable economies with good infrastructure.
governance and political stability. The economy may be characterised by primary,
Environment: All living and non-living things secondary, tertiary and quaternary activities and
interact with the earth’s support system. Social, does not rely on one type of activity only to
economic and political aspects play an generate revenue.
important role in the way societies relate to the Less Economically Developed Countries
environment because they depend on it in (LEDCs): This term is used to describe some
different ways. Careful use of air, water, countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America,
vegetation and animal life improves people’s which have low indicators for development –
quality of life. In Chapter 4, you will learn their economies are still growing. There may be
more about the broader definition of a large number of people in each country who
‘environment’, which includes the political, have a low standard of living and poor quality
economic, social and biophysical environment. of life due to a lack of resources. The economy
of these countries may be dependent on
Levels of development in the world primary activities.
Countries in the world have different levels of Newly Industrialising Countries (NICs):
development. We classify them according to their These are countries such as South Korea,
different levels of development in political, social, Taiwan, Thailand, Singapore, Brazil, India,
economic and environmental aspects. China, Indonesia and the Philippines, which are
experiencing rapid industrialisation and
Classification of countries according to political economic growth. They have moved away from
criteria and development an agriculture-based economy. They are not
After 1945, at the end of WWII, countries of the considered to be ‘developed’ countries yet, but
world were classified as capitalist or socialist. their growth in exports and standard of living is
Capitalist countries: This is a group of developing quickly, so that they are no longer
countries led by the United States of America in the ‘developing world’ category.
(USA) and countries of Western Europe.
Capitalism is an economic system in which the
factors of production (such as land, labour and Primary activities: involve the of natural
capital – you will learn more about these in resources, such as fishing and mining
Chapter 2) are owned and controlled by private Secondary activities: involve producing
individuals. There is a free market with little manufactured goods and products
government intervention. People are free to set Tertiary activities: involve producing and
up their businesses legally and gain as much delivering services
wealth and prosperity as they desire. Quaternary activities: involve all knowledge-
Socialist and communist countries: This based activities, such as information
group of countries includes Russia and China. technology and research
Socialism is an economic system in which the
factors of production are owned and controlled You will learn about these activities in further
by the government on behalf of the people. detail in Chapter 2.
The aim of socialism is to bring a more
equitable (fair) distribution of wealth.
Production and distribution of goods and Classification of countries according to GNP or
services is planned and controlled by the income
government. Countries can also be classified according to their
income. To understand this classification, you need
to know some economic terms:

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Gross domestic product (GDP) is the Sustainable development

monetary value of all goods and services Sustainable development refers to fulfilling the
produced within the borders of a country in a needs of the present generation without posing a
specific period time (for example, one year). threat to future generations of meeting their own
Gross national product (GNP) includes the needs. In essence, it refers to the responsible
country’s GDP plus any income that its management of natural resources. There is a
residents have earned from overseas investment, focus on favouring renewable resources over
minus the income earned within the country by non-renewable resources. Renewable resources
non-residents – it is thus a measure of the are resources such as wind energy that does not
income of the country’s residents. run out; non-renewable resources are resources
Per capita means ‘per person in one year’. such as coal that will run out when they are used
up.
You will learn more about these indicators in Unit
1.2. People should be empowered to manage their own
development, using resources responsibly, without
Countries are classified into three main categories damaging the planet’s natural life support systems.
based on the level of incomes of their people We focus on sustainable development because, in
(GNP). According to the World Bank: the past, development was based on economic
Low-income countries have a GNP per capita growth only. This led to the unsustainable use of
of less than US$975. resources and many problems such as pollution,
Middle-income countries have a GNP per capita population pressure, loss of natural habitats of
ranging between US$3 856 and $11 905. animals and global warming.
High-income countries have a GNP per capita
income higher than US$11 906. MEDCs tend to consume more resources and
produce most of the pollution that threatens the
Classification of countries according to environment, while LEDCs tend to be most
geography vulnerable to the environmental threats. For
North/South divide: Countries are also example, the cycles of drought that are common in
classified according to their location. In 1980, some parts of Africa have devastating effects on the
an imaginary line was created that divided the economies of those countries and their ability to
world into northern and southern hemispheres. develop. Some scientists believe that global
This line is called the Brandt Line. In theory, warming will cause these environmental problems
the MEDCs are mainly found in the northern to become worse. The greater the inequality
hemisphere (‘the North’), while the LEDCs are between developed and developing countries, the
mainly found in the southern hemisphere (‘the more difficult it is to follow the principles of
South’). However, several countries do not ‘fit’ sustainable development.
this classification. Many things have changed
since the Brandt Line was created. For example,
many countries, such as Brazil and China, have Activity 6
experienced development since then.
OPEC: Another group of countries classified Work with a partner.
geographically is the Organisation of Petroleum 1. Observe everyday activities in your
Exporting Countries (OPEC), in the Middle community, for example how people travel,
East. This group of countries exports oil how they prepare food, how they build
(forming the main basis of their economies). homes, etc. How many of these activities are
Examples of countries that fall under the OPEC reliant on renewable resources, and how
classification are Saudi Arabia, Iraq and Iran. many on non-renewable resources? Read
local newspapers and find examples of things
people do that use renewable and non-
Activity 5 renewable resources.
2. Based on your observations, make a list of
Work on your own. community activities that you think are based
Make a mind map to show the different on sustainable principles and those that are
categories used to classify countries according to not.
their level of development. 3. Report back to your group.

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4. Now discuss what you think your community Lesotho’s efforts towards
can do to meet its needs more sustainably. sustainable development
Lesotho has formulated the National Action Plan
which aims to help implement the National
Working together to achieve a Environment Policy. The goal of the National
sustainable future Environmental Policy is to achieve sustainable
In order for the environment to be conserved, livelihoods and development for Lesotho based on
countries of the world need to work together, to the priorities of lessening poverty, managing
find ways that will help to sustain the environment population growth, conserving natural resources
and encourage social justice. Sustainable and encouraging community participation.
development emphasises the development of
people and the wise use of available resources. You will learn more about Lesotho’s
Environmental Policy in Chapter 4.
Resources may be:
conserved (protecting and saving resources)
improved (finding ways of using resources Activity 7
more wisely)
rescued (saving and repairing damaged Work on your own.
resources) 1. Suppose you are the Minister of Tourism
re-used (for example, bottles, boxes and timber and National Environment. How would you
may be re-used to prevent the exploitation of respond to the challenges of sustainable
new resources) development? Brainstorm your ideas. Note
recycled (for example, metals, plastics, glass and that Lesotho is faced with extreme poverty,
other finite materials may be recycled) worsening environmental damage, ill health
replaced (non-renewable resources can be and unemployment.
replaced with renewable resources, for example, 2. Present your ideas to the class.
we could use biogas instead of coal-powered
electricity).

The following can be done to reduce population The Millennium Development

pressure: Goals
Birth rates and family sizes could be reduced by The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
educating people about the importance of were eight international development goals that
family planning. 189 UN member states and 23 international
Family planning services need to be affordable organisations had agreed to achieve by 2015.
and accessible to all, so that families are able to Through the MDGs, the international community
meet basic needs and promote good health. committed to a wider vision in which human
development is central to promoting sustainable
Countries must cooperate and share resources development socially and economically.
fairly:
Countries of the world must cooperate locally,
regionally and globally in a partnership to
recognise their inter-related dependence on
resources.
Resources must be shared fairly. Wealthier
countries could their use of natural resources
and share wealth more equally among the
people.
LEDCs need to stabilise their population and
governments in order to reduce poverty and to
improve the quality of life among the people.
Poor countries must adopt appropriate
technologies that suit their cultures and
environment.

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Goals Targets
1. Eradicate extreme a) Halve the proportion of people living on less than US$1.25 a day.
poverty b) Achieve a full and productive employment for all.
c) Halve the proportion of people who suffer from hunger.
2. Achieve universal a) Ensure that all children complete their primary education.
primary education
3. Promote gender a) Achieve equal girls’ enrolment in primary school.
equality and b) Improve women’s share of paid employment.
empower women c) Achieve equal women’s representation in national parliaments.
4. Reduce child a) Cut the death rate of children under 5 by two-thirds.
mortality rate b) Improve measles immunisation.
5. Improve maternal a) Reduce maternal mortality rate by three-quarters.
health b) Achieve universal access to reproductive health by 2015.

6. Combat HIV/AIDS, a) By 2010, achieve universal access to HIV/AIDS treatment.

malaria and other b) Reduce and reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS and malaria by 2015.
diseases
7. Ensure a) Integrate principles of sustainable development into country policies and programmes.
environmental b) Reduce biodiversity (the variety of life) loss.
sustainability c) Increase the proportion of population with access to safe drinking of water and basic
sanitation.
d) By 2020, achieve a significant improvement in the lives of slum dwellers.
8. Develop a global a) Develop a non-discriminatory trading and financial system.
partnership for b) Address the special needs of least developed countries.
development c) Address the special needs of landlocked developing countries and small island developing
states.
d) Deal with debt problems of developing countries.
e) Provide access to affordable essential drugs in developing countries.
f) Make new technology available, especially in information and communications.
(Source: Adapted from http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/poverty.shtml. Accessed September 2015.)

Review by the UN of the MDGs

The following table shows the results of the UN’s 2013 review of the Millennium Development Goals.

Table 1.1 2015 Millennium Development Goals

Africa Asia Latin
Goals and America Caucasus &
South- Oceania
Targets Northern Sub-Saharan Eastern Southern Western & the Central Asia
Eastern Caribbean
GOAL 1 | Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
moderate
Reduce extreme low very high moderate very high very high
poverty very low poverty low poverty low poverty
poverty by half poverty poverty poverty* poverty poverty
high poverty
Productive large very large very large very large moderate moderate
large deficit in large deficit in large deficit in
and decent deficit in deficit in deficit in deficit in deficit in deficit in
decent work decent work decent work
employment decent work decent work decent work decent work decent work decent work
Reduce hunger very high moderate moderate high moderate moderate moderate moderate
low hunger
by half hunger hunger hunger hunger hunger hunger hunger hunger
GOAL 2 | Achieve universal primary education
Universal primary high moderate high high high high high high
schooling enrolment enrolment enrolment enrolment enrolment enrolment enrolment enrolment
GOAL 3 | Promote gender equality and empower women
Equal girls’
enrolment in close to parity close to parity close to parity parity parity close to parity close to parity parity parity
primary school
Women’s share of
low share medium share high share medium share low share low share medium share high share high share
paid employment

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Africa Asia Latin

Goals and America Caucasus &
South- Oceania
Targets Northern Sub-Saharan Eastern Southern Western & the Central Asia
Eastern Caribbean
Women’s equal
representation low moderate moderate low low low very low moderate low
in national representation representation representation representation representation representation representation representation representation
parliaments
GOAL 4 | Reduce child mortality
Reduce mortality
moderate moderate moderate
of under-five-year- low mortality high mortality low mortality low mortality low mortality low mortality
mortality mortality mortality
olds by two thirds
GOAL 5 | Improve maternal health
Reduce maternal
very high moderate
mortality by three low mortality low mortality high mortality low mortality high mortality low mortality low mortality
mortality mortality
quarters
Access to
moderate moderate moderate moderate moderate
reproductive high access high access high access high access
access access access access access
health
GOAL 6 | Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases
Halt and begin to
high intermediate
reverse the spread low incidence low incidence low incidence low incidence low incidence low incidence low incidence
incidence incidence
of HIV/AIDS
Halt and reverse
moderate moderate moderate moderate
the spread low mortality low mortality low mortality high mortality low mortality
mortality mortality mortality mortality
of tuberculosis
GOAL 7 | Ensure environmental sustainability
Halve proportion
of population moderate moderate
high coverage low coverage high coverage high coverage high coverage low coverage high coverage
without improved coverage coverage
drinking water
Halve proportion
very low very low moderate very low moderate
of population high coverage low coverage low coverage high coverage
coverage coverage coverage coverage coverage
without sanitation
moderate very high moderate high high moderate moderate moderate
Improve the lives
proportion of proportion of proportion of proportion of proportion of proportion of proportion of proportion of
of slum-dwellers
slum-dwellers slum-dwellers slum-dwellers slum-dwellers slum-dwellers slum-dwellers slum-dwellers slum-dwellers
GOAL 8 | Develop a global partnership for development
moderate moderate
Internet users high usage high usage high usage high usage low usage high usage high usage
usage usage

The progress chart operates on two levels. The words in each box indicate the present degree of compliance with the target. The colours show
progress towards the target according to the legend below:
Target already met or expected to be met by 2015. No progress or deterioration.
Progress insufficient to reach the target if prevailing trends persist. Missing or insufficient data.
* Poverty progress for Eastern Asia is assessed based on China’s data only.

For the regional groupings and country data, see mdgs.un.org. Country experiences in each region may differ
significantly from the regional average. Due to new data and revised methodologies, this Progress Chart is not
comparable with previous versions.
Sources: United Nations, based on data and estimates provided by: Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations; Inter-Parliamentary Union; International Labour Organization; International Telecommunication
Union; UNAIDS; UNESCO; UN-Habitat; UNICEF; UN Population Division; World Bank; World Health
Organization – based on statistics available as of June 2013.
Compiled by Statistics Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations.

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Activity 8 The government of Lesotho has attempted a

number of efforts to fight poverty. After many
Work in groups. discussions with policy makers, representatives of
Study the review table. Your teacher will assign academia, NGOs and the private sector, a
your group one region to examine in detail. document was prepared on how best the
1. Discuss how that region is performing in government of Lesotho should deal with the
terms of the eight Millennium Development concerns of the poor over the next few years. These
Goals and their targets. strategies and activities were put together in the
2. Identify which targets the region needs to Poverty Reduction Strategy document.
improve on the most.
3. In which targets has the region made good Objectives of the Poverty Reduction
progress? Strategy (PRS)
Present your findings to the class. Creating employment: Lesotho has to create
employment, as it is faced with high
unemployment.
Improving agricultural production and food
Poverty reduction strategies in security: this can be done by providing loans to
Lesotho farmers to improve agriculture.
Lesotho has a population of 2 076 762 people in Developing infrastructure: improve
2015. Since 1966, Lesotho has faced a number of infrastructural services so as to promote trade.
challenges, such as increasing poverty, an alarming Deepen democracy, governance, safety and
unemployment rate, a fall in revenue, a rapid security.
spread of HIV/AIDS and low productivity in the Improve access to health and social welfare.
public sector. Severe land degradation and Increase human resource capacity.
retrenchment of Basotho men from mines in South Manage and conserve the environment.
Africa have contributed largely to the Improve public service delivery.
underdevelopment problems that Lesotho faces.
Based on these challenges, Lesotho is categorised
as an LEDC. Activity 9

Poverty has economic, social, political and Individual research project: The Poverty
environmental dimensions, therefore strategies Reduction Strategy
used to fight it should address all these aspects. Work on your own.
Sound macroeconomic policies: Lesotho has Access the full document at http://www.imf.
to invest a lot in rural development org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2012/cr12102.pdf
programmes to create employment, enhanced and study it carefully. (Your teacher should be
food security and improved access to services. able to help you.) Choose one strategy that has
Institutional and legal frameworks: It is been implemented in your region. Evaluate how
important to address power structures and laws effective it is or has been. Report your findings
that discriminate against children, women and in a bullet-point summary.
the disabled and then find ways to empower
these groups.
Increase in employment: The economy of a
country should provide employment and
acceptable working conditions to help the poor
access resources.
Increased access to education and health:
Access to education, knowledge and healthcare
aids productivity and reduces disease and
poverty.
Promote human development: The
government has to ensure greater access to
education and strengthen skills development
among youth.

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Summary
In this unit you have learnt the following:
Poverty is a situation in which people do not have access to material goods and services to
fulfil their very basic human needs, for example, food, clothing, shelter, medical care.
Poverty is related to development; poverty is prevalent in less economically developed
countries.
Development means change, growth and an increase in the wealth of individuals and
countries. It must bring changes and improvements in social, economic, political,
environmental and technological aspects of a country, which will in turn improve standards
of living of individuals and families.
When a country produces enough wealth and the whole society prospers, then we can say
there has been economic development.
Sustainable development refers to fulfilling the needs of the present generation without
posing a threat to future generations fulfilling their own needs.
Countries of the world are grouped in different ways to show their level of economic,
political and environmental development.
The Millennium Development Goals consist of eight international goals, and are an attempt
to address social and economic equality.
Lesotho’s Poverty Reduction Strategy aims to create employment, improve agricultural
production, develop infrastructure, deepen democracy, improve access to medical care,
conserve the environment and improve public service delivery.

Unit 1.2 Levels of poverty and development

Unit objectives
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
measure and graph levels of poverty and development using different indicators such as:
GNP and GDP per person, HDI, life expectancy, health data, education data, use of energy
resources per person, production and employment structure (primary, secondary, tertiary
employment), female participation in all spheres of development, etc.
explain why indicators vary and why some are more useful than others
explain why some aspects of development are difficult or impossible to measure such as
justice, freedom, peace, security, etc.

Measuring development –
examining different indicators
The economic model of development refers to an social, technological and environmental aspects of a
increase in the production of goods and services country.
resulting in wealth. The wealth of any country is
measured by the gross national product (GNP) per In 1997 the United Nations produced a set of
capita (the total value of the goods and services human development indicators that adopted a
produced by a country in a year divided by the wider view of development. In this unit we will
population). examine the usefulness of different measurements
of development.
The income indicator does not reflect development
fully, in that per capita income does not match with Economic indicators
measures of human development such as literacy To measure the income or wealth of a country,
and infant mortality. Development is now viewed economists use the GNP per capita and the gross
as a broad process of improvements in the political, domestic product (GDP) per capita.

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Per capita income is calculated by calculating the

income for the entire country and then dividing 3. What is the difference between GNP and
this figure by the total population. GDP?
4. Although GNP per capita has been widely
Thus: criticised, it has some advantages. Outline
GNP divided by population = GNP per capita them.
GDP divided by population = GDP per capita 5. Do you think GNP per capita is an
appropriate way to measure development in
These per capita are just averages. Lesotho? Give reasons for your answer.

The advantages of using income as an indicator of

development are the following: Social indicators
It gives an indication of the wealth of countries. Development is supposed to give people a better
It is easy to calculate. quality of life. To measure this, we need social
It is handy in comparing the wealth of a indicators such as health, nutrition, life expectancy
country with another country, for example and female participation, as well as access to water,
comparing the USA with Russia, or Lesotho and education and literacy.
with South Africa.
Life expectancy
The disadvantages of using income as an indicator This refers to the average age a person lives to. For
of development are the following: instance, the average life expectancy in Lesotho was
GNP gives no indication of how the national 49.45 in 2014. This is relatively young, compared
wealth or income is distributed. (For example, to more developed countries where people tend to
wealth could be concentrated in the hands of a live longer because they have better living
few and the rest of the population could be conditions and access to healthcare.
living in terrible poverty.) Some countries, for
example, show growth, but the income is Infant mortality rate
skewed. In other words, it is favourable to This measures the number of babies (out of every
people with high income. 1 000 births) that die before they reach the age of
GNP per capita can increase and therefore give one year. In less developed countries, more babies
a false impression that the poor are better off die because of poorer health facilities compared to
than before, when in actual fact it is not the more developed countries.
case.
GNP is calculated at market value. Therefore, it Education
leaves out a lot of goods which do not end up This measures the literacy rate of adults and
in the market, for example subsistence women. When these indicators are used, they show
products, unpaid work that people do at home, that in developed countries most people have
informal trading, etc. access to good education and most adults are
GNP measures wealth and excludes social literate. In developing countries, people have
aspects of development, for example health and limited education, most of them do not continue
nutrition. to be schooled after the age of 16 and few adults
GNP does not take into account quality of life, are literate. Moreover, in most African countries
equality and distribution. women are disadvantaged in terms of access to
GNP ignores prices and takes no account of the education and literacy rates.
purchasing power of money.
The human development Index (HDI)
The United Nations Development Programme
Activity 1 (UNDP) developed a quality of life measure called
the Human Development Index (HDI). The
Work on your own. Human Development Index takes into account
Answer these questions. three variables (factors that can change) – the
1. Why is GNP per capita defined as an economic indicator, life expectancy and education.
economic indicator? These variables look at real per capita income,
2. Give three disadvantages of GNP per capita. general health of the people, literacy rates and
school enrolments. When these factors are
measured, they are put on a scale of 0 (poorest

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score) to 1 (highest score). Countries with an HDI The following table shows the HDI ranking for
score closer to 1 are developed and those with HDI selected countries. You will use this in Activity 2.
scores closer to 0 are less developed or developing.

There are advantages to using the HDI to measure Gross national income (GNI) is made up of the
development: GDP (total value of goods and services
The HDI provides us with a reasonable idea of produced within a country), along with all
how well various countries are doing, beyond income earned from other countries in the form
just their income growth. of interest and dividends, less payments of the
It measures differences inside a country and same kind made to other countries.
between countries.
The variables of welfare enable countries to
identify areas where the poverty situation is Activity 2
worst.
Because countries can identify the problem of Work with a partner.
poverty, it is possible for them to come up with Study Table 1.2 and answer these questions.
strategies to improve the quality of life of the 1. What general comment can you make about
citizens. For instance, if a country has a low countries with an HDI of below 0.5?
literacy rate, it can try to provide better 2. Why do economists prefer the HDI when
education. measuring the quality of life of a country?
3. What does a GNI per capita of 444 mean for
The disadvantage of the HDI in measuring the DRC?
development is that it does not measure freedom 4. Discuss the advantages of the HDI for a
and justice in a country – these are obviously country such as Lesotho.
important factors related to the conditions created
for development to occur.

Table 1.2: The HDI and its components for selected countries, 2013
HDI Life expectancy Mean years of GNI per capita
Country HDI (2013)
ranking (2013) schooling (2012) (2013)
Very high human development
1 Norway .944 81.5 12.6 63 909
2 Australia .933 82.5 12.8 41 524
5 USA .914 78.9 12.9 52 308
17 Japan .890 83.6 11.5 36 747
49 Argentina .808 76.3 9.8 17 297
High human development
55 Libya .784 75.3 7.5 21 666
63 Mauritius .771 73.6 8.5 16 777
79 Brazil .744 73.9 7.2 14 275
91 China .719 75.3 7.5 11 477
Medium human development
109 Botswana .683 64.4 8.8 14 792
118 South Africa .658 56.9 9.9 11 788
135 India .586 66.4 4.4 5 150
141 Zambia .561 58.1 6.5 2 898
Low human development
146 Pakistan .537 66.6 4.7 4 652
156 Zimbabwe .492 59.9 7.2 1 307
162 Lesotho .486 49.4 5.9 2 798
178 Mozambique .393 50.3 3.2 1 011
186 DRC .338 50.0 3.1 444

(Source: compiled from: UNDP Human Development Reports, Human Development Index and its components. Available from: http://hdr.undp.
org/en/content/table-1-human-development-index-and-its-components)

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Activity 3 Production is stalled because people’s normal

lives have been disrupted.
Work with a partner. People lose families and sometimes
1. Choose two of the following development communities are divided, as happened for
indicators: instance during the genocide in Rwanda.
GNP per capita Property is destroyed and communication
GDP per capita systems are interrupted.
The HDI War in one country can affect neighbouring
Life expectancy countries, or even destabilise the region.
Health data
Education data Damage to the environment
Use of energy resources per person Development should conserve the environment for
Production and employment structure future generations. However, some human activities
(primary, secondary, tertiary employment) damage the environment and prevent sustainable
Data on women’s participation in any development. Examples are destroying vegetation
aspect of development without re-planting, poor soil fertility due to areas
2. Do research about the levels of your chosen where land has been overused, and damage to the
indicators in at least ten different countries. environment from overusing chemicals. It is
3. Present your information in the form of a sometimes difficult for environmentalists to
table and a graph. measure the damage in order to protect biodiversity
4. Present your findings to the class and explain and maintain environmental health.
what these development indicators tell you
about the level of poverty and development
in those countries. Also explain why these Activity 4
particular development indicators are useful.
Work on your own.
How important are non-material needs such as
peace, justice and freedom in the development
Aspects of development difficult of a country? Explain why it is difficult to
to measure measure these indicators.
There are some indicators of development which
cannot be easily measured or expressed in statistical
terms, yet they affect people’s quality of life. These
are indicators dealing with political and Summary
environmental development. In this unit you have learnt the
following:
Justice and freedom Development is more than
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights economic growth. It is also about
emphasises that all people should enjoy freedom of improving the quality of life of the
expression and be able to take part in all political people.
processes in their countries, for example elections Economic indicators are a good
and political debates. When people enjoy these measure of wealth, but do not
rights, there is respect and mutual understanding always agree with measures of
among citizens. human development.
The HDI measures the quality of
Lack of political freedom may result in the abuse of life of people in a country.
people who hold different views, or who are from Development can be measured
different ethnic or race groups. It can also lead to using economic, social and quality
war, which retards development in the following of life indicators.
ways: There are parts of development
During a war a lot of money goes toward the that are not easy to measure, such
purchase of weapons. as justice, freedom, effects of
People are forced to leave their homes conflict and damage to the
(displaced) and cannot live a normal life. They environment.
become refugees and look for protection from
another nation (asylum seekers).

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Unit 1.3 Patterns of development

Unit objectives
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
describe broad global patterns of development
describe the characteristics of countries, including Lesotho, at different levels of
development, for example low-, middle- and high-income countries, newly industrialised
economies/countries (NICs/NIEs), industrialised and non-industrialised countries.

Understanding patterns of
development
As you have seen, people experience different developed countries tend to be in the northern
economic, social and political lifestyles and hemisphere – North America, Europe and Japan.
standards of living, depending on where they live in The developing countries lie to the south – in
the world. In this unit we will explore the patterns Africa, Asia and South America. This map partly
of development according to the classifications you depicts the NICs, which are found in the north
have learnt about already – More Economically and the south, referred to here as ‘quickly
Developed Countries (MEDCs, or high-income developing’ countries.
countries), Less Economically Developed Countries
(LEDCs, or low and middle-income countries) and
Newly Industrialised Countries (NICs). Economic activities and
The ‘North/South divide’
characteristics of developed,
In Unit 1.1 you learnt about the North/South quickly developing and slowly
divide as a classification of development on a developing countries
geographic basis, according to the Brandt Line. A pattern of development appears when we study
The map on page xx shows the geographic the economic features of different countries.
difference between rich and poor countries. Apart In LEDCs and slowly developing countries, the
from Australia and New Zealand, the economically majority of workers are involved in the

World map illustrating the Brandt Line and the North/South divide

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agricultural sector. Agriculture is a primary standard of the people in these countries is also
economic activity. A shortage of capital hinders low.
the development of manufacturing industry or Agro-based economy: LEDCs depend mainly
services – these are the activities that add much on subsistence agriculture as an economic
value to a country’s economy. activity. There is a lack of opportunity for
In NICs or quickly developing countries, employment and a lack of development in the
workers are usually employed in the industrial sector.
manufacturing industry. Manufacturing is a High rate of population growth and
secondary economic activity. dependence burden: Most LEDCs have a high
In MEDCs, or developed countries, tertiary birth rate (about 30 to 40 per 1 000) and high,
activities or service industries usually dominate but declining death rate. Death rates are falling
the economy. There are usually very few people due to improved health conditions and the
involved in primary activities. control of major infectious diseases. This means
these countries have a high population growth
rate, but most of the population is younger
Activity 1 than 15 years. This results in a ‘dependence
burden’, as these people are not old enough to
Work with a partner. be economically active and therefore they
With reference to the map above, answer these depend on older people.
questions. High levels of unemployment: In LEDCs
1. Identify four countries that are: many people in the economically active age
a) developing countries groups may be semi-employed, informally
b) quickly developing countries employed or seasonally employed – all of which
c) slowly developing countries. are not stable employment statuses. The main
2. Explain the features of each of the cause of unemployment is the lack of
following: employment opportunities in sectors other than
a) developed countries the agricultural sector. If there is a drought, for
b) quickly developing countries (NICs) example and crops fail, employment also falls.
c) slowly developing countries. Short life expectancy: Developing countries
also have a short life expectancy, averaging 51
years as compared with 75 years for developed
Characteristics of MEDCs countries.
Our focus is on LEDCs, but we should note the Traditional techniques of production:
features of MEDCs to show the difference to LED LEDCs tend to have traditional techniques for
countries. producing things, instead of modern
MEDCs have a high GNP and people enjoy technologies. This keeps production low
high standards of living. compared to MEDCs.
These countries control 85% of world trade and Imbalanced trade: In LEDCs the value of
use 80% of the world’s resources. imports is greater than the value of exports.
20% of the world’s population, mainly in The unbalanced trade is mainly due to a lack of
MEDCs, own 80% of the world’s wealth. capital, facilities in transportation and
Public services such as healthcare and schools communication and markets. These countries
are well developed and have appropriate may extract or produce raw materials for
technology to help people. export, but they do not add value to them by
Industry is well established and profitable, with turning them into higher-value products (for
the most value being added by secondary and example, by manufacturing furniture from
tertiary economic activities. timber). As a result, income from trade is low
There is a high usage of energy per capita (for and these countries remain poor.
each person). Lack of entrepreneurs: An entrepreneur is
someone who starts or arranges business deals
Characteristics of LEDCs for profit. LEDCs tend to lack policies and an
Developing or underdeveloped countries are those economic environment that motivates
countries in which most of the citizens are forced investment, so there are few entrepreneurs and
to live below the poverty line. fewer new companies creating jobs for others.
Low per capita income: Per capita income in Dualistic economy: Dualistic means ‘divided
LEDCs is generally low. As a result the living into two opposite parts’. LEDCs tend to have a

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traditional economy in rural areas, without NICs may have some of the features of LEDCs,
infrastructure such as roads, and a more modern but their faster development means they share
economy in urban areas, with roads, schools, some specific features:
factories and communication facilities. This Their GNP per capita is low, but increasing.
dualistic economy slows down economic Their industrial development and exports are
growth because people in rural areas migrate growing quickly (they specialise in
towards urban areas, placing strain on resources, manufactured goods rather than in producing
while rural areas remain under-developed. raw materials).
Gender discrimination: In LEDCs men tend Their transport facilities are improving to assist
to have access to a wide range of jobs, but the export of manufactured goods.
women’s work (unpaid) is limited to the home Most people are poor but wages, working
and is not valued in the same way as men’s conditions and living standards are rising
work (paid). In the majority of developing quickly.
countries, women do not have a right to have
wealth and property. Literacy of women is also NICs usually have lower labour and other costs
very low compared to that of males. compared to MEDCs, so producers can
Political instability: Political instability is outperform factories in MEDCs. This has led to
common in LEDCs. In some cases no elected the decrease of manufacturing industries in
government is able to serve full term. Many MEDCs.
people may be illiterate and lack political
awareness. This instability could result in civil How NICs achieved their status
war and other problems because of ineffective These countries invested in industries that
governance and planning. could produce goods that they previously
needed to import. The country then supported
these new industries by putting extra taxes on
Activity 2 imported goods – in order to make these
imported goods non-competitive.
Work with a partner. The governments of the NICs controlled
Think about the features of LEDCs and make a industrial development carefully. They
mind map to illustrate how the pattern of low encouraged exporting of manufactured goods
levels of development comes about in these to more developed countries.
countries. The governments re-invested the profits made
by these exports into the country’s economy.
This made it possible for businesses to grow.
Characteristics of quickly developing People started earning higher wages and
countries, or NICs workers had more income to spend on goods
NICs have rapid economic growth and a higher and services. This resulted in more economic
standard of living than other developing nations, growth.
but the changes have not yet become permanent
enough to be on the same level as MEDCs. The Reasons for growth of NICs
term NICs originally applied to four emerging The four main factors involved in the economic
Asian countries – Hong Kong, Taiwan, South growth of the NICs were:
Korea and Singapore. marrying imported technology and cheap
labour to an export market
NICs are characterised by: private domestic investment
a change from agricultural to industrial rapidly growing human capital and a better
economies, especially in the manufacturing educated labour force
sector government taking action and getting involved
an increasingly open-market economy, allowing (intervention). This was the case in most of the
free trade with other nations in the world NICs economies. Policy interventions took
strong capital investment from foreign many forms, including:
countries • selecting and subsidising (paying part of the
strong governments with less corruption than cost of) credit to select industries
other developing countries • keeping deposit rates low and limiting
strong political leaders borrowing rates to increase profits and
rapid growth of urban centres and population. retain earnings

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• starting and supporting government banks

• making public investments in applied Patterns of development in the
research SADC region
• establishing company-specific and industry- Economic performance for all countries in the
specific export targets sub-Saharan region has gone down over the past
• developing export marketing institutions three decades. The Southern African Development
• sharing information widely between private Community (SADC) countries have done better in
and public sectors. their economic performance than the sub-Saharan
region as a whole. However, the SADC region
contains some of the poorer countries in the
Activity 3 region. Table 1.3 illustrates the income
classification of the SADC countries.
Work on your own.
1. Does the following pie chart represent Table 1.3 Income groups for SADC countries
MEDCs, LEDCs or NICs? Explain your
Income HDI
answer. group
SADC country
(2013)
Madagascar .498
Low Malawi .414
income Mozambique .393
economies Tanzania .488
Zimbabwe .492
Lower- Democratic Republic of the Congo .338
middle Lesotho .486
income Zambia .561
economies Swaziland .580
2. Why do you think there are clear patterns of
Angola .526
development in countries across the world? Upper- Botswana .683
Summarise your ideas in a mind map. middle
Mauritius .771
3. Work in pairs. Study the following world income
economies Namibia .624
map showing GNP per person. Then answer
South Africa .658
the questions.
High
income The Seychelles .756
economies
(Source: compiled from: UNDP Human Development Reports,
Human Development Index and its components. Available from:
http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/table-1-human-development-
index-and-its-components & World Bank, Country and Lending
Groups. Available from: http://data.worldbank.org/about/country-
and-lending-groups)

Case study: Lesotho

World map showing GNP per person
Lesotho is one of the 33 LEDCs in Africa.
a) What is the GNP per person in those Import and export: Lesotho’s imports
countries marked as lower income amount to about 90% of its GDP. The
countries? country has been highly dependent on the
b) Name five high income countries. income that migrant workers send home
c) Identify five low income countries. from working in neighbouring countries.
d) Where are most of the high income Lesotho has limited natural resources and a
countries? narrow production and export base. This
means that very few people or companies are
involved in producing goods, and very few
goods are exported. The major export
products are textiles, diamonds, water and
electricity. But as a result of the global

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economic crisis, the market for diamonds is without having the same rights as men in
getting smaller in the major export market, land ownership. Married women have no
namely the USA. legal standing in a court of law. This
Poverty and inequality: Almost 50% of the discrimination hinders the role they can play
population live below the poverty line. in development.
There is also widespread inequality in
income. Whilst the poorest 20% of the Table 1.4 Lesotho’s development 1980 to 2013
population share 1.5% of the total income, GNI per
the richest share 20%. Inequalities in growth capita
will have a direct effect on achieving the Life Mean
(according
MDGs, especially hunger, poverty and to the
expectancy years of HDI
health-related issues. World
at birth schooling
Bank’s
Health: Lesotho has a high rate of HIV/ Atlas
AIDS infection. This slows down human method)
and economic development. The HIV/ 1980 53.8 3.7 1 340 0.422
AIDS pandemic places strain on an already 1985 56.4 4.1 1 526 0.456
run-down healthcare system. 1990 59.5 4.4 1 482 0.474
Food security: Currently, Lesotho cannot 1995 57.1 4.6 1 401 0.465
produce enough food to meet the domestic 2000 47.7 4.9 1 432 0.429
demand. Almost 70% of the annual cereal 2005 44.3 5.3 1 650 0.425
requirement is imported from South Africa. 2010 47.6 5.9 1 784 0.452
The majority of the people in rural areas rely 2011 48.2 5.9 1 816 0.456
on subsistence farming. But there is little 2012 48.7 5.9 1 879 0.461
arable land (suitable for growing crops) and 2013 49.4 5.9 1 590 0.486
less than 10% of the country is currently
(Source: compiled from:
being farmed. Food production is further • UNDP Human Development Reports, Human Development
reduced by drought during the growing Index and its components. Available from: http://hdr.undp.org/
en/content/table-1-human-development-index-and-its-
season and the occurrence of frost even into components.
the summer months. According to the • World Bank, GNI per capita, Atlas method. Available from: data.
World Health Organisation (WHO), nearly worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GNP.PCAP.CD.
• Human Development Report 2014. UNDP. Available from:
a quarter of the population of Lesotho http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr14-report-en-1.
needed food assistance in 2005. pdf.)
The role of women: Women play a key role
in household maintenance throughout the Lesotho’s HDI value places it 162nd out of
developing world. They collect water and 187 countries and territories for 2013 (in other
fuel, and along with children they are words, low human development). Between
involved in agriculture. In Lesotho there are 1980 and 2012, Lesotho’s life expectancy at
many female-headed households and women birth decreased by 5.1 years, which is a sign of
have to carry the burden of agricultural declining development.
production and work in the informal sector,

Activity 4

Work on your own.

Answer these questions.
1. Explain why Lesotho is seen as a developing
country by the World Bank.
2. Describe the socio-economic situation of
Lesotho that makes it a developing country.
3. Do you think Lesotho has the same pattern
of development as the rest of the SADC
region? You may need to conduct some of
your own research to answer this question.

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Summary
In this unit you have learnt the following:
Countries of the world are grouped into broad categories according to development levels.
These categories form a clear pattern – notably the North/South divide.
Apart from Australia and New Zealand, the economically developed world is in the northern
hemisphere. It includes North America, Europe, Russia and Japan.
The economically developing world lies in the southern hemisphere, in Africa, Asia and
South America.
In LEDCs and slowly developing countries, the majority of workers are involved in the
agricultural sector, a primary economic activity.
In NICs or quickly developing countries, people usually work in the manufacturing industry.
Manufacturing is a secondary economic activity.
In MEDCs, or developed countries, tertiary activities or service industries usually dominate
the economy.
Lesotho is classified as a developing country.

Unit 1.4 Social and health issues in relation to poverty and

development
Unit objectives
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
understand the concept of basic needs for human life such as food, clean water, housing,
healthcare and education
understand the importance of education in improving living standards
describe and analyse social and health issues facing low and middle income countries (e.g.
nutrition, clean water supply, good sanitation, health and medical care, disease and the
spread of HIV/AIDS and other pandemics, etc.), supporting these with statistics for
Lesotho and other countries
understand the basic development needs of low and middle income countries (e.g.
infrastructure, capital, skilled labour, resources)
recognise the role and contribution of women in the development of Lesotho and other
countries
understand how traditional lifestyle, inequality, discrimination, deprivation and ethnic/
cultural issues affect development and cause difficulty for poverty alleviation
discuss the reasons for, and possible strategies to reduce, inequality, discrimination and
deprivation
outline efforts undertaken to reduce inequalities and discrimination by the Government of
Lesotho (e.g. Sexual Offences Act, The Land Policy Act, etc.) and NGOs (e.g. FIDA
– Federation Internacional de Abogadas, WILSA – Women in law in southern Africa, etc.).

The concept of basic needs for Activity 1

human life
Measuring basic needs is one way to measure Work with a partner.
poverty. It focuses on allowing a society to consume 1. Copy the following table into your exercise
just enough to rise above the poverty line and meet books. Assess your family and community
its basic needs. The latest basic needs approach performance in providing for these basic
emphasises the minimum level of consumption of needs by filling in the table.
basic needs of not just food, water and shelter, but
also sanitation, good hygiene, education, healthcare
and other essential human needs and services.

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Basic needs include essential services such as healthcare, education, sanitation and communications.

access to an income and various resources.

Basic needs Poor Satisfactory Good Providing education is an important part of
Housing development.
Water supply
Hygiene and sanitation The importance of education in
Education improving living standards
Health Education is essential for everyone and is a basic
Food human right. There are several benefits of
education:
2. Explain the reasons for poor, satisfactory or Education enables people to think critically,
good performance on the part of your work effectively and make important decisions
family and community on these basic needs. so that they can fulfil their potential.
3. Suggest how your family and community Education is as important to life as other basic
can improve its performance on providing needs such as food, water, clothing and
for these needs. housing.
Education helps to mould people’s behaviour,
attitudes and choices.
Education and standard of living People can earn respect and recognition
Education plays an important role in the through their level of education.
improvement of people’s lives. Through traditional Everything that people create and produce is
education, young people formally and informally based on the knowledge that we obtain
learn about their own culture, values and beliefs. It throughout our life through both formal and
also prepares them for adult life. Education tends informal education.
to improve people’s standard of living and The most effective way of developing human
therefore their quality of life, by enabling them resources is through education.

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Activity 2 the MDG for water and sanitation: to halve, by

2015, the proportion of people without sustainable
Work in a group. access to safe water and basic sanitation.
1. Discuss the importance of education for
your community and nation. Health and medical care
2. Present your report to your class for further The right to healthcare is a basic need that should
discussion. be provided by governments. Most LEDCs suffer
from high rates of infectious illnesses and
malnutrition.
Social and health issues facing Some countries have inequality in access to health
low-income and middle-income services among different groups. Inequality can be
countries due to socioeconomic, political, ethnic, cultural
Low-income and middle-income countries are and gender factors. These factors have serious
faced with several social and health issues. These effects on people in LEDCs.
include nutrition, clean water supply, good
sanitation, health and medical care, disease and the To address inequalities in access to health services,
spread of HIV/AIDS and other pandemics. governments should strengthen health services
through providing skilled people, essential
Nutrition equipment, drugs and supplies in health facilities
A balanced diet consists of different types of food, and adequate financial resources to meet the needs
such as proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins and of the population they serve.
minerals. Many people in LEDCs suffer from
diseases related to poor quality food and too little
food. In Lesotho there are also many cases of
children in particular who die as a result of
malnutrition and shortage of food. A poor diet
makes people vulnerable to health problems. It
results in low productivity and poor quality of life.

Clean water supply and good sanitation

Clean water and sanitation are basic health needs
and providing them is critical to sustainable
development and achieving the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs). Poor sanitation and
lack of access to safe drinking water can lead to
disease. The right to healthcare is a basic need that should be
provided by governments.
The main problems associated with water and
sanitation are: Disease
lack of water and sanitation, both in rural and Infectious diseases are caused by pathogens such as
urban areas viruses and bacteria. These diseases can be spread
poor water quality due to chemical and by animals and insects. Examples of diseases caused
bacterial contamination by bacteria are cholera and tuberculosis. Malaria,
low cultural priority traditionally given to bilharzia and yellow fever are examples of diseases
hygiene spread by animal or insect bites.
lack of education and thus little knowledge
about sanitation. Poor hygiene, poor sanitation and poor housing
conditions (overcrowding) help diseases to spread
Certain governments, international agencies, more easily. A poor diet also makes people more
partners in development and NGOs work together vulnerable to disease.
on programmes aimed to improve water supplies
and sanitation facilities in schools and communities Epidemics
and to promote safe hygiene practices. For An epidemic is defined as an outbreak of a disease
example, all UNICEF water, sanitation and affecting many people in an area at the same period
hygiene programmes are designed to contribute to of time. Cholera, influenza and diarrhoea are

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diseases that often become an epidemic. However, The following table shows an estimate of the
epidemics can be controlled by immunisation and number of adults and children who died of AIDS
other measures. during a given calendar year.

HIV/AIDS Table 1.6 Estimated AIDS death rate in Lesotho

HIV/AIDS affects many people in all parts of per year
society – it is classified as a pandemic, which means
Estimated deaths due to
it has spread world-wide and is not limited to a Year
AIDS-related diseases
specific region. The virus causing AIDS is carried
1999 16 000
or spread by body fluids such as blood and semen.
2001 25 000
HIV/AIDS If an HIV-infected person does not
2003 29 000
have access to good healthcare and nutrition, he or
2007 18 000
she may be more vulnerable to developing AIDS.
2009 14 000
People with AIDS may suffer for a long time,
2012 15 500
placing a burden on their families and
communities. When people in the economically (Source: CIA World Factbook. Available from: http://www.
indexmundi.com/g/g.aspx?v=37&c=lt&l=en)
active age groups become ill, it affects the
country’s productivity. It has also led to many The following table shows HIV prevalence in some
children becoming orphans, which has resulted in countries in sub-Saharan Africa.
many child-headed households. This has a severely
negative effect on development.
Table 1.7 HIV prevalence in sub-Saharan Africa,
In Lesotho, about 23% of people – one in four 2012
people in the country – are living with HIV/AIDS. Country HIV prevalence % (2012)
Adults living with HIV are mostly women. There South Africa 17.9
are more than 200 000 orphans in Lesotho, most Botswana 23
of whom are AIDS orphans. Swaziland 26.5
Senegal 0.5
Table 1.5: The prevalence of HIV (% of population Nigeria 3.1
aged 15 to 49) in Lesotho Kenya 6.1
Year Prevalence of HIV (Source: Avert.org. HIV and AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa. Available
from: http://www.avert.org/hiv-aids-sub-saharan-africa.htm#sthash.
1991 1.5 Y24X6U61.dpuf)
1992 2.9
1993 5.1
1994 7.9
Activity 3
1995 11.3
1996 14.5
Work in a group.
1997 17.2
1. Visit your local health centre. Draw up some
1998 19.3
questions to ask the nurses, healthcare
1999 20.7
workers and any providers of health services,
2000 21.6
including the councillor and chief in the
2001 22.1
community. You could use the following
2002 22.2
questions as headings. Afterwards, report
2003 22.2
back to the class on your findings.
2004 22.1
What kind of health services are
2005 22.0
provided in the clinic, hospital or health
2006 21.9
centre?
2007 22.0
What are the challenges that clinics,
2008 22.3
hospitals or health centres face in the
2009 22.5
provision of health services?
2010 22.7
What measures can be taken to improve
2011 22.8
the provision of health services in the
2012 22.9
villages and towns?
2013 22.9
(Source: XXX)

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possible to develop a strong economy based on

2. Do some research. Find some statistics trade, without having natural resources.
regarding HIV/AIDS in your area or in
Lesotho as a whole. For example, you could
compare the infection rate over a period of
years, or you could research the levels of
The role and contribution of
services offered in different regions. Present women in development of
your findings to the class. Lesotho and other countries
Although women produce 60–80% of food security
in the world and are the greatest rural labour force
Basic development needs of in developing countries, they are often excluded
from important resources such as land, capital,
low-income and middle-income education and training, employment and credit.
countries The work they do is often unpaid. Women in rural
Low-income and middle-income countries require areas often take part in a range of employment
infrastructure, capital, skilled labour and resources, activities, working as subsistence farmers while
which are basic development needs. owning small businesses. Women have generally
contributed to social, cultural and economic
Infrastructure development. For example, they initiate self-help
A country needs transport networks, electricity, ventures in their communities. These ventures
clean water and telecommunication networks for include income-generating schemes, mothers’
economic growth and competitiveness. unions (especially in churches) and clubs that seek
Infrastructure supports the development of the to improve women’s access to reproductive health.
private sector, which leads to job creation and
further economic growth and regional trade.
LEDCs tend to have poor infrastructure compared
to MEDCs. Lesotho has inadequate water supply,
waste treatment facilities and power outages, which
hampers development.

Capital
There are two types of capital needed for
development – money and goods. Lack of money
and capital such as tools, machinery and
technology are major obstacles to socio-economic
growth of low-income and middle-income
countries. Other potential problems are debt and
poorly developed financial services. This makes it
difficult for businesses to access loans and services
needed to conduct business and generate profit.
Women are the greatest rural labour force in
Skilled labour developing countries.
Human capital – health, education and skills – are
vital to development. Low-income and middle- Lesotho and most of the SADC countries
income countries have poorly developed education recognise the importance of women in
systems with low levels of literacy and lack of skills development. A large number of women in these
training for the population. This slows down countries are very poor and illiterate and they carry
development. the social burdens of HIV/AIDS, because they
often become breadwinners and have to look after
Resources the sick in their communities. The SADC countries
A country’s wealth is often created through its have put policies and programmes in place that are
natural resources – arable (farmable) land, forests, aimed at fixing past inequalities by including
water, rich minerals, energy sources and the work women in development activities. When rural
people do to develop these resources, to produce women are given support and become
goods and services. However, countries such as economically and socially empowered, the whole
Hong Kong and Singapore have shown that it is society benefits.

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If more women are targeted in development Funeral practices also have an effect on
projects, the projects become successful and development. The costs of funerals are high.
sustainable. Hence government and NGO projects The family of a deceased person is often
target and support local women’s organisations and expected to slaughter an animal for the burial.
cooperatives. They also think about how to deal This is very expensive. Poor families may
with the limitations that women face in getting borrow money for the funeral, because a family
land and credit, and participating in decision- earns respect according to the quality and
making, especially at the local community level. quantity of food served at funeral gatherings.
This cultural practice pushes poor families
When women can increase their incomes, poverty deeper into poverty.
is reduced and they become self-reliant. Their
household members become healthier and have a Discrimination, inequality and
better quality of life. When critical agricultural deprivation
resources are available to women, productivity Discrimination is when one person is treated less
increases and crops and livestock become healthy. fairly than another person in a similar situation,
As a result the country’s economy also grows. based on gender, race, disability, or some other
characteristic. Discrimination leads to inequality.
Inequality between groups of people in society
Activity 4 slows development. In Lesotho, discrimination
against women, herd boys, children with disabilities
Work on your own. and the Nguni ethnic minorities is common and
Answer these questions. widespread.
1. Explain how women in your village or Women do most of the agricultural and
community earn their income. domestic work. They travel great distances to
2. Identify women-led organisation(s) in your fetch firewood and they carry water from the
community and the role they play in their village pump or well, while also caring for
families and communities. young children and playing an important role
in community and religious organisations. Yet
they have few rights.
Young boys begin training for herding at the
Issues affecting poverty age of five or six years, while girls attend
alleviation school. In the rural areas, where pasture is
There are many factors that play a role in reducing scarce, herd boys often spend months alone
or slowing the rate of development in some with their flocks in mountainous valleys far
countries and communities. from their homes, without access to education
or care.
Traditional lifestyles and cultural Children with disabilities are sometimes denied
practices access to school and their right to education
Traditional lifestyles refer to cultural ways and because of inadequately trained teachers, a lack
practices that people follow in daily life. It includes of appropriate materials, no transport provision
eating habits, types of clothing, ways of caring for and negative attitudes.
the sick and forms of entertainment and recreation. The Nguni ethnic groups are among the most
Some traditional lifestyles are good and healthy marginalised in Lesotho. They are denied the
practices that promote development, while other right to an education that promotes and
traditional lifestyles prevents development. recognises their ethnicity, which limits their
Hunting wild birds and animals is a popular employment opportunities.
sport for some Basotho men in the villages.
However, the wild creatures can attract tourism There is a direct relationship between
to Lesotho. If hunting is banned and wild discrimination (inequality) and poverty. When
animals are protected, Lesotho can increase its people cannot get services to meet their needs,
tourism income, and thus help its development. they remain in poverty and development is
Another traditional practice is collecting rare prevented.
and endangered species or wild vegetation and
scrubs for medicine. If this vegetation is Inequality can also clearly be seen between urban
overharvested, it leads to soil erosion and and rural communities in Lesotho. Urban areas
climate change, which limits development. have better facilities, infrastructure and services

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than rural areas. More than three-quarters of with by having development strategies that
extremely poor people in Lesotho live in rural target and benefit the most needy and
areas. Most villages lack basic services such as neglected people. This includes dealing with
banks, police stations, clinics and post offices. The the urgent social needs of such people as well as
remote mountainous areas of Lesotho do not have assessing difficulties that needy and neglected
electricity, sealed roads or a clean and regular water groups experience in enjoying economic, social
supply. and cultural rights and taking the necessary
steps to address these difficulties.
Discrimination and inequality can also be
Activity 5 addressed through policies and programmes. It
may also require a change in resource allocation
Work with a partner or in a small group. – for instance by providing more resources to
1. Role-play situations related to the following marginalised groups.
issues: Enacting laws against discrimination and
traditional lifestyles and cultural practices changing discriminatory laws: Effective laws
discrimination, inequality and against discrimination should be enacted (put
deprivation. into practice), so that equality and development
In your role play, you should show how can be achieved. Changes should be made to
these issues affect development and cause discriminatory family laws related to marriage,
difficulty for poverty reduction. separation and divorce, so that women can use
2. Divide your class into two groups. Prepare services and move out of poverty-stricken
to debate the topic: ‘Traditional lifestyles, circumstances.
inequality, discrimination, deprivation and Stopping or ending discriminatory practices:
cultural issues are the main things that affect It is important to identify, prohibit and end
development and cause difficulty for poverty discriminatory practices, in order for the
reduction in our community or in Lesotho’. government to implement the necessary
Write down points for a class discussion after strategies, policies and action plans to achieve
the debate. equality and deal with discrimination. For
instance, access to primary education is
regarded as a core development goal, but many
children are denied access to education and
The reasons for and possible either never attend school or are forced to leave
school early. Children from rural areas, children
strategies to reduce inequality, with disabilities and ethnic or religious
discrimination and deprivation minorities are mostly affected by these
To ensure equal rights, human rights law prevents discriminatory practices. The government,
discrimination against groups of people. For donors and international institutions need to
example, gender discrimination is not allowed. take the necessary steps to address the practices
Children must be protected against discrimination that keep children and ethnic minorities from
on the basis of the status, activities, expressed attending school.
opinions or beliefs of the child’s parents, legal Addressing discrimination in the private
guardians or family members. Treaty bodies have sector: Discrimination in workplaces, service
interpreted treaties to prevent discrimination on provision and other sectors of society (the
the basis of geographical residence, health status private sector) prevents people from enjoying
and sexual orientation. Human rights law also their human rights. For example, people may
protects against discrimination on the basis of be denied jobs on the basis of their ethnic
gender identity, family status, health status (for status or HIV status. The government should
example, HIV status), homelessness, or engaging adopt legal measures that prevent
in sex work. discrimination in the private sector. Equality
must be ensured in the workplace to prevent
The following are some strategies that can be used and address situations that limit development
to reduce inequality, discrimination and of all groups in society.
deprivation: Removing economic obstacles: It is vital to
Removing all forms of discrimination, identify economic obstacles that make poor
deprivation and inequality: Discrimination is people poorer, in order to deal with
the main cause of inequality and it can be dealt discrimination. Many people cannot access

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healthcare and education due to the costs of

these services. This makes poor people remain
Efforts to reduce inequality and
poor and deprived. The government should try discrimination by the
to remove these barriers through policies so government of Lesotho
that people can access the services they need in If discrimination, deprivation and inequality are
order to get out of a state of poverty. Free and not addressed, they will continue to undermine
compulsory primary education is a good economic growth and increase poverty. The
example of a government policy that addresses Lesotho government has partnered with NGOs to
the issue of access to primary education. Some formulate policies, laws, programmes and plans to
policies require a higher share of resources to reduce inequality and discrimination.
disadvantaged groups or communities. The
implementation of subsidised (sponsored) The Poverty Reduction Strategy
transport and health costs are possible strategies The government of Lesotho launched its first
that may reduce poverty and inequality. The Poverty Reduction Strategy for 2004/2005 and
development activities of several NGOs in 2006/2007. The government’s strategic priorities,
Lesotho are targeting neglected rural as outlined in the Poverty Reduction Strategy,
communities in order to reduce income were, among other things, to:
inequalities. create employment opportunities
Ensuring that development initiatives do improve agricultural production and food
not discriminate or otherwise strengthen security by improving farming practices,
discrimination: Discrimination in the irrigation systems and water supply schemes,
distribution of aid and the negative effects of and livestock and fodder production
development policies are some of the develop infrastructure, including transport,
development initiatives that violate the rights of water and power supply, sanitation and
the disadvantaged people, instead of respecting telecommunications, and promote planned
their cultural and economic rights. Government settlement of peri-urban areas and affordable
funds and development aid are often misused housing
for political motives (corruption). For example, improve the quality of, and access to, essential
some politicians influence the distribution of healthcare and social welfare services to meet
aid to areas where they themselves will benefit the challenges of increasing poverty, disease and
most, rather than investing in the areas of the terrible effects of HIV/AIDS
greatest need. In some projects, ethnic increase human resource capacity, particularly
minorities are disadvantaged. For example, by closing the gender gap.
when the Lesotho Highlands Water Project was
underway, people were transferred from their The National Strategic Development Plan
existing homes to new villages, where they were 2012/13–2016/17
provided with improved infrastructure and Many cultural traditions have disadvantaged
better services. But some of them were unable women. Although some things have changed, there
to cope with the challenges in new villages. are still a lot of challenges, such as encouraging
Governments and development agencies should political participation, to facilitating women’s
try to avoid this. involvement in economic activities, improving
maternal health and reducing maternal mortality.

Activity 6 This strategic plan addresses issues of inequality

and discrimination in Lesotho. The government is
Work with a partner. facilitating the implementation of the Legal
Answer these questions. Capacity of Married Persons Act 2006 and the
1. Identify common forms of discrimination gender policy framework.
and inequality that exist in your community
specifically, or in Lesotho in general. In order to promote gender equality and
2. State the causes of these forms of mainstreaming, the plan outlines the following key
discrimination and inequality. strategic actions:
3. Identify measures that are being taken to strengthening institutional, policy and
reduce inequality, discrimination and legislative frameworks to ensure effective
deprivation in your community or Lesotho. mainstreaming of gender into national
development programmes

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creating awareness and advocating (publicly accountability tools to ensure better service
supporting) male involvement in gender, sexual for poor households (e.g. reduced waiting
and reproductive health programmes. times) and developing nutrition programmes
enhancing the economic empowerment of for young children and pregnant mothers in
Basotho men through targeted vocational rural areas that combine supplements with
(artisan) and entrepreneurship training, and training for mothers and effective monitoring
business counselling to be delivered at of results.
community level
enhancing training on sexual and reproductive Legal reforms to reduce inequality and
health targeted at men and women discrimination
implementing programmes for reduction of The government of Lesotho has embarked on legal
child and maternal mortality reforms as well as the enforcement of laws that
enhancing political empowerment of women protect the rights of women and children. Some of
through implementation of policies that will these laws include the Sexual Offences Act 2003
strengthen female participation in politics, and the Child Protection and Welfare Act of 2011.
including leadership training The Sexual Offences Act was passed by the
identifying and implementing measures to Lesotho parliament in 2003 to combat sexual
reduce the cost of living for the industrial violence and to prescribe appropriate sentences to
workforce, including housing solutions with sexual offences.
the participation of the private sector
increasing the spread of legal frameworks that The government is also engaged in legal reforms
promote gender equality and developing aiming to harmonise the customary and statutory
guidelines to facilitate implementation systems. This includes:
supporting non-formal education and skills revising customary and traditional laws (known
development programmes for herd-boys and as the laws of Lerotholi) to end gender
domestic workers discrimination
improving the ability of supporting agencies eliminating clauses allowing customary law to
(CGPU/police, social welfare, health and the uphold gender-discriminatory practices
justice system) to respond adequately to and training legal and law enforcement
gender-based violence. professionals in both systems on the application
of newly enacted statutes.
These are some of the government policies
intended to eliminate inequality, deprivation and The law enforcement agencies, such as the police
discrimination in Lesotho: and the courts of law, are responsible for
Free and compulsory primary education: protecting the rights of women and children. This
This policy removes fees in primary education includes:
to give poor children access to primary educating both women and men about
education. children and women’s legal rights and the
Rationalisation of fees and bursary schemes relationship of those rights to socio-economic
in secondary education: To increase access of development
poor children to secondary education, the enforcing laws against rape and other forms of
government has standardised fees and boarding sexual aggression against women
charges and introduced bursary schemes for supporting victims in their efforts to press
poor children. charges against aggressors
Reducing the share of budget destined for creating legal aid programmes for women
higher education: This includes requiring claiming their rights.
middle-class and upper-class households to bear
a higher share of the cost of tertiary education The role of NGOs
tuition than they do currently and providing NGOs also play an important role in reducing
opportunities for loan forgiveness in return for inequality and combating discrimination. One of
service in remote, poor areas. these NGOs is Women and law in southern Africa
Implementing health and nutrition (WLSA).
programmes targeted at rural needs: This
includes ensuring that rural health centres WLSA Lesotho
get their fair share of inputs such as drugs WLSA Lesotho is an NGO that is part of the
and supplies, using demand-side WLSA Regional Organisation, established in 1989.

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Its mission is to promote and protect women’s

socio-economic, legal and political rights through Summary
research and legal reform. It is involved in training In this unit you have learnt the following:
and education on laws and policies that advance Food, clean water, housing,
women’s human rights and promote gender healthcare and education are basic
equality. Women and girls can get legal support needs for human life.
and advice from WLSA Lesotho and this is Education is an important basic need
expected to spread throughout Lesotho as WLSA that improves living standards.
Lesotho’s advocacy and training workshops spread Nutrition, a clean water supply, good
countrywide. sanitation, health and medical care,
diseases and the spread of HIV/
AIDS are social and health issues
Activity 7 facing low-income and middle-
income countries.
Work with a partner. Infrastructure, capital, skilled labour
Investigate how the policy on Free and and resources are basic development
Compulsory Primary Education and the Sexual needs of low-income and middle-
Offences Act 2003 or Child Protection and income countries.
Welfare Act 2011 address inequality and Women play an important role in the
discrimination in Lesotho. Use the following development of their countries, yet
questions to guide you: they are often discriminated against,
1. When was the policy or law introduced? especially in developing countries.
2. What are the factors that led to the Traditional lifestyles, inequality,
introduction of the policy or law? discrimination, deprivation and
3. What are the public’s views about the policy ethnic/cultural issues affect
or law? development and make it difficult to
4. How does the policy or law address reduce poverty.
inequality and discrimination in Lesotho? In Lesotho there are several socio-
Record your findings in the form of a written economic reasons for, and possible
report. strategies to reduce inequality,
discrimination and deprivation.
The government of Lesotho and
NGOs are involved in several
initiatives to reduce inequalities and
discrimination.

Unit 1.5 Political issues and their effect on poverty and

development
Unit objectives
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
understand the concept of human rights
understand the roles of the different institutions of government and the functions of the
legislature, the executive and the judiciary
recognise how political systems control the distribution of resources
understand how different political systems operate: capitalist, socialist, mixed economies,
democracies, dictatorships
explain and give examples of how political actions can promote or restrict development
understand the importance of women in politics
define corruption and understand methods of combating it
understand the need for international cooperation to solve global issues and illustrate
Lesotho’s membership of international organisations.

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The concept of human rights something we are entitled to; an obligation is a

The concept of human rights implies that all responsibility to someone or something.
human beings are entitled to rights on the basis Governments have obligations and duties under
that they are all human and born free and equal in international law to respect, to protect and to
dignity, irrespective of their nationality, place of fulfil human rights. Each of us is entitled to our
residence, sex, national or ethnic origin, colour, human rights. In turn, we have to respect the
religion, language, or any other status. Human human rights of other people.
rights include the right to life, freedom of
association and education. These human rights are
often expressed and guaranteed by international Activity 1
and national laws. International human rights laws
state the obligations of governments to act in Work in a group.
certain ways or to refrain from certain acts, in order Answer these questions.
to promote and protect human rights and 1. What are the basic human rights?
fundamental freedoms of individuals and groups. 2. Visit your nearest police office or
community chief to find out about:
a) basic human rights that are often
violated in the village
b) individuals and groups of people who
protect basic human rights
c) challenges that the police and
community chief face in protecting basic
human rights.
Report your findings to the rest of the class.

All people have the right to education. The roles of the different
Principles of human rights
institutions of government and
Human rights are based on a set of principles that functions of the legislature, the
was first outlined in the United Nations Universal executive and the judiciary
Declaration of Human Rights, adopted in 1948, The government of Lesotho is made up of a
after World War II. parliamentary representative democratic monarchy,
Universal and indisputable: Universal means whereby the King is the head of state and the
the rights apply to everyone on earth. Prime Minister is the head of government. The
Indisputable means the rights cannot be argued government exercises executive power. Legislative
against. This principle is the foundation of power is vested in both the government and the
human rights law. two houses of Parliament, the Senate and the
Interdependent and interrelated: All human National Assembly. The judiciary is independent of
rights are interrelated and interdependent, the executive and the legislature.
because the improvement of one right
facilitates the promotion and improvement of
the others – they are connected. The Legislature – the legal part of the government;
deprivation of one right negatively affects other it makes and changes laws in a country
rights. For instance, the right to education Executive – the part of the government that
depends on the right to life or good health. It makes sure that all laws are being implemented
would be difficult for one to enjoy the right to correctly
education without the right to good health. Judiciary – the part of the government that
Equality and non-discrimination: The right consists of all judges and courts in a country
to equal treatment requires that all persons be
treated equally before the law, without
discrimination. This principle guarantees people The executive branch: The Prime Minister is
are dealt with equally in law and practice. the head of the government and has executive
Rights and obligations: Human rights involve authority. The King serves a ceremonial
rights as well as obligations. A right is function; he is not allowed to participate

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actively in politics. According to the executive structures have the primary responsibility
constitution, the leader of the majority party in of making laws, policies and programmes that can
the Assembly becomes the Prime Minister. The remove challenges to development, reduce poverty
monarch is hereditary and has no executive or and stimulate national economic growth. The
legislative powers. The function of the judiciary has a role to play in protecting and
executive branch of government is to make promoting human rights by stopping discrimination,
policies, plans and programmes that guide the inequality and deprivation and making sure that
Cabinet and government activities. there is good governance.
The legislative branch: Parliament has two
‘houses’ – the National Assembly (or House of
Commons) and the Senate. The National Activity 2
Assembly has 120 members, elected for a
five-year term, 80 in single-seat constituencies Work with a partner.
and 40 by proportional representation. The 1. Discuss how each of these structures – the
Senate has 33 members, consisting of 22 executive, legislature and judiciary – can
Principal Chiefs and 11 members nominated by stop poverty and promote development in
the King on the advice of the Prime Minister. Lesotho.
The main function of these two houses is to 2. Present your suggestions in the form of a
make laws. mind map. Share your work with other
The judicial branch: Lesotho has an pairs.
independent judicial system. The judiciary is
made up of the Court of Appeal, the High
Court of Lesotho, the magistrate’s courts and
traditional courts (which function mainly in Political systems and the
rural areas). There is no trial by jury; rather, distribution of resources
judges make rulings alone, or, in the case of Different political systems share resources in
criminal trials, with two other judges as different ways to support development within
observers. The constitution also protects basic countries. The main categories of economic models
civil liberties, including freedom of speech, are capitalism, socialism, mixed economies,
association and the press; freedom of peaceful democracies and dictatorships.
assembly; and freedom of religion. The
judiciary should not favour or be controlled by Forms of government
any political party. Different types of government are usually based on
particular political systems.
Organs of State
Parliamentary democracy
A parliamentary democracy is a system of
Executive Legislature Judiciary government in which citizens decide who should
lead the country through voting for political
parties in elections. The political party that gets the
Cabinet Court of appeal majority of votes becomes the ruling party. The
Senate
High court other political parties may choose to become
National Assembly Magistrate’s court opposition or form an alliance with the ruling
Central courts party. So, the party or an alliance of parties with
Government Local courts
Ministries Government
greatest representation in parliament forms the
government.
The state organs of Lesotho
Democratic countries such as Botswana, Tanzania,
Each branch of government has its own specific Namibia and South Africa tend to have steady
tasks, but the three branches should work together economic development. They attract investment
to remove barriers to development such as from MEDCs and financial assistance from
discrimination and inequality, end poverty and institutions such as the International Monetary
promote development through formulation of Fund (IMF) and the World Bank. A democratic
policies, laws and programmes. Each branch has system allows businesses to develop, builds
the potential to stop poverty and promote national infrastructure and creates jobs. A parliamentary
development. For example, the legislature and democracy system is able to remove governments

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do not have control over the government and what

it does. Most MEDCs, financial institutions and
transnational corporations (TNCs) do not support
this form of government, and do not usually invest
in countries with this type of government. It is
difficult for the government to improve the well-
being of citizens without foreign investment.
National resources are unequally shared. Those
who are in power benefit from these resources
while the masses live in poverty.

A transnational corporation (TNC) is the same

as a multinational corporation – it is a large
company that does business in many different
countries.
A woman casting her vote at a voting station

that fail to improve the well-being of their people Totalitarianism

and promote economic development. Totalitarianism is a form of government where the
one-party state with a dictator in power controls
Republic every aspect of life of citizens. People are not
A republic is a form of government in which allowed to go against or criticise the government.
citizens or their elected representatives choose a The ruling party controls the economy, uses mass
president, for example The United States of media to spread propaganda, deals with opposition
America. Such a president holds office for a through military force and uses power to threaten
specified period, such as two years. The the nation. Like other non-democratic institutions,
government may choose to control some key totalitarianism may face similar problems in the way
resources, leave the resources to private resources are divided and shared, and in economic
organisations or assist the local and international development. Resources are often allocated to a
organisations to develop the national economy. small, privileged group of people while the rest of
There are similar benefits for development in a the citizens are marginalised and live in poverty.
republic as there are in parliamentary democracies. This system does not usually use national resources
to promote development, but rather to strengthen
One-party state its military to stop any form of opposition.
A one-party state is when the government is
formed by one political party only. This party rules Different approaches to state power:
the country according to its own agenda, so there capitalism, socialism, mixed economies,
is little democratic principle involved. If there are communism and fascism
other political parties, the ruling party usually does An economic system refers to how goods in a
not allow them to stand for election. The lack of country are produced, which goods are produced
democracy supports economic decline, as the state and who they are produced for. The government
does not attract foreign investment. The leaders of of a country decides on the type of production to
the party may also abuse their power and become adopt and how to manage it.
corrupt, denying citizens their human rights and
slowing down development. In these states there is Capitalism
often little freedom of expression or a free press. Capitalism is a socio-economic system in which a
country’s business and industry are controlled and
Dictatorship run for profit privately for owners rather than
Dictatorship refers to a form of government in government. Capitalism started in Western Europe
which one leader (called a dictator) has absolute during the industrial revolution. Some examples of
power. Such governments are usually set up by countries that employ capitalism are the USA,
military leaders who may have seized power by United Kingdom and Australia.
force. This form of government is undemocratic
and does not promote development. Dictatorship Large companies can develop under capitalism.
is a huge barrier to development because citizens With time these companies may grow into

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powerful multinational companies which operate Cooperative effort – people in a community

worldwide. At times these companies may end up work together to improve their well-being.
controlling the state by influencing policy-making Public ownership of the means of production
to favour their own interests. Capitalism also – socialists believe that if the means of
encourages the division of society into social classes production are left in the hands of individuals
based on whether or not one owns capital. Those or private companies, this leads to emergence
who own capital have greater power and are called of social classes of rich and poor, hence they
the rich while those who do not own capital are support public (government) ownership of
called the poor. As these companies build means of production.
infrastructure, factories and mines, they create job State planning of production – the government
opportunities that improve the citizens’ livelihood. should take control of most of the country’s
In a capitalist state, the government’s role is to resources. It should use them to promote
control the activities of the private companies and development. This practice is known as planned
share the resources that are in the hands of rich economy. The government uses the country’s
people with the rest of the people. With the resources to achieve certain goals and make
revenue collected from taxes and its investments, goods and services available to all citizens. The
the capitalist government builds infrastructural planned economy aims to satisfy people’s basic
facilities for further development and to provide needs.
services for its people.
Mixed economies
Capitalism is a socio-economic system that has the Mixed economy is an economic system which
following features: includes the features of both capitalism and
profit maximisation socialism. Most of the African countries adopted
private ownership of the means of production either a socialist or capitalist type of government as
private ownership of enterprises their post-colonisation economic system. However,
exchange of goods and services at market value neither socialism nor capitalism gave expected
market forces of demand and supply. results. As a result, African states settled for elements
of capitalism and socialism which worked for them
and shed those that did not. The economic system
they are following is therefore neither capitalism nor
socialism. In Africa, countries such as South Africa,
Botswana and Namibia are mixed economies. These
governments set goals and assist the local business
community and private international companies to
achieve these goals. It uses its resources for the
benefit of its people by providing social services and
infrastructural facilities.

Communism
In the capitalist system, large businesses can develop Communism is an economic system where the
and grow into multinational companies. state owns the means of production and all state
properties should be equally owned by all members
Socialism of the society. The people must work for the
Under socialism there is a collective or government benefit of the entire society. This system advocates
ownership, control and management of the means for equal distribution of resources and discourages
of production. This economic system began in all forms of inequalities such as rich and poor
Europe in response to the social and economic people. In short, communism discourages private
changes caused by the industrial revolution. The ownership of property and the gathering of private
main aim of socialism was to bring about an equal wealth. In a communist country, there are no
distribution of national wealth. Socialism has the private multinational companies as it is believed
following features: private enterprise creates a class system and is bad
Rational resource allocation – the national for development.
resources should be shared in a fair and
reasonable way according to people’s or Fascism
communities’ abilities or potential to use these In a fascist state, the state is led by one political
resources for their livelihood. party which has absolute power. The state controls

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everything and the leader exercises dictatorial

power. Fascist governments also face economic Political actions that can
challenges similar to those discussed under promote or limit development
dictatorship and totalitarianism. Although these Political systems can either promote or limit
governments justify their political action in the development. In a democratic system, people enjoy
name of building egalitarian societies (based on the basic rights and freedoms and equal opportunities
principle that everyone is equal), none of these and they take part in political decision-making.
dictatorship systems have achieved their desired There is freedom of the media. This contributes to
expectations. The majority of people who live in steady and stable economic growth, as wealth can
these systems are poorer than people who live in be shared and leaders can be held accountable for
mixed economies and capitalist countries. In fact, governing the country responsibly. On the other
most of them have collapsed and abandoned these hand, dictatorship governments are often
systems. China and Russia are examples of associated with an abuse of power, a violation of
countries that have abandoned this system and human rights and freedoms, poverty and a lack of
rather chose to be a mixed economy. development. Therefore we can say that politics
and development are closely linked.

Activity 3 The following are some examples of political

actions that can limit development:
Work on your own. In democratic states, governments, individuals
1. Copy and complete the following table. or private companies may grow too strong

Political system Economic system Examples Who gets what Who decides Effect on development

Parliamentary Capitalism
democracy Mixed economies
Capitalism
Republic
Mixed economies
Socialism
One-party system
Communism
Fascism
Socialism
Dictatorship Communism
Fascism
Socialism
Totalitarianism Communism
Fascism

1. What is the political system of Lesotho? economically. This may lead to them using
Support your answer with evidence and national resources to benefit themselves only
examples. and leaving the majority of the citizens poor.
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages Governments may fail to guarantee or ensure
of Lesotho’s chosen political system in terms that the basic needs of citizens are met, even if
of resource management and distribution? they promise to do so or claim that they are
3. Compare and contrast capitalism and doing so.
communism as economic systems. In dictatorship governments, the citizens are
4. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of not motivated to work hard and produce for
mixed economies with how they manage the welfare of the society, because they are not
resources and distribution. given an opportunity to implement their own
ideas or creativity. Productivity is often low,
because many people prefer to work for
themselves, not for the state.
In a capitalist system, leaving national resources
in the hands of private companies without any
supervision and control from government may
promote inequalities within the society.

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Similarly, when a dictatorship government nutrition, education, shelter, food distribution and
controls resources, the government may fail to a generally improved standard of living. In India,
manage the resources in a fair and equitable for instance, women’s representation means the
way. equitable (fair) sharing community resources,
including gender-sensitive spending on programmes
We can see that in all political systems there is the related to health, nutrition and education.
potential for actions that can either promote or
limit national development.

Activity 4

Work in a group.
1. Give three examples of political actions that
promote or limit development. Discuss how
they promote or limit development.
2. Can you identify any political actions that
limit or specifically promote development in
Lesotho? Share your responses with the rest
of the class. Women have a crucial role to play in politics, for
example as Members of Parliament.

Women in Lesotho
The importance of women in There has been significant progress in terms of
politics gender equality in Lesotho. Lesotho ranks
Although women are increasingly being elected to reasonably better on the Gender Inequality Index
be heads of state and government in many than on the Human Development Index. Since the
countries, they are still not as well-represented as quota system was introduced in Lesotho,
men. Increasing women’s representation in politics participation and representation of females in
and governance is seen as empowering women, Parliament and Cabinet as well as in local councils
according to a basic human right to equality. has increased. However, elsewhere in the region,
Recognition and support of women’s participation cultural traditions continue to affect women
in politics helps countries to deal with gender negatively. These challenges affect women
inequalities. There are still gender inequalities in politically, economically and health-wise.
many customary practices. The most serious forms
of discrimination occur when women become The majority of households in Lesotho are headed
victims of violence. by women. Many poor households are headed by
single mothers or women who are divorced,
We have already seen that women play a significant widowed or abandoned by their husbands. Women
role in development within their communities. who are heads of poor households have mostly lost
They care for the children and aged and often play the assets they once owned. They also mostly do
a more important role than men in promoting the not own agricultural assets such as livestock. They
welfare of all sectors of society. Women struggle to find funds to feed and provide for their
representatives and leaders tend to advance the families. Households headed by women whose
rights of all people in society, not just their own. husbands are migrant workers are mostly in a
For example, they tend to promote gender and better financial situation.
family-friendly laws. This has been seen in
countries such as France, Sweden, the Netherlands, Eliminating gender inequality in Lesotho will assist
South Africa, Rwanda and Egypt. the country to make better use of its productive
resources. Discrimination against women limits
Women tend to promote social issues. In Africa, Lesotho’s development potential. Women are
women start or support organisations in the rural consumers as well as producers. They are critical to
and urban areas that directly contribute to the the development of Lesotho.
livelihood of their families. These organisations
empower women by providing the necessary skills Politics should be a focus for the struggle against
and knowledge on a variety of issues, such as gender inequality. The participation of women in

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politics will enable them to improve their status in

society. They can use their vote or other legitimate 1. What percentage of women is represented in
forms of protest to change gender-discriminative Lesotho’s National Assembly, Senate and
structures. The present political order in Lesotho Cabinet?
allows women’s participation in political activity. 2. Compare and contrast the percentage of
Women can use this to vote for policies that women in Lesotho’s government with at
promote their interests or for parties that support least one other SADC country.
women’s programmes. 3. Considering the roles of women in society,
how would development initiatives change if
Organisations that focus on women in Lesotho women were represented more fairly in
Some of the organisations that are concerned with governance?
women’s issues in Lesotho are:
Women in Business
Young Women’s Christian Association
Maseru Women Senior Citizens Association Corruption as an obstacle to
Lesotho Girl Guides Association development
Lesotho National Council of Women Corruption is one of the largest challenges that
Boiteko Women’s Association stands in the way of effective service delivery. It is a
Women and Law in Southern Africa major obstacle to economic growth and
Lesotho Homemakers Association. development. Corruption is defined as an act where
an official breaks a rule for private gain. For
These organisations deal with many issues aimed at example, a government official may ask a citizen for
empowering women so that they can actively a bribe (money) in order to perform a basic, but
participate in development. sometimes illegal, service, such as providing
someone with a license which she or he does not
The Federation of Lesotho Women deserve. Other forms of corruption include bribery,
Entrepreneurs extortion (gaining something by force or threats),
The Federation of Lesotho Women Entrepreneurs nepotism (giving friends or family jobs instead of
aims to promote women’s empowerment through worthy candidates) and embezzlement (an employee
business activities and entrepreneurship. stealing funds that belong to an employer).

The objectives of the federation are to: Corruption can be a serious obstacle to
lobby for funding for women associations development because resources that should be
look for markets to sell their products given to development initiatives may be lost to
engage women in income-generating activities corrupt activities and people. Corruption also
act as a watchdog for and against the means that management of infrastructure and
government resources may be limited, thereby creating an
advocate (publicly support) women’s obstacle to development.
empowerment
equip women with the relevant skills to help The following are some methods to fight corruption:
sustain their businesses. Many governments have passed laws to increase
transparency in government services. Many
The federation started engaging in these activities governments have established, for example, an
in order to encourage women’s associations and Ombudsman and special prosecutors’ offices or
individuals to be independent and to ensure that the Public Protector. They have also put
policies implemented by the government cater for procedures in place to ensure that abuses are
both women’s and girls’ rights and empowerment reported and publicly investigated.
with regard to economic issues. Another approach to reducing corruption is
paying officials or civil servants higher salaries.
The idea is that if civil servants are paid more,
Activity 5 then they will have more to lose if their
corruption is discovered.
Work with a partner. At the national level, corruption can be
Conduct your own research to find out the reduced through privatising corrupt
following information: government services, such as water delivery,
immigration services, transport licenses,

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electricity or healthcare. The belief is that

private companies want to get the most profits, 2. What measures has the government of
so they will operate efficiently and legally. Lesotho taken to deal with corruption in
The media, such as newspapers, television or Lesotho?
radio, can be used to publicise corruption and 3. Visit the Office of the Ombudsman or the
deter people from behaving corruptly. Directorate on Corruption and Economic
Many national governments have created Offences, or the nearest library in your
specific government agencies to fight community. Investigate how these
corruption. These agencies are designed to be organisations work and the challenges they
independent ‘watchdogs’ within the face. Report back to the class and say what
government. For example, in Lesotho there is you think could be done to overcome these
the Anti-Corruption Unit. challenges.

The Directorate on Corruption and

Economic Offences
The Directorate on Corruption and Economic International cooperation in
Offences was established with the passing of the solving global issues
Prevention of Corruption and Economic Offences To solve global problems, there needs to be strong
Act (No 5 of 1999). The Directorate has various commitment from many countries to cooperate on
functions: matters and to support institutions to deal with
to investigate complaints of corruption global problems such as terrorism, the
to prosecute corruption environment and human rights issues.
to help law enforcement agencies prosecute
corruption International cooperation can take many forms, for
to prevent corruption example:
to educate people about how corruption can be arms control and disarmament agreements
eliminated the Global Partnership Against the Spread of
to educate people about the evils of Weapons and Materials of Mass Destruction
corruption anti-terrorism agreements
to encourage public support for fighting cooperation on environmental concerns
corruption. poverty reduction initiatives.

The Ombudsman’s Office Regional cooperation or integration is a process in

The Office of the Ombudsman was established in which countries within the same region or
1993. The nature, duties and functions of the geographical area agree to develop their countries
Ombudsman are described in the Ombudsman Act and create larger markets for trade, investment and
of 1996. security. There are written agreements and rules
(protocols) which they all sign and promise to
The objectives of the Office of the Ombudsman obey.
are to:
investigate and resolve grievances against public Regional integration initiatives attempt to:
sector agencies strengthen trade in the region
review and recommend changes in policies, create good conditions for private sector
practices, legislation and by-laws investments
raise public awareness on fundamental human develop infrastructure programmes in support
rights and the rule of law to increase public of economic growth
participation develop strong public sector institutions and
respond to issues that threaten the environment good governance
of Lesotho. support peace and security in the region
strengthen the region’s interaction with other
regions of the world
Activity 6 bring greater bargaining power in terms of
trade for the region in the world economy.
Work with a partner.
1. Define corruption in your own words. Countries that have supported or joined regional
cooperatives have found that cooperation decreases

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conflict and builds mutual trust among member

states. Regional cooperation allows goods and Summary
people to move freely across borders. Since In this unit you have learnt the
member states agree to remove trade barriers, following:
trade between members increases. Trade barriers All human beings are born free and
are high tariffs or taxes levied on exported or equal according to a set of global
imported goods by governments. The tariffs raise principles. These principles are
the prices of imported goods. In southern Africa, human rights. Human rights are
integration encourages a variety of industries, universal, indisputable (cannot be
reduction of imports from outside the integration challenged or denied) and
and increased exports. The future for the world interrelated.
and southern Africa lies in regional integration Different institutions of
arrangements. government, including the
legislature, the executive and the
Examples of regional cooperation in the southern judiciary, have important functions.
African region are the Southern African Customs One of them is to eradicate poverty
Union (SACU), the Southern African and promote development.
Development Community (SADC), the Common Examples of different political
Market of Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) systems include democracies,
and the East African Community (EAC). dictatorships, totalitarianism and
republics. You also learnt about
Lesotho has trade benefits under the African capitalism, socialism, communism
Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA). Lesotho and fascism. Each political system
belongs to SACU, which has signed a Trade, distributes and manages their
Investment and Development Cooperative national resources differently.
Agreement (TIDCA), a forum for consultative These economic and political
discussions, cooperative work and possible systems can engage in political
agreements on a wide range of trade issues, with a actions to promote or restrict
special focus on customs and trade facilitation, development.
technical barriers to trade, sanitary measures and Women play an important role in
trade and investment promotion. politics. The development of
women is key to the well-being of
Lesotho’s membership in international societies.
organisations Corruption is an act where an
Lesotho belongs to a number of international official or other individual breaks
organisations, including the UN, the International rules or acts unethically for private
Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank and the gain. Corruption is one of major
World Trade Organisation (WTO). Lesotho is also challenges that prevents effective
a member of the SADC, SACU and the African service delivery. It is an obstacle to
Union (AU). economic growth and
development.
International cooperation is needed
Activity 7 to solve global issues.
Lesotho is a member of several
Work on your own. international organisations, such as
Answer the following questions. the UN.
1. What is the importance of international
cooperation?
2. What types of international cooperation
does Lesotho take part in? You may have to
do research to answer this question.
3. How does Lesotho benefit from the
different types of international cooperation
it takes part in?

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Industrial development, trade and

globalisation

Chapter 2
Unit 2.1 Industrialisation and the process of production

Unit objectives
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
describe the characteristics of employment in the formal and informal sectors of the economy
understand the meaning of industrialisation and assess its positive and negative impact
explain the need for an educated/skilled workforce for industrialisation to occur
describe the factors of production: land, labour, capital, enterprise
understand the terms: inputs, processes, outputs of production
describe the types of technology (simple, intermediate, complex, high) and explain their
appropriateness in different contexts
explain economies of scale
describe labour-intensive and capital-intensive methods of production
describe the sectors of production in the national economy (agriculture, industry and
services/primary, secondary and tertiary) and
• illustrate the linkages between sectors
• identify how goods and services are used (for home use, for exchange within a country
and/or export) and illustrate with examples
appreciate the role of consumers in promoting sustainable development.

Introduction
In Chapter 1 you learnt about the foundations that need to be in place for development to take place
in societies around the world – human rights, political systems and initiatives that create conditions for
human development. In this chapter you will learn about key concepts related to trade and industrial
development and how these are linked to globalisation. In an increasingly globalised world, trade
systems and trade development have the ability to influence the quality of life and standard of living of
people, therefore they have a direct effect on human development.

Industrialisation and production Mechanical devices were substituted for human

Industrialisation is a period when an agrarian devices.
(agricultural) society changes into an industrial Inanimate power (for example steam) took the
society. It involves social and economic change. place of animal and human power.
There was a noticeable improvement in
Industrialisation organises the economy for the sourcing and usage of raw materials.
purpose of manufacturing. Industrialisation took
place in England in the late 18th and 19th Alongside these changes, industries were organised
centuries and then spread to Western Europe and differently – the sizes of units grew. Mills and
other areas. The industrial process took place in factories were preferred to home and backyard
three major areas: work. During this industrial process one change led

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to another – one innovation led to the innovation Activity 1

of another, related operation. For instance, when
engines were invented, steam became a necessity. Work in a group.
1. Discuss why you think human societies
The industrial process spread to other parts of the reached a point at which industrialisation
world such as Asia, in countries such as Singapore, started happening.
Hong Kong and Japan, but this only took place 2. What do you think are the benefits of
after the Second World War. industrialisation to societies? What are the
disadvantages? Make some notes.
In the SADC region, South Africa is one of the few
countries that is trying to industrialise.
The industrialisation process is complex. It requires The impact of industrialisation
skills and technology. Developing countries need
the right policies to support the process. The impact of industrialisation on
production
In our discussion of production, there are three Development and industrialisation are connected,
terms that are important to help you understand because countries have developed as a result of
the concept of production: their industrial production.
Inputs are resources such as people, raw Industrialisation increases productivity by
materials, energy or finances. Inputs are the improving the production processes.
resources used in a system, such as It allows countries to manufacture on a large
manufacturing, to obtain a desired output. scale, thus enjoying economies of scale. This
Outputs are the goods and services produced. means goods are produced at a cheaper price.
Processes are actions, operations or changes Industrialisation allows for the production of
that follow a certain method and that lead to a accurate and reliable products because of the
particular result. use of machinery.
Mass production uses a division of labour and
The industrialisation process specialisation. These make production more
Modern industrial production uses complex efficient. For instance, in a car factory, workers
machinery and technology. Any country that specialise in specific operations such as fitting
industrialises produces on a large scale using tyres and windscreens.
complex technology. Machines that are placed in
factories produce secondary goods from raw Industrialisation can also have negative effects:
materials. Although some of the machines are Industrialisation can result in deterioration in
operated by people, their products are accurate and the quality of life, such as overcrowding, crime
reliable. and the destruction of family ties.
Industries pollute the environment and exhaust
Any country that industrialises needs: its resources. For most industries to run, large
natural resources amounts of raw materials such as ores (e.g. iron
skilled human resources (engineers, in or copper) and petroleum for fuel are used.
particular, to design and run the machines) The outputs are mostly chemical wastes and
capital to invest in industrialisation major pollutants.
a supply of energy (electricity generated by Industrialisation also results in a loss of
coal, water, etc). individuality of those working in factories. In
most cases, people working in large factories do
simple, repetitive jobs that give them little or
no job satisfaction.
Industrialisation and the resultant pollution
have had far-reaching effects on the
environment, for example depleting the ozone
layer and contributing to the greenhouse effect.

The impact of industrialisation on the

economy
Modern industrial production uses complex Industrialisation can impact the economy in the
machinery and technology. following ways:

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Industrial development increases income.

Research has indicated a relationship between Industrialisation and an
high level of income and industrial educated, skilled workforce
development. For instance, GNP per capita is A skilled workforce is needed to drive the engine of
high in developed countries and low in non- industrial and economic growth. Countries must
industrialised countries. promote technical and vocational education and
The benefit of industrialisation can trickle down training to grow a skilled workforce. Skills training
to other sectors, leading to a rise in output and must be of a high quality and competency-based.
employment. Underdeveloped countries need Some countries in Africa have already started
to industrialise in order to overcome programmes that provide their citizens with
unfortunate changes in the prices of primary vocational skills. Ghana, for instance, linked
products, which result in negative terms of vocational education and training with the
trade. By rather using a local product instead of education of the youth. Lesotho focuses on linking
an imported one (import substitution) and technical and vocational education to businesses.
export-oriented industrialisation, industries can
create employment opportunities at an Technical and vocational education introduces
increased rate. In this way, labour could be people to the world of work, at the same time
absorbed. provide people with skills that make them
Industrialisation leads to urbanisation. employable. Technical education is also about
Urbanisation is the movement of people into knowing why things are done in a particular way.
cities and city building.
People usually demand industrial goods. After Skills development is also important for
buying food, they spend their excess income on globalisation. Technology-rich transnational
manufactured goods. Industrialisation therefore corporations can help developing countries gain
could help developing countries meet these industrial skills as part of globalisation.
demands. Sourcing manufactured goods
through import trade has created a situation
where developing countries spend more on Activity 3
imports, but get very little from the raw
materials that they export. This results in an Work with a partner.
unequal trade balance. 1. Write a few paragraphs explaining why a
skilled and educated workforce is necessary
Industrialisation changes many aspects of a society for industrialisation.
or country – for instance the lifestyle, population 2. In most developing countries, there are
structure, settlement patterns, politics and graduates who cannot find employment.
economic activities. Industrialisation may result in What do you think the government could
large-scale migration of people to urban areas in do to assist these people to contribute to
search of jobs. Migrants usually come from rural economic development?
areas or from poor countries. This has a negative 3. Share your ideas with another pair of
impact on agriculture, as it strips this sector of the learners.
active population.

Activity 2 The factors of production

People have needs and wants that have to be
Work in a group. satisfied. In order to meet people’s basic needs and
1. Using the information you have just read as wants, we have to produce goods and services. The
a starting point, do some research on the process of making these goods is called production.
positive and negative impacts of During production, inputs are changed to outputs.
industrialisation on the economy and on Individuals, organisations or companies carry out
people’s lives. the production processes.
2. Compare your research to the notes you
made in Question 2 of Activity 1. What have In order for production to take place, inputs, or
you learnt? factors of production, are necessary: land, labour,
3. Share your findings with the class. capital and an entrepreneur. The entrepreneur has
to organise the factors of production. For any

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output to be produced, the entrepreneur must grow the economy. They introduce new
combine the different factors of production in the technologies, so that the production process can be
best profitable way. profitable. An entrepreneur is a visionary who must
build, act and motivate people to produce more.
Land
This refers to all natural resources that may be used
to produce goods, such as farming and building Activity 4
land, fisheries, forests, mineral resources, rivers and
vegetation and even the atmosphere and sunshine. Work with a partner.
Some countries have non-renewable mineral Mr Mohale wants to start a furniture-making
deposits (they cannot be regenerated once they are business near Maseru. What inputs (land, labour
extracted and processed). The quality and quantity and capital) do you think he needs? Present
of natural resources is important in production. your list as a mind map. Use each factor of
Lesotho does not have many mineral deposits, or production as a heading in your mind map.
very much land available for agriculture (it is
mountainous). It has to use other natural resources
in production and economic development
initiatives, for example making use of water or Types of technology
wind power, which are renewable. There are different types of technology that are
employed in production processes:
Labour Simple technology refers to technology or
Labour refers to human effort and the machinery machinery that anyone can use and repair, for
that carries out operations in the production example farming tools such as hoes and
process. Labourers put both physical and mental ploughs.
effort into the production of goods. The supply Complex technology refers to machines that
and quantity of labour depends on the size and the cannot be developed and repaired by ordinary
structure of the country’s population. For instance, people. These complex technologies are usually
a country whose population has many young developed by specialists. Cell phones,
people under the age of 18 may have a short supply computers and microwave ovens are a few
of labour. The quality of labour is also important. examples.
It refers to the skills, knowledge, education, Intermediate technology may have elements
training and health of the workers. Labour can be of both simple and more complex technology,
skilled, semi-skilled or unskilled. for example bicycles, torches, lanterns and
Skilled labour refers to workers who have planters.
achieved mastery of a particular craft, for High technology is technology developed
example lawyers, teachers and doctors. within the last 25 years and which involves
Semi-skilled labour refers to workers who micro-electronics. It uses very complex
have had some training; less than a skilled equipment and advanced engineering
labourer but more than an unskilled labourer. techniques. Some examples are computers and
Unskilled labour refers to workers who have smart phones.
no specialised training.
Technology should always be suited to the
Capital environment or situation (context) in which it is
Capital refers to money or human-made resources used and to the culture and resources that the
used in the production process, for instance people have, or the kind of life that they lead. It
machinery, trucks and buildings. Capital goods (for could be simple or complex, but it should be
example cars, computers and machinery) user-friendly. In most cases, appropriate technology
depreciate, meaning that they wear out or even is less expensive, but meets the needs of the people.
become outdated and lose value. As we use these Examples of useful technology include:
capital goods we have to make provision for this human-powered vehicles such as bicycles,
depreciation. The total value of the output of which provide human power transport at a
capital goods produced is referred to as investment. lower cost
the whirlwind wheelchair, which provides
Entrepreneurship mobility for disabled people who cannot afford
Entrepreneurs combine land, labour and capital to expensive wheelchairs
produce products and services efficiently and to hand pumps and treadle pumps.

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An industry can enjoy external economies of scale

due to the following:
Specialist services: For example, transport
companies may provide specialised services for
industries, or training institutions may design
courses for these companies.
A skilled labour force: There can be an
exchange of skilled labour trained by companies
in the same industry. For instance, a worker
may leave one car manufacturing company to
work for another.
Specialist supplies of raw materials and
capital goods: A large industry can provide
services to another industry. For instance, a
glass factory can supply a car industry with
windscreens.
Improved infrastructure: Government can be
The Hippo Roller is a tool for transporting water. It encouraged by the growth of an industry to
is an example of simple technology that is appropriate provide good roads and electricity supplies.
to the context of people’s lives.
Categories of economies of scale
When a company increases its operations, there are
Activity 5 a number of factors that bring about a decrease in
average costs:
Work in a group. Financial economies: Large companies raise
1. Make a list of all the technologies you can capital easily. Banks usually give them loans
think of that are used in your community or because they have assets which they can offer as
in the country. security. Large companies can also raise their
2. Say whether each technology is simple, finances through selling shares, which is not the
complex, intermediate or high. Explain the case with small companies. If the company is
reasons for your choices. large and well known, people tend to buy
3. Do you think all these technologies are shares easily.
suitable for the context in which people use Buying economies: Large companies can buy
them? Explain. raw material in bulk and enjoy discounts,
4. Present your ideas to the class. paying less for each unit benefit. As a loyal
customer, large companies may also enjoy
preferential treatment, for example quick
delivery and getting quality goods.
Economies of scale Marketing economies: Large companies
Economies of scale refer to the advantages of usually pay less for the costs associated with the
reducing costs of production by producing things sale of their output, for example transport,
on a large scale. There are two types of economy of advertising and packaging.
scale – internal and external: Managerial economies: Large companies can
Internal economies of scale are advantages employ specialist staff, for example buyers,
that a specific company gets by increasing its accountants and human resource managers,
size – that is, by enlarging its plants. because these costs can be spread over the
External economies of scale are advantages many units that they produce. These
enjoyed by companies in an industry as a result additional staff will increase the efficiency of
of the growth in the industry. For instance, a the business, thereby decreasing its production
growth in the car industry can make car costs.
companies enjoy benefits such as exchanges of Technical economies: A large company with a
skills. If an industry is large, companies in the large output can use advanced machinery. This
industry can reduce their average costs. machinery tends to be efficient, thus reducing
External economies of scale work better if the production costs.
companies are located in one place, for example Research and developmental economies:
car manufacturing companies. Large companies can carry out research, which

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can help them develop efficient production Activity 6

methods and new products.
Risk-bearing economies: Large companies do Work in a group.
not stick to one product line; they usually Explain some of the benefits enjoyed by
produce more. For example, a large car companies producing on a large scale. Suggest
manufacturing company may produce many some industries in southern Africa that benefit
different models of cars. This allows a company from economies of scale.
to be more adaptable. If one line does not sell
well, the company can shift to another line that
is more profitable.
Labour-intensive and capital-
Diseconomies of scale intensive methods of production
If a company grows too large, resulting in When producers decide what to produce and how
increased long run average costs (LRAC), it is said much to produce, they must also decide how they
to be experiencing diseconomies of scale. As a will produce. Their capital-to-labour ratio will
business grows, costs fall until they reach an make them decide on a labour-intensive or capital-
optimum point. After that, costs will rise again, intensive method of production. The capital-to-
leading to diseconomies of scale. The following labour ratio is the ratio of the amount of capital
factors may cause this rise: (machinery) to the amount of labour used to
Poor industrial relations: If a business grows produce a given output. If the ratio of capital to
too large, it is likely to experience strikes and labour is high, this means a large amount of capital
other industrial actions. For instance, it might is used relative to labour – this is capital-intensive
take the management of a large company a production. If the ratio is low, this means relatively
longer time to solve employee problems, which little capital is used per unit of labour – this is
might demotivate employees. labour-intensive production. Most car and steel
Communication problems: Information on industries use capital-intensive methods of
duties and opportunities within the company production. In the past, most operations in
might take too long to reach the employees. agriculture were labour-intensive, for example
Difficulty in controlling the operations: ploughing, weeding and harvesting.
Those managing a large company may find it
hard to supervise all operations. The The following are some features of capital-intensive
management of big companies becomes methods of production:
complex. In situations like these, administration Processes which require a relatively high level
costs are likely to increase for some companies. of capital investment.
The processes which are highly automated and
used to produce on a large scale.
Capital is costly to finance and maintain,
because it is a long-term investment.

Labour-intensive processes are used to produce

individualised or personalised products, for

The steel industry is an example of an industry that Agriculture involves labour-intensive methods of
uses capital-intensive methods of production. production.

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example a wedding cake. Labour-intensive lead to dualism (division) in the economy. Most of
processes are suitable in smaller businesses. the capital equipment and capital-intensive
methods of production are in the urban areas,
The method that a business uses depends on a creating a capital centre and a rural labour centre,
number of factors: where jobs and social services are not well
The size of the company: Smaller companies provided. This leads to migration from rural to
may not be able to afford expensive capital urban areas and may slow down development.
equipment. Even if they can afford this
equipment, they may be unable to use it in a The case for capital-intensive methods to
cost-effective way. For instance, a farmer who facilitate development in LEDCs
has a two-hectare farm may decide to hire a Labour-intensive methods do not necessarily adapt
tractor rather than buying one, because it is to change, whereas capital-intensive methods are
more cost-effective. flexible – they can change as trends in production
The cost of the factors of production: change. Secondly, farmers using capital-intensive
Companies look carefully at the cost of labour methods of production can produce far more than
and capital before deciding on the method to those using labour-intensive methods. Capital-
use. intensive methods are therefore associated with a
The product: Some products are either more high output. Developed countries such as the
suited to capital-intensive or to labour-intensive USA, France and Germany have adopted capital-
methods. Products produced by mass intensive methods of production.
production are better suited to capital-intensive
methods and services are more suited to
labour-intensive methods. Activity 8

Hold a class debate on the following topic:

Activity 7 ‘Labour-intensive methods can solve
unemployment problems, but can also slow
Work on your own. down production.’
1. Write down a definition for capital-intensive Debate this statement in relation to Lesotho’s
production methods and for labour- development.
intensive production methods.
2. Think of some examples of both capital-
intensive and labour-intensive methods of
production. For each example, think of the Sectors of production
type of product or service, the production Production is the creation of utilities, which are
process and what kind of company would goods and services used to satisfy people’s needs
use this process. and wants. Production is divided into four sectors
3. Share your ideas with a partner. – primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary:
The primary sector: This is the industry in
which raw materials are produced, such as
The potential of capital-intensive and agriculture, mining, fishing and forestry. In
labour-intensive methods of production most poor countries, especially in Africa, the
to make development possible South Pacific and Asia, people rely upon the
An economy is like a web, so it is important that primary sector to earn an income. In contrast,
both these methods be used to reach a higher state developed countries have few people employed
of development. in this sector.
The secondary sector: This is the
The case for labour-intensive methods to manufacturing part of the economy. Here raw
facilitate development in LEDCs materials are turned into goods. The
If labour is cheap and available, this reduces the manufacturing sector involves the production
cost of production. It also facilitates the of machinery, turning minerals into finished
employment of many people, which helps goods and the production of consumer goods.
development within the country. Capital often has The tertiary sector: This is the service
to be imported into LEDCs using scarce foreign industry. Activities in this sector include trade,
exchange, which drives up the cost of production. transport, communication, education,
Some people believe that capital-intensive methods government and financial services. In

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developed countries, this sector is well labour laws, if they are not taxed, and do not have
established. social protection or any employment benefits. In
The quaternary sector: This is the sector that developing countries many people tend to work in
handles research and gathers knowledge and the informal sector. Informal jobs include selling
information. This is sometimes classified as part vegetables, selling newspapers and polishing shoes.
of the tertiary sector. These are not usually high-income jobs and they
involve long hours.
The sectors of production are linked – one sector
leads to the creation of another. For instance, when
agriculture is fully developed, surplus labour is
created, which then moves to the secondary sector.

Activity 9

Work with a partner.

1. Explain why most people in LEDCs tend to
be involved in the primary sector.
2. Name some products or services produced in
each sector: primary, secondary and tertiary.
3. Can you think of a way in which different A vegetable seller is an example of a person working
sectors are linked? in the informal sector.
4. Explain how the goods and services that you
mentioned in Question 2 are used by people
or by the country. Activity 10
5. Write a proposal detailing how you think
Lesotho could increase production in the Work with a partner.
secondary and tertiary sectors. 1. List the kinds of informal work which
people in your community do.
2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages
Employment in the formal and – for workers as well as the national
economy – of the informal sector of
informal sectors employment.
Employment is a term used to describe formal or 3. Explain the difference between the formal
paid work. Employment structure refers to the sector and the informal sector.
number of people employed in each industry. The
employment structure differs from country to
country. Employment is an indicator of
development. The role of consumers in
Formal employment or the formal sector promoting sustainable
Formal employment is when people work to development
receive a regular wage or salary and are guaranteed Sustainable development is when development
certain rights such as paid holidays and sick leave. enables people to meet their needs, but in such a
Wages and salaries are taxed. In most developing way that future generations will still be able to use
countries, the major economic activities in the the resources to meet their own needs. It requires a
formal sector include agriculture, mining, tourism, socio-economic, political and cultural environment
trade and industry. In Lesotho the main economic that makes it possible for people to take part in
activities include agriculture, mining, industry, sustainable development. Sustainable development
tourism and trade. Agriculture involves a large part depends on political stability, social security,
of the population. economic freedom and responsible usage.

Informal employment or the informal Consumers can contribute to sustainable

sector development by adopting a lifestyle based on
Employees are considered to have informal jobs if sustainable development – for example, by
their employment is not protected by standard choosing products that are:

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produced using less energy and less raw Activity 11

materials
produced with low emission of substances that Work on your own.
can harm the environment Suggest incentives that the government of
of high quality, durable and repairable, so that Lesotho can introduce to promote sustainable
they do not need to be replaced very often consumption. Present your ideas in a bullet-
re-usable and recyclable, to reduce the use of point summary.
resources.

Summary
In this unit you have learnt the following:
In industrialisation, mechanical devices replace human labour.
Mass production is the main feature of industrialisation.
The factors of production are land, labour, capital and entrepreneurship.
The entrepreneur combines the three factors of production (land, labour and capital)
efficiently in order for the economy to grow.
Economies of scale are the savings in average costs which occur when production is carried out
on a large scale.
The technology used to produce goods can be simple, intermediate or complex. Technology is
appropriate if it is designed to suit the culture and lifestyle of the users.
Production of goods could either be labour-intensive or capital-intensive.
Formal employment is regulated work that is offered by the formal sector.
Informal employment is when people are employed under conditions that do not guarantee
them certain employment benefits, such as paid leave or regular wages.
Consumers have an important role to play in promoting sustainable development.

Unit 2.2 The growth and role of world trade

Unit objectives
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
understand the terms: import, export, balance of trade, terms of trade and their relationship
to development
examine the ways in which developing countries can improve their balance of trade, e.g.
specialised economic zones, free trade zones
understand the terms: neo-colonialism, dependency and fair trade and their relationship to
development
describe and explain the growth and changes in the pattern of world trade since the 1950s,
with emphasis on the last 20 years (e.g. Golden Era, debt-led, lost decade, etc.)
explain the importance of trade
understand the free trade zones (SADC, EU, etc.) and World Trade Agreements (e.g.
AGOA, etc.)
appreciate the need for and the impacts of fair trade
identify the types and value of Lesotho’s exports and imports and the countries it exchanges
with.

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Defining trade advantage of the low production cost as

International trade is the exchange of goods and compared to their competing countries.
services between countries. A country cannot
produce all the goods, products and services its All countries would like to be self-sufficient and
citizens need. So it has to buy some of the goods, produce all the goods and services their citizens
products and services it lacks or can obtain more need. However, natural resources are unevenly
cheaply from other countries. distributed among countries. Most of the primary
resources such as coffee, tea and rubber are found
Goods bought elsewhere and brought into a in developing countries. These countries are not at
country are called imports. In order to pay for the same level of industrialisation as other
these imports, the country has to sell goods, countries.
products and services of which it has an excess
(surplus), or those which it can produce cheaply. Developing countries export raw resources and
These are called exports. import manufactured goods from developed
countries. The developed countries import raw
Goods and products that are traded, such as coffee, materials from the developing countries and export
electronic goods, equipment or motor vehicles, are manufactured goods to them. We can say that
known as visible trade. Services that are traded, such these countries are interdependent. They actually
as insurance or tourism, are called invisible trade. rely on each other and without one, the other
would not be able to survive. For this reason it is in
Terms of trade is referred to as the ratio of export both sets of countries’ interests to trade freely with
prices to import prices. It is the amount of each other.
imported goods that a country’s wealth can
purchase against the unit of export goods. A
country benefits from terms of trade if it purchases
imports from its level of exports, for example if a
country can purchase fifty boxes of oranges from
the sale of only ten boxes of apples. However,
terms of trade are often affected by the exchange
rate. A rise in the country’s currency lowers the
prices of imports. Another important factor is that
a rise in the price of exported goods increases the
terms of trade, but it decreases when the prices of
imported goods are on the rise. Improved terms of
trade have a direct impact on the country’s
development. Through fair trade, free trade zones
and specialised economic zones, developing Developing countries tend to export raw resources
countries can improve their terms of trade. (such as agricultural products and minerals) to
developed countries and import manufactured goods
(such as cars and electrical appliances) from
The importance of trade developed countries.
Countries must trade with each other to get the
full range of goods and services they want or need.
They specialise in the production of goods and Activity 1
services they are suited to.
Work with a partner.
The reasons why countries trade with each other 1. Define the term ‘international trade’ in your
are as follows: own words.
to obtain goods and services that they cannot 2. Explain the importance of trade in your own
produce themselves words.
to increase the choice of goods and services
available to their consumers
to obtain goods and services at a cheaper price
than what they can produce themselves Free trade zones
to make more revenue and profits from the Free trade zones (FTZs) and specialised economic
extra markets in other countries to take zones (SEZs) are economic strategies whose main

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goal is to improve the balance of trade in services in order to improve their countries’
developing countries. The terms FTZ and SEZ are economies. Trade is therefore a key factor in
used interchangeably. An FTZ is a geographical economic development. Sustained growth over
area within which goods may be landed, handled, longer periods reduces poverty, while trade and
manufactured and re-exported without customs growth are strongly linked. So if trade increases, so
intervention. It is an area or location within does growth. As countries develop, they
developing countries with specialised business and increasingly become part of the global village.
trade laws designed to boost the country’s
economy through trade. These zones are often Developing countries and the balance
situated around ports, international airports and of trade
national frontiers (areas that are well situated for As you have learnt, developing countries tend to
trade, where there is a supply of cheap labour and produce and export raw materials to developed
where the infrastructure is well established). countries, while developed countries add value
(process) raw materials and sell goods at higher
The benefits of FTZs are as follows: prices back to other countries. There is thus an
Through special business and trade laws, they imbalance in world trade – developing countries do
attract very profitable foreign direct investment. not earn as much as their developed trade partners
Goods produced in the zones are of high for the goods they export.
quality.
High quality goods are competitive and can be In Chapter 1 you learnt about two groups that
sold to international markets. have emerged from the developing countries –
These zones improve the balance of trade and middle-income countries (MICs) and newly
trade with other countries. industrialised countries (NICs).

There are also challenges associated with FTZs: Botswana, Namibia and South Africa are classified
Sometimes the domestic government pays part as middle-income countries with some industrial
of the initial cost of the factory setup. development. However, the trade pattern is still
The host countries often loosen environmental dominated by the export of primary goods and
protections and rules regarding negligence and products. Botswana’s exports are dominated by
the treatment of workers. diamond, copper and beef to the developed
Foreign corporations may be given more countries and the importing of manufactured
economic freedom than local employers, who goods from them.
face huge difficulties in developing nations.
The host governments do not charge taxes to NICs such as Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan,
corporations for a period of time. When the Malaysia and South Korea have developed rapidly
taxation-free years are over, the corporation through investment and the development of
that set up the factory without fully assuming manufacturing industries. They successfully
its costs is often able to set up operations implemented export-oriented industrialisation.
elsewhere for less expense than the taxes to be This means that NICs’ economies concentrate on
paid to the original host country. producing industrial goods for export, by keeping
the costs of production down. The products people
buy all over the world are mostly produced in
Activity 2 NICs.

Work on your own. Developing countries and balance of payments

1. What does the term ‘free trade zone’ mean? The balance of payments refers to a record of a
2. Where are most FTZs located? country’s total payments. Trade balance refers to
3. What are the possible challenges of FTZs in the difference between the cost of imports and the
LEDCs? How could these challenges be value of exports.
addressed?
The balance of payments records any transaction
between a country and its trading partners. It
records the difference between the amount of
Development and world trade money leaving the country to pay for imports and
World trade is important to development because the amount coming into the country from other
countries need each other to trade their goods and countries to pay for exports. At the end of the year

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the balance of trade is calculated by subtracting

imports from exports to see whether there is a Neo-colonialism, dependency
trade surplus (left over) or deficit (shortfall). and fair trade
Export revenues can be used to pay for imports.
When imports are greater than exports, a country is Neo-colonialism and dependency
running a trade deficit and must find additional When developing countries were colonies of the
ways of paying for imports. Developing countries developed countries, they exported their mineral
tend to have a deficit, as they pay more for resources as well as their agricultural products to
imported goods than what they earn from the developed countries. Even after independence,
exporting raw materials, whereas developed the former colonies continued to export raw
countries are more likely to have a surplus, as they materials, as they had no industries. The term
export services and goods to which they have added neo-colonialism was introduced by Ghanaian
value. NICs, through manufacturing, have created president Kwame Nkrumah, to describe the socio-
conditions in their economies to enable them to be economic and political control that promoted the
more likely to have a trade surplus than a deficit. interests of the former colonists over the newly
independent countries.

Since the world recession of the 1990s, raw

materials have dropped in value and manufactured
goods have gained in value. The result has been
that the developing countries have to sell more
commodities to buy the same amount of
manufactured goods as before. The exception is
the NICs, which have moved away from depending
on one or two primary products and now produce
manufactured goods as well. Developed countries
have a trade surplus and developing countries have
a trade deficit – they fall deeper into debt.

If developing countries depend on only one or two

The typical balance of payments in a developing export commodities, their dependency becomes
country involves a trade deficit, as the costs of imports worse. If the price of their commodity falls, the
exceed the value of exports. country will earn less foreign exchange and may
not be able to pay for the imports they need.

Activity 3 Fair trade

Fair trade is a kind of trade whose main goal is to
Work with a partner. assist producers or organisations in developing
1. Define the following terms: balance of countries to sell their products in developed
payments, trade deficit and trade surplus. countries. The producers receive a guaranteed fair,
2. Calculate whether the countries in the table minimum price for their products regardless of the
below have a trade surplus or trade deficit price on the world market and workers on these
and how much it is in each case. farms enjoy good working conditions. Although
fair trade products are more expensive in
Surplus/Deficit in supermarkets in developed countries, many
Country Exports Import
US dollars ($) consumers are willing to buy them to support
Country A $8.5 $5.6 producers in developing countries. Fair trade
Country B $9.4 $12.5 products include tea, coffee, sugar, chocolate and
Country C $0.9 $17.9 cotton.
Country D $0.9 $16.2
Fair trade benefits producers in developing
3. Find out who Lesotho’s main trading countries in several ways:
partners are. Draw and label a diagram to It helps producers to gain access to profitable
illustrate the pattern of trade of Lesotho in international markets.
relation to its trading partners. The fair price covers the costs of production.
The sale of products enables producers to

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improve their access to social services (health

and education). 3. Do you think neo-colonialism is a feature of
It improves producers’ technical skills and Lesotho’s economy? Give reasons for your
knowledge of their products. answer.
Working conditions on the farms are good. 4. Do some research and find examples of
Producers are environmentally sensitive in products produced in Lesotho where fair
order to sustain production. trade principles are applied.
They have the security of long-term contracts. 5. What do you think are the effects of fair
trade in the case of the products you
However, fair trade does not always lead to benefits mentioned in Question 4?
for developing countries. Fair trade has its own
limitations and challenges. Here are some of the
limitations of fair trade:
Producers tend to prioritise producing more of Growth and changes in the
the fair trade products at the expense of other pattern of world trade since 1950
products. Since 1950, several efforts and attempts to organise
It may lead to overproduction of fair trade world trade have been made to meet the needs of
products. the world.
A lack of technology to process fair trade
products may lead to less earnings. The African Growth and Opportunity Act
Fair trade products are sold at specialised shops. (AGOA)
This small market therefore limits producers’ AGOA is an act that was passed in 2000 to offer
earnings. significant incentives for African countries to
The additional costs of monitoring and enable them to open economic activities and build
regulating fair trade increases production costs free markets. Trade between Lesotho and the USA
in developing countries. has grown and expanded since the USA provided
Lesotho with a market for textiles and apparel
(clothing). Lesotho has recently developed the
AGOA National Response Strategy as it was
expecting the 10-year extension of AGOA. This
new AGOA response strategy aims to improve the
interaction of Basotho industrialists with the USA.
The Lesotho National Development Corporation
(LNDC) encourages the participation of local
investors in AGOA by providing sponsored factory
space. Increased job opportunities for local
Basotho are some of the direct benefits of AGOA
to Lesotho’s economy.

The General Agreement on Tariffs and

Trade (GATT) and the World Trade
Fair trade means that producers – for example Organization (WTO)
farmers of products such as tea, cocoa beans and GATT was formed in 1948 to encourage free trade
coffee beans – receive a guaranteed fair, minimum among all countries. In 1993 the signatories to
price for their products regardless of the price on the GATT set up the World Trade Organization
world market and good working conditions. (WTO) to ensure that member countries enforced
the free trade agreements they have made.

Activity 4 The functions of the WTO are to:

administer WTO trade agreements
Work on your own. be a forum for trade negotiations
1. Explain what you understand by the term handle trade disputes among member countries
‘neo-colonial dependency’. monitor national trade policies
2. How is neo-colonialism affecting world provide technical assistance and training for
trade? developing countries.

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However, the WTO is dominated by the powerful Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary,
and rich MEDCs. The LEDCs, especially in Africa, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg,
are too dependent on primary commodities, have Malta, Netherlands, Portugal, Poland,
too few industries and are often in debt. Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden
and the UK). Border controls between these
The International Economic Order (NIEO) countries are virtually non-existent now and
This was a set of proposals put forward during the trade is free between the member countries.
1970s by the developing countries to promote South America: MERCOSUR has five full
their interests by improving their terms of trade, members (Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay,
increasing development assistance, and reducing Uruguay and Venezuela) and associate
tariffs and forms of taxes charged on LEDCs. It members, who may become full members in
was meant to support the interests of LEDCs by time (Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador and
replacing the economic system that benefited Peru).
MEDCs. North America: The North American Free
Trade Association (NAFTA) is made up of
The main principles of the NIEO were that the Canada, Mexico and the United States.
developing countries should:
be entitled to regulate and control the activities Developing countries are disadvantaged, because
of multinational corporations operating within they cannot get free access for their goods to these
their territory trading blocs.
be free to nationalise foreign property on
conditions favourable to them The following are examples of trade blocs in
be free to set up associations of primary southern Africa:
commodity producers similar to the OPEC. The Southern African Development
Community (SADC): The SADC has 15
The NIEO called for international trade to be member states – Angola, Botswana, the
based on the need to ensure stable, equitable and Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC),
fair prices for raw materials, as well as the transfer Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius,
of technology to the developing countries. Finally, Mozambique, Namibia, Seychelles, South
the developed countries were requested to provide Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia and
economic and technical assistance without any Zimbabwe. The SADC’s goal is to improve
strings attached. socio-economic cooperation and integration, as
well as political and security cooperation
Trading blocs amongst the 15 southern African states. The
At a regional level, countries have formed trading SADC’s objectives are as follows:
blocs to encourage free trade and protect the bloc • to link members in effective, democratic
from foreign competition. Often the trade blocs and fair integration
are groups of countries with similar features who • to use SADC area resources to promote
have trade agreements. An important feature of national, interstate and regional policies
trade blocs is that members do not charge tariffs • to act together to achieve cooperation
on trade with each other. They have grouped within the framework of a strategy for
together in an attempt to increase the trade of their economic liberation.
member countries, make trade cheaper and easier African Free Trade Zone: In 2008, the SADC
between them, whilst increasing taxes on products joined the Common Market for Eastern and
brought in from outside the bloc. Although this Southern Africa (COMESA) and the East
improves trade balance between the member African Community (EAC) to form the African
countries, it restricts trade from non-member Free Trade Zone, consisting of 26 countries
countries and does not necessarily help the (the SADC countries as well as Burundi,
development of world trade. Comoros, Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia,
Kenya, Libya, Rwanda, Sudan and Uganda).
The following are examples of trade blocs in The African Free Trade Zone is supposed to
different parts of the world: ease access to markets within the zone area.
Europe: The European Union (EU) was South African Customs Union (SACU):
established in 1993. It has 28 member SACU is the oldest existing customs union in
countries (Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, the world. It was established in 1910 and the
Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, agreement was later updated in 1969. The

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members of SACU are Botswana, Lesotho, Lesotho benefits from the project through the
Namibia, South Africa and Swaziland. SACU generation of hydro-electric power (at Muela)
allows South Africa to charge customs taxes on and selling electricity to South Africa. The
imported goods passing through its ports and project was a massive engineering feat and
other member countries are paid their share of involved the construction of huge dams,
taxes. This arrangement also encourages trade financed through the World Bank, African
between member countries. SACU has a Development Bank and European Investment
combined population of 52 million. Bank. The project has also been a significant
employment creation initiative.
Diamonds are extracted at the Letseng,
Mothae, Liqhobong and Kao mines. Lesotho is
known for its good quality diamonds. The
sector suffered a setback in 2008 as the result
of the world recession, but rebounded in 2010
and 2011. It is a major contributor to the
exports of Lesotho. Diamonds from Lesotho
are sold in Europe and America.
Garments: Lesotho has become the largest
exporter of garments to the USA. This product
earns Lesotho its highest foreign income. This
manufacturing sector employs mainly female
Trade blocs encourage free trade between member workers.
countries.
Lesotho’s main imports are food, fuel, machinery
and building materials. Its main import partners
are South Korea, China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, the
Types and values of Lesotho’s United States and South Africa.
exports and imports
Lesotho has a small but significant range of export In the first quarter of 2015, Lesotho’s imports
commodities and it imports many other products amounted to 5 365.40 million LSL and its exports
used within the country. amounted to 2 195.30 million LSL. This means
that Lesotho is running a trade deficit.

Activity 6

Work in a group.
1. List the main exports and imports of
Lesotho.
2. What does Lesotho’s imports and exports
tell you about its economy? In a point form
summary, show the implications on
Lesotho’s main imports and exports Lesotho’s economy and development and
suggest possible ways to improve the
The following are Lesotho’s main exports: situation.
Water is an important export for Lesotho, as a
result of the successful Lesotho Highlands
Water project (LHWP), which was initiated
between the governments of South Africa and
Lesotho in 1986. The project captures, stores
and transfers water from the Orange River
system, originating in the Lesotho highlands
and channels it to the Free State and Gauteng
provinces of South Africa. These areas are
water-scarce and need water, as they are
industrial concentrations in South Africa.

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Summary
In this unit you have learnt the following:
No country can provide all the goods, products and services needed or wanted by its
inhabitants. To provide these needs, countries trade with each other.
Trade is a key factor in economic development and an important tool in the path to
development.
A free trade zone (FTZ) is an area within which goods may be landed, handled,
manufactured and re-exported without the intervention of the customs office.
The value of imports tends to be greater than the value of exports in developing countries.
Developing countries still export raw materials to developed countries and developed
countries then process these into manufactured goods and earn profits. Raw materials have
less value than manufactured goods. Often manufactured products are produced and then
sold back to the developing countries for a far higher price than the original raw materials
were sold for – this is known as neo-colonialism.
Fair trade means that producers receive a guaranteed fair, minimum price for their products
regardless of the price on the world market.
Since 1950, several efforts and attempts to organise world trade have been made to meet the
needs of the world, including the GATT, the NIEO and trading blocs.
Lesotho exports cheap raw materials and imports high cost manufactured goods, mainly
from South Africa and abroad.

Unit 2.3 The function and impact of foreign aid and investment
on development

Unit objectives
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
describe the role of aid agencies and charities in development
consider the impact of aid on recipient countries
understand foreign investment and its effectiveness
understand the role of the IMF, the World Bank and regional development banks (e.g. Asian
Development Bank, African Development Bank, etc) in promoting development
explain the causes and impacts of national debt and the benefits of debt relief
describe the role of foreign direct investment (FDI) and multinational (transnational)
companies in the development process.

Foreign aid The role of aid agencies and

Aid is another word for help. Foreign aid or charities in development
development aid is when one nation gives another The role of aid agencies and charities includes:
nation assistance – economic, technical or military providing the basic necessities needed for life,
– to give the recipient country some kind of relief as the first priority – this is done through soup
and rehabilitation, or for economic stabilisation. kitchens, shelters, as well as by providing places
Most foreign aid comes from the Western of safety
industrialised countries, but some poorer countries training people so they can find employment
also contribute to aid. Many MEDCs make – this is done through free workshops and fairs
allowance in their domestic budgets to provide aid providing counselling for people who have
to LEDCs. An aid agency is an organisation that is become addicted to drugs and alcohol
dedicated to distributing aid. providing medical care.

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Some charities gather volunteers who are willing to food, clean water, shelter, medicines and the
build houses for the homeless or meet some other staff to organise these materials.
physical need that is urgent. Some aid agencies Non-governmental organisations (NGOs):
cater specifically for women and children, or just These are private organisations that support
for men. activities to relieve suffering, promote the
interests of the poor, protect the environment,
All these forms of aid help to create favourable provide basic social services or undertake
conditions for development in LEDCs. community development. Examples of such
charitable organisations include, among others,
the Red Cross, Christian Aid, OXFAM and
Activity 1 Save the Children Fund.

Work in a group.
1. Discuss the different forms in which aid is
provided to developing countries. You may
use the following words as a guide: money,
knowledge, loans, goods, experts, gifts and
equipment.
2. How do you think these forms of aid could
contribute to development? Make a mind
map of your ideas.

Types of foreign aid

Aid may be divided into two broad categories: Developmental foreign aid could include providing
humanitarian aid (emergency relief efforts, for health services such as immunisation. This can be
example in response to natural disasters) and done through multilateral aid provided by
developmental aid (or foreign aid) aimed at helping international organisations.
countries to achieve long-term sustainable
economic growth, with the aim of reducing
poverty. Activity 2

The following are some types of foreign aid: Work with a partner.
Bilateral aid: This is also known as conditional Answer these questions.
aid. This type of aid is from one country to 1. Why do some countries need aid?
another. The donor country and the recipient 2. Talk to your teacher, parents and friends
country benefit. One example is Britain giving about what could be done to help
money and sending experts to help build a dam vulnerable people in Lesotho.
in Turkey. Britain may insist that their experts
and equipment be used.
Multilateral aid: In this type of aid,
organisations that involve many countries The impact of foreign aid
provide help. The aid is given through Foreign aid is important for economic
international agencies such as the World Health development. The following are some ways in
Organisation (WHO), the United Nations which foreign aid can affect countries:
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Foreign aid in the form of loans bridges the
Organization (UNESCO), UNICEF (dealing savings gap and balances payments: Poor
with children), the World Bank and the IMF countries experience low national income and
(funding development projects to reduce poverty. Per capita income is very low, hence
poverty in developing nations). the rate of savings is very low. Foreign aid
Emergency aid or short-term aid: Emergency helps in overcoming problems with the balance
aid is assistance given, by individuals or of payment (which is a measure of all financial
governments, to people in distress immediately transactions flowing between one country and
after natural or human-created disasters. This all other countries during a specified period).
aid aims to reduce suffering. This humanitarian Development requirements are met: Poorer
aid includes provision of vital services such as nations’ attempts to develop agriculture,

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industry and the national resources of their

countries are often prevented by a lack of Evaluating the effectiveness of
foreign exchange – this means that the country foreign aid
cannot import the required technology. There are differing views about how effective aid
Foreign aid and loan facilities help governments really is. Some people believe that aid may bring
to import the required technology and basic serious disadvantages. Economic studies in recent
raw material with which different sectors of the years have provided evidence confirming that
economy can develop. Technology and modern development aid does not effect a country’s rate of
machines increase productivity. Thus, the development. Negative side effects of aid can
productivity of various sectors of the economy include an unequal appreciation of the recipient’s
increases. currency, increasing corruption and negative
Modern and social infrastructure is political effects such as the delay of necessary
established: Infrastructure facilities such as economic and democratic reforms.
transport, healthcare facilities, schools and
electricity supply infrastructure need local and It has been argued that much government-to-
foreign capital, which is very limited in many government aid is ineffective because it is merely a
countries. Foreign aid helps the governments of way of supporting strategically important leaders. A
recipient countries to establish these types of good example of this is the former dictator of
infrastructure. Zaire, Mobuto Sese Seko, who lost support from
The level of technology increases: With the the West after the Cold War ended. At the time of
help of foreign aid, modern machines are used, his death, he had sufficient personal fortune
which produce quality goods in greater (particularly in Swiss banks) to pay off the entire
numbers. Customers benefit from the higher external debt of Zaire.
quality goods.
Aid helps to meet needs created by Corruption within the government of a recipient
emergencies: Food aid programmes provide country prevents aid from benefiting development.
different types of food items, such as wheat and For example, the Chad Export Project (an oil
dry milk, to assist people after a natural disaster production project supported by the World Bank)
(for example a flood or earthquake) or a was set up in Chad. The earnings of that project
human-made disaster. were used to obtain weapons.
Tax revenue increases: When foreign aid is
used to start industries, economic activities In young recipient countries in which ethnic
increase, goods and services are produced and tensions are strong, aid is also ineffective because
foreign trade is increased. All these factors ethnic conflicts can prevent efficient delivery of aid.
increase the government’s income through
different tax sources. Development aid can also be ineffective in that the
Aid helps in the fight against diseases: NGOs help based on direct donation creates dependency
and other foreign aid agencies may help and corruption and has a negative effect on local
LEDCs with immunisation, or the provision of production. It has sometimes happened that
sanitation, to prevent the spread of diseases. Western governments subsidise Western companies
by ordering products, which are then shipped as aid
to poor countries that often have no use for them.
Activity 3
Western countries may encourage the dependency
Work on your own. syndrome by giving food hand-outs to poor
1. Define the following terms in your own nations. The food given out to the poor nations
words: ‘foreign aid’, ‘bilateral aid’, may be available as a consequence of the foreign
‘multilateral aid’ and ‘emergency aid’. policy of the donor country or faulty agricultural
2. Describe one example of an aid programme policies. As such, the recipient country may be
in Lesotho. regarded as a dumping site. Consequently, the local
a) What is it targeted at? production of the recipient country is
b) Who provides the aid? compromised. An example is the donation of
c) What are the outcomes? yellow maize to countries hard hit by drought.
d) Suggest the positive and negative effects
it has on Lesotho. The way in which development projects are
sometimes constructed and how they are

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maintained by the local population renders foreign

aid ineffective. Often, projects are made with
technology that is hard to understand and too
difficult to repair, resulting in unavoidable failure
over time. In other cases, the local people do not
always maintain a project, as they believe the
original development workers or others in the
surrounding area should repair it when it fails.

The fact that foreign aid is sometimes

uncoordinated and unsustainable renders it
ineffective. Development aid tends to be put
towards specific diseases with high death rates and
simple treatments, rather than funding health
basics and infrastructure. Development aid could The Lesotho Highlands Water Project was
be more sustainable if used to improve general implemented with the help of foreign aid from
public health, with infrastructure and trained organisations such as the World Bank. It is an
personnel. example of a large development project that has been
filled with controversy, for example through
Foreign aid is most effective (most beneficial to allegations of corruption.
those who need it) when it promotes small-scale
projects that involve local people in sustainable intention that the asset will generate income in the
projects. Large-scale projects often impose future when that asset can be sold at a higher price.
unacceptable costs on ordinary people in LEDCs.
Foreign investment explains the flows of
investment capital into and out of a country by
Activity 4 investors who want to maximise (get the most on)
the return on their investments. International
Work in a group. investors compare various investment alternatives
Consider the following actions or interventions and select the opportunity that is likely to maximise
and discuss in what ways they can be effective returns. Let us now consider two important forms
forms of aid. After your group discussion, share of foreign investments: foreign direct investment
your ideas with the class. and foreign portfolio investment.
1. Subsidies given directly to families to be Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is an
spent on children’s education and health international investment in which a person or
2. Education vouchers for school uniforms and entity buys a company or operation in a
textbooks different country and invests in that operation.
3. Educating illiterate adults to read and write FDI allows investors to be actively involved in
4. Providing deworming drugs and vitamin/ their investment. Investors not only take
nutritional supplements strategic decisions (such as what their foreign
5. Vaccination and HIV/AIDS prevention subsidiary will produce, in what quantities and
programmes for whom), but also are involved in operational
6. Indoor sprays against malaria and anti- issues (such as cost control, human resources
mosquito bed netting and regulatory compliance). An example of
7. Suitable fertilisers foreign direct investment would be a US
8. Clean water supplies company taking a majority stake in a company
in China. Another example would be a
Canadian company setting up a joint venture to
develop a mineral deposit in Chile.
Foreign investment Foreign Portfolio Investment (FPI) is passive
Investment is an action or process of saving money foreign investment. Passive investment involves
for profit or material result. An economist may limited ongoing buying and selling actions.
refer to investment as a purchase of goods that are Passive investors do not directly take part in the
not used today, but will be used in the future to investment in the foreign country. The
create wealth. From the finance point of view, an investors in this portfolio are interested in
investment is a monetary asset bought with the spreading the risk, without the need to learn

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about how to run different businesses. Instead, huge difference. It often happens that a
foreigners put their money into foreign developing country has the demand for a product
securities such as shares, which are indivisible or service as well as the labour and natural
units of capital expressing the central resources necessary to produce it, but not the
relationship between the company and the capital necessary for production. In developed
shareholder. countries, entrepreneurs can go to banks and apply
for loans. This is different in many developing
The advantages and disadvantages of countries, where there are not enough banks or the
FDI banks do not have enough capital. Foreign
FDI has many advantages for both the investor and investment then provides the capital necessary for
the recipient: enterprises to be created.
Funds can go to the business that has the best
growth potential, in any country.
Investors’ risk is less, because they can invest in Activity 5
diverse (a variety of) holdings, not limited to a
specific country, industry or political system. Work on your own.
Businesses get guidance from lenders on 1. Define the following terms: ‘investment’,
management, accounting or legal issues. They ‘foreign direct investment’, ‘foreign
can also benefit from new technology, practices portfolio investment’.
and financing tools. 2. Compare and contrast FDI and FPI.
Local government has less influence and is not 3. Explain the important role foreign
as able to pursue poor economic policies. investment can play in developing countries.
The higher tax revenue raises the standard of
living in the recipient country.

The following are some disadvantages of direct The role of special agencies
foreign investment: Various special agencies provide resources for
Foreign investors can use their knowledge to development to low-income and middle-income
strip the company of its value, without adding countries in the form of official development
any value in return. assistance (ODA).
Investors can sell off portions of the company
to other investors who may be less The International Monetary Fund (IMF)
knowledgeable. The IMF’s fundamental mission is to make the
international system stable. It carries out its
The effectiveness of foreign investment mission in three ways: surveillance (watching over
Foreign investment is important to most something carefully), technical assistance and
economies. For a developing country, it can make a lending.

Table 2.1 The differences between FDI and FPI

FDI FPI
Long-term process Short-term process
FDI involves investment in buildings, technologies, FPI involves indirect investment in the foreign company by
equipment and machinery belonging to the company of a simply buying the stocks of the company and not getting
host country. involved in any major activities of the company.
Investors are more informed about the changes in the The investors of FPI are not interested in the management
prospects of the projects as compared to portfolio investors. control of the company in which they invest, as it is a short-
term investment plan.
Investors are more informed about the changes in the A bigger risk is involved in FPI, as foreign shareholders
prospects of the projects. cannot sue the domestic stock exchange or the public entity
in which they invested their money.
The investment cannot be changed suddenly. It is easy to sell off the shares or change the investment at
short notice.
Less vulnerable to liquidity. More likely to be sold and money used to pay debts.
The probability of withdrawals is less. The probability of withdrawals is greater.
FDI tends to be commonly undertaken by multinational FPI comes from many sources, such as foreign stock, mutual
corporations. funds, exchange trade funds and pension funds.

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Surveillance: The IMF oversees the Activity 6

international monetary system. It checks on its
members’ financial and economic policies (188 Work on your own. Then share your answers
member governments). with a partner.
Technical assistance: The IMF helps low- 1. Name three special agencies that provide
income and middle-income countries to resources for development to low-income
manage their economies more effectively. and middle-income countries.
Lending: The IMF gives loans to countries 2. Describe the main mission of the IMF.
that cannot make international payments and 3. Describe how the IMF carries out its
that cannot find any other form of financing. mission.
This helps countries restore macro-economic 4. Explain the difference between the function
stability – it enables them to rebuild their of the World Bank and RDBs.
international reserves, stabilise their currencies
and pay for imports.
other countries. These lenders can be
The World Bank organisations, other governments or groups
The World Bank is an international financial such as sovereign wealth funds.
institution that provides loans to developing Government debt/national debt: This is
countries for capital programmes. The World internal debt – the government borrows money
Bank’s official goal is the reduction of poverty, so from citizens and groups within the country so
that citizens of LEDCs may live better and that it can continue operating. For example,
meaningful lives. pension payments the government has entered
into but has not yet paid may also be included
The difference between the World Bank and the in the national debt.
IMF is that the World Bank focuses on
development in the longer term, while IMF A national debt is considered productive when it
concentrates on short-term balance of payment is used to increase a country’s productivity, for
problems in member countries. example if the debt is used to finance
infrastructure projects such as roads, electricity
Regional Development Banks plants and irrigation systems. These projects
Regional Development Banks (RDBs) are provide a source of income which the
international institutions which help countries to government can use to pay off the debt. A
promote economic growth and reduce poverty. national debt is said to be unproductive when it
These banks give countries loans at low interest is used to fund relief efforts during natural
rates. They also provide grants and give expert disasters, to finance war or to pay for the delivery
advice on development projects in areas such as of social services.
healthcare, education, infrastructure, agriculture
and energy. They focus on helping countries Causes of national debt
achieve the Millennium Development Goals. The When the revenue a government collects is not
RDBs are mostly owned and staffed by countries in enough to cover expenses, a government usually
the region. This means that the countries in the has to borrow money.
region can decide how the funds must be spent in
order to benefit the region the most. Examples of In the 1960s, the US government spent more than
RDBs include the Asian Development Bank and it earned and decided to print more dollars. As a
the African Development Bank. result, the dollar depreciated. Thereafter, the
oil-producing countries raised their prices, since
their exports now bought less. They deposited
National debt their huge profits in Western banks. Interest rates
National debt is sometimes called government debt began to fall and commercial banks began lending
or public debt. National debt is all the money to the developing world without much thought
owed at any given time by any branch of the about how the money would be used or whether
government. the recipient had the ability to repay it. Later debt
came from bilateral loans (loans between two
Many different types of debt make up national debt: parties). The Western governments were the
External debt: This is money that the lenders and the developing world countries were
government of a country owes to lenders in the borrowers.

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Developing countries’ governments were pleased Higher interest rates: The government may
to take advantage of loans at very low interest rates sell bonds to finance the deficit. This means
because they needed money to maintain that it competes for scarce resources with the
development and meet the rising costs of oil. Little private sector. The crowding-out effect might
of the money borrowed benefited ordinary people. occur: the interest rate goes up due to the
Much of it went to large-scale development increased demand for money. This forces
projects that provided little value and supported borrowers to either pay higher rates, or to stay
oppressive regimes. Corruption, waste and out of the market.
inefficiency ate up large portions of the loans.
Ways to control national debt
Relying on advice from the West, third world Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) are
countries began to grow cash crops. This produced programmes that governments can follow to help
more than what the market needed and prices them reschedule their debt or borrow more money.
dropped. While interest rates and oil prices began SAPs help a country to earn more hard currency,
to rise, exports were earning less and less. The increase exports and decrease imports, as well as
developing countries had to borrow more money promote economic stability. Governments
just to pay off interest. implementing SAPs usually have to spend less on
healthcare, education and social services, devalue
Around 1982, more countries were unable to repay the national currency and cut back on food
their debts. The IMF and the World Bank gave out subsidies, cut jobs and wages for government
new loans under strict conditions, to help pay the works and encourage privatisation of public
interest. But the debt continued to rise and new industries.
loans were added to the burden. Some
governments in the West did not want to lose their
loans, so they clubbed together and got the
support of the IMF for a scheme to reschedule the
debts. Since then, the IMF and the World Bank
have been lending money and rescheduling debt
for countries that cannot pay the interest on their
loans. But their loans add to the debt burden.

The impact of national debt

High national debt leads to slow economic growth
and high unemployment. When faced with a high
national debt, there are two options that a country
can consider: limit its spending or raise its taxes. The privatisation of public industries, such as
Governments usually do both. Limiting public telecommunications, often forms part of
spending has an effect on the delivery of public implementing an SAP.
services. More taxes could also be harmful to the
economy. Benefits of debt relief
National debt relief is the partial or total
The following are some effects that national debt forgiveness of debt or the slowing or stopping of
can have on a country: debt growth, owed by individuals, corporations or
The transfer of purchasing power: National nationals. It takes place when a creditor decides to
debt leads to purchasing power being transferred cancel some or the entire original amount owed as
from the private sector to the public sector. A debt or a loan. Debt relief is therefore the best way
large national debt will lead to large interest to ultimately achieve financial freedom.
payments and therefore more taxes are needed.
Individual incentives: Individuals and The following are some benefits that countries can
businesses might feel less motivated to work gain from national debt relief:
harder and earn extra income if higher taxes A country paying back debt at high interest
will be placed on them. Many people feel the rates benefits from getting its interest reduced
government spends taxpayers’ money in a to more reasonable levels, or completely
careless manner. If people feel that their taxes cancelled.
are being wasted, they are less likely to save and Many countries service multiple debts. A
invest. benefit of debt relief is to consolidate all the

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country’s accounts either through a new loan inflow of external resources in order to fill the
or debt management. saving and foreign exchange gaps and so that these
Debt relief allows a country on the verge of regions can advance themselves to sustainable
collapse to ‘start again’. growth levels in order to remove their current
Debt relief allows a country to continue poverty.
running day-to-day services for its population.
Debt relief puts a country in a better position The other role assumed to be played by FDI is that
to make timely payments to its creditors and it provides new job opportunities, mostly relating
pay off balances to get back into a good credit to the enhancement of technology transfer, which
rating. boosts economic growth. FDI also leads to an
In times of extreme disaster, debt relief allows increase of exports as a result of increased capacity
the country to focus its funds on restoration and competitiveness in domestic production. It can
rather than paying off debt while the lead to new products being introduced.
population is in desperate need of assistance to
survive. Despite the evidence of a positive role played by
National debt relief can also help the country FDI, there are several reasons why developing
to create a budget plan that will assist in countries may not always benefit from FDI:
addressing bad spending behaviour. FDI may hinder the growth or success of
domestic companies through unfair
National debt relief usually goes with financial and competition.
technical guidance from experts. The minimal linkage to the rest of the economy
could limit its contribution to the national
economy.
Activity 7 The resulting flow of the foreign companies’
subsidiary earnings to their parent companies in
Work on your own. the original country could cause the balance of
Answer these questions. payments to be worse off than before.
1. Explain what is meant by national debt.
2. Describe any two classifications of national FDI does not guarantee growth or development –
debt. it depends on the context in which it is used. For
3. Explain what is meant by national debt relief. example, there is an argument that FDI has a
4. Describe one way in which national debt greater positive effect in countries that are already
may be controlled. more developed. The investment provides a boost
to productivity and the country is better able to
benefit from this. It is also thought that countries
with a higher degree of human capital would
The role of foreign direct benefit more from FDI.
investment (FDI) in the The positive effects of FDI also depend on how
development process open the markets are. FDI can allow for greater
FDI plays an important role in development, in access to export markets, as transnational
that it is a package of tangible and intangible assets companies often serve as channels for the
and because companies arranging FDI are distribution of goods from one country to other
important players in the global economy. There is markets located in another country.
evidence that FDI, as a beneficial combination with
domestic investment and by facilitating trade and The level of development of local financial markets
transfer of knowledge, plays an important role in is very important for the positive effects of FDI to
affecting growth and development. be achieved.

The positive role of FDI in accelerating the pace of Barriers to FDI

development in developing countries is evidenced There are barriers to FDI, including negative
by newly industrialised countries such as Singapore, country image, political instability, repeated
Korea, Taiwan and Hong Kong. strikes, bureaucratic challenges and long
administrative procedures, inadequate
For the growth and development of developing infrastructure (particularly energy and
regions of the world, there is need for a great telecommunication facilities), a rigid and

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conservative banking system, the absence of consider the advantages and disadvantages that this
service-orientated banks and a lack of accurate direct investment will have for the host country.
information for making correct business decisions.
The possible benefits of an MNC investing in a
country may include the following:
The role of multinational Improving the balance of payments: Inward
investment will usually help a country’s balance
(transnational) companies in the of payments situation. The investment itself will
development process be a direct flow into the country and the
Multinational companies (MNCs), also called investment is also likely to result in import
transnational corporations (TNCs) are powerful substitution and export promotion. Export
companies or corporations that have facilities and promotion is due to the MNCs using their
other assets in at least one country other than their production facilities as a basis for exporting,
home country. They usually have a centralised head while import substitution means that products
office from where they coordinate global previously imported may now be bought
management. Many are involved in a range of domestically.
different economic activities. Unilever is a good Source of tax revenue: Profits of MNCs will
example of this type of company. Its head offices be subject to local taxes in most cases, which
are in Rotterdam in the Netherlands and in will provide a valuable source of revenue for the
London in the UK. These are the places where the host country.
most important decisions about the company are Providing employment: MNC investment will
made. Multinational corporations may control the usually result in employment benefits for the
whole production process, from raw material to the domestic country, as most employees will be
finished product. For example, where a product locally recruited. These benefits may be
such as a car is assembled in a factory, most of the relatively greater given that these governments
raw materials will have been gathered together will usually try to attract companies to areas
from all over the world. where there is relatively high unemployment or
a good labour supply.
Technology transfer: MNCs will bring with
Activity 8 them technology and production methods that
are probably new to the host country and a lot
Work with a partner. can therefore be learnt from these techniques.
Answer these questions. Workers will be trained to use the new
1. What are multinational companies? technology and production techniques and
2. Identify some multinational corporations/ domestic companies will realise the benefits of
companies operating in Lesotho. the new technology. This process is known as
3. Explain why Lesotho, just like many technology transfer.
developing countries, would be keen to Increasing choice: If the MNC manufactures
attract MNCs. for domestic markets as well as for export, then
the local population will benefit from a wider
choice of goods and services – possibly at a
The impact of MNCs on the host country lower price than that of imported substitutes.
MNCs can provide financial infrastructure that a National reputation: The presence of one
developing country needs for economic and social MNC may improve the reputation of the host
development. However, sometimes these country and other large corporations may
institutions also use the developing nations for follow and invest there as well.
their own gain. An MNC needs a strict code of
ethical conduct to prevent this. Codes of conduct The possible disadvantages of MNCs investing in a
usually set out restrictions on staff behaviour. country may include the following:
Environmental impact: MNCs will want to
When an MNC invests in a host country, the scale produce in ways that are as efficient and as
of the investment (given the size of the companies) cheap as possible and this may not always
is likely to be important. The government of the involve the best environmental practices. They
host country will offer incentives to companies in will often lobby governments to try to ensure
the form of grants, subsidies and tax breaks to that they can benefit from regulations being as
attract investment into their countries. Let us now lax as possible. Given their economic

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importance to the host country, this lobbying presence of MNCs increases competition, in
will often be effective. that the MNCs are able to produce at a lower
Access to natural resources: MNCs will cost.
sometimes invest in countries just to get access
to a plentiful supply of raw materials. Host Despite the disadvantages we have just discussed, it
nations are often concerned about the short- is interesting to note that some LEDCs have
term costs to their country in terms of the attracted more investment than others. Those in
depletion of natural resources. the Far East, for example Taiwan, South Korea,
Uncertainty: MNCs are increasingly Thailand and Malaysia, are now described as newly
‘footloose’. This means that they can close industrialised countries (NICs) after much
factories and move to somewhere more investment by MNCs. Companies making shoes,
profitable at very short notice and they often clothes and electrical and electronic goods are
do this. This creates challenges and uncertainty attracted mainly by these countries’ reliable and
for the host country. well-trained workforce, who are willing to work for
Exports of profits: Large MNCs are likely to low wages. Countries with large populations, such
repatriate the profits (send them back to their as Brazil and Mexico in Latin America, also attract
‘home country’), leaving little financial benefits investment because of the great size of their
for the host country. domestic markets.
Low-skilled employment: The jobs created in
the local environment may be low-skilled, with
the MNC employing expatriate workers for the Activity 9
more senior and skilled roles.
Cultural and social impact: Foreign businesses Work on your own.
can weaken local customs and traditional Answer these questions.
cultures. For example, ‘Mcdonaldization’ (first 1. Name any two important things that can be
used by the sociologist George Ritzer) describes provided by MNCs that would enable
the process by which more and more sectors of economic and social development.
American society, as well as the rest of the world, 2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages
start to show the features of a fast-food culture. that investment by MNCs holds for host
Health and safety: MNCs are often accused of countries and development.
not meeting the health or safety standards in 3. Describe some incentives a country may
countries where regulations and laws are not offer MNCs in order to attract investment.
very strict. 4. Do you think MNCs are important to
Transfer pricing: MNCs aim to keep their tax Lesotho’s development? Give reasons for
liability to a minimum. One way in which they your response.
do this is through transfer pricing. They reduce
their tax liability in countries with high tax rates
and increase them in the countries with low tax
rates. They do this by transferring components
and part-finished goods between their Summary
operations in different countries at differing In this unit you have learnt about the
prices. Where the tax liability is high, they following:
transfer the goods at a relatively high price to There are different types of foreign
make the costs appear higher. This then is assistance or aid to countries, for
regained in the lower tax country by example humanitarian, emergency
transferring the goods at a relatively lower aid, investment, bilateral and
price. This will reduce their overall tax bill. multilateral aid.
Influence and political pressure: MNCs can Foreign aid and investment can
exercise inappropriate political pressure on play an important role in the
governments and other organisations in the development of LEDCs.
host country. Given the importance of the Foreign aid can have both positive
MNC, host governments are likely to agree to and negative impacts on recipient
changes that may not be beneficial to the countries.
long-term welfare of their people.
Increased competition: MNCs are likely to
have a severe impact on local industries. The

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Agencies such the IMF, the World Bank and RDBs also play an important role in the
development of LEDCs.
National debt is all the money owed by the government.
National debt can be reduced with targeted programmes to benefit countries’ development.
MNCs can invest in host countries. Their impact on the development of host countries can
be both positive and negative.

Unit 2.4 Globalisation and its impact on development

Unit objectives
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
understand the term globalisation and be aware of its advantages and disadvantages
appreciate the role of telecommunications and transportation services in globalisation
describe the development, advantages and disadvantages of outsourcing (such as clothing
and electronic manufacturing, call centres and computer programming)
discuss the international travel and tourist industry and assess its impacts on development in
Lesotho
discuss the potential for Lesotho’s travel and tourist industry.

Defining globalisation
Globalisation refers to the many links and De-territorialisation is process whereby
interconnections among international communities borders no longer exist, linking faraway places
and countries, which make up the modern world in such a way that what is happening locally is
system. It involves a process by which events, influenced by events happening many miles
decisions and activities in one part of the world can away.
have important effects on individuals and
communities in another part of the world. Features of globalisation
Globalisation has led to countries of the world Globalisation has resulted in the removal of barriers
becoming interdependent – and developing to trade and political borders, as well as
countries are part of this. Globalisation has an technological advances. Globalisation has several
impact on development. categories of characteristics.

Globalisation can be seen in terms of five aspects: Economic features

Internationalisation is when countries develop World economies are being integrated and
relationships with each other. It includes becoming interdependent.
international exchange and citizens of different Trade and investment are being liberalised.
countries being interdependent on one another. During the 1990s, many LEDCs shifted toward
Liberalisation is when trade barriers, capital a market economy and opened up their
control and restrictions on goods and services economies to transnational corporations.
are removed. This is done among a number of State-owned infrastructure was privatised. In
countries and the aim is to create an economy southern Africa, the SADC promotes trade by
without borders. organising the removal of import tariffs and
Universalisation is a worldwide process of encouraging free trade.
spreading objects and experiences to people in Globalisation brings increased penetration of
all corners of the world. It assumes the transnational corporations.
emergence of a global culture through a range Globalisation leads to the forming of regional
of developments such as satellite and high and international trading blocs such as the
technology global systems. SADC, Economic Community of West African
Modernisation is a dynamic process that states (ECOWAS), SACU and the AU. The
spreads the social structures of modernity and focus is on forming large economic and trading
destroys local self-identity. units which would be able to overcome some

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of the barriers that are faced by individual Programmes (SAPs). Most national governments
countries. For example, Lesotho and five other did not have a choice but to adopt these
SADC members are landlocked countries, programmes.
therefore the SADC and SACU play a major
role in promoting trade with other countries. Cultural characteristics
South Africa is a country with many ports, Globalisation increases the homogeneity (all things
where goods from other countries are delivered becoming the same) of lifestyles and aspirations
and cleared. When the goods enter Lesotho’s through television, films, tourism and media,
border gates, no more clearance fees are paid, bringing people into a single global world society.
which makes the goods more affordable. The world has become a global village.

Technological characteristics Environmental characteristics

Globalisation brings rapid innovations and Globalisation increases interlinkages between
interconnectivity in communication services ecosystems.
and biotechnologies. Globalisation accelerates innovation with
Technology plays a major role in the spread of regards to biotechnologies. Research and
information and production. Some examples advancements in biotechnology predominantly
are cell phones, the internet and social media. takes place in MEDCs, but it is in the LEDCs
that the benefits are really needed.
Globalisation has enhanced communication
Biotechnology is the marrying of biology and and connectivity between MEDCs and LEDCs,
technology. Living organisms, or part thereof, so the applications of biotechnology are more
are manipulated or engineered to make or likely to end up where they are most needed.
change a product or process, to fulfil a specific
purpose. One common application of
biotechnology is in agriculture – where crops Activity 1
can be genetically modified to resist certain
pathogens or pests. Biotechnology today is Work with a partner.
making advancements in combatting certain 1. Discuss how the features of globalisation can
diseases, producing more food from crops, and influence development in LEDCs.
using less and cleaner energy. 2. Present your work to the rest of the class.

Advantages and disadvantages

of globalisation
Advantages of globalisation
Some nations and economies have benefited from
developments and innovations introduced by
globalisation. Globalisation is opening up new
political and economic possibilities for people in
LEDCs. Advantages brought by globalisation
include:
increased connectedness and the spread of
production and communication technologies
Technology such as cell phones (and smart phones) across the world
and the internet play a major role in information the sharing of ideas and practices around the
dissemination. world
new developments and technological
Political characteristics improvements
Globalisation shifts power from national growth and expansion of production
governments to global institutions, such as the increased economic and cultural activity
World Bank, the European Union (EU) and the an increase in revenue, profits and returns on
IMF. The IMF introduced economic reforms in investment
LEDCs through Structural Adjustment gains in productivity and efficiency

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increased job creation and opportunities The role of telecommunications

the rise of globalised brands and products that
can be sold everywhere and transportation services in
increased understanding of other parts of the globalisation
world. Globalisation has opened up new opportunities for
telecommunications and transportation services. It
Disadvantages of globalisation has helped growth and improvements in
Unfortunately, not all nations have benefited from communication and transportation services.
globalisation. It is perceived to be discriminatory in
some cases and it can go against human rights.
Some people argue that globalisation brings the Activity 3
following disadvantages:
Declining power of national governments: Work on your own.
This also includes the increase in the power of 1. Find out which computer and
multinational corporations. National economies telecommunication technologies improve
become dependent on the activities of communication between people around the
multinational corporations, because they have world.
capital and technical expertise. 2. What are the advantages and disadvantages
Increased polarisation of the world into rich of these technologies?
and poor nations: Poor nations become
dependent on the activities of stronger
economies. The gap dividing the rich and the Telecommunication services
poor is rapidly increasing. Rich and powerful The rapid spread of information technology has
economies have capital and technology, while improved the efficiency of communications
poor economies do not have access to capital worldwide as well as the quality of services
and information technology. provided to consumers and businesses. It has also
Increased poverty and inequalities among generated increased demand for new computerised
individuals and nations: This is brought services such as online bookings and reservations,
about by the activities of multinational teleconferencing, video brochures, smart cards,
corporations which operate in regions where electronic application forms and electronic funds
they can exploit cheap labour and resources at transfers. The increased use of the internet has
the expense of poorer nations. Most made many products and services accessible
multinationals control local industries. This globally, at much lower costs. The internet has
generates social and economic inequalities due become the most efficient information provider
to large-scale unemployment, low wages and worldwide. The impact of computer technology
generally poor working conditions. has dramatically affected all operations in different
Environmental degradation: Global industry sectors worldwide. Some countries, such as China,
has exploited natural environments. Natural India and Malaysia, are rapidly developing their
resources such water, air and land now have telecommunication services. Computer and IT
commercial value. services have become an important export of Asian
Production risks: New developments in countries.
technology have generated high production
risks across the globe. New diseases, viruses and Transportation services
substances that are dangerous to life are Globalisation has made worldwide transportation
produced every day. They quickly spread and services more flexible and cost effective. It has
threaten lives across the world. allowed market access for private carriers, the
formation of international alliances, the
privatisation of government-owned airlines and
Activity 2 outsourcing. Major airline alliances have
cooperated in marketing and promotion,
Prepare a class debate on the following topic: standardisation of equipment and development of
‘Globalisation improves development progress common brands. Road and railway systems have
in developing countries.’ been improved. A dense network of major roads
and railway systems in many parts of the world
makes it easier to reach cities, towns and other
countries. They provide a means for long distance

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travel and they take millions of tonnes of goods to

Administration
other countries. Ports handle massive amounts of
ocean-going trade amongst different countries, Design Sales
which may include transportation of goods,
chemicals, fuel and some agricultural products. Multinational
Research Marketing
department

Human
resources Manufacturing

elsewhere, where the production costs were lower.

However, there are some activities that cannot be
outsourced.

The textile and clothing industry

Globalisation has made worldwide transportation The textile and clothing industries were the first
services, for example air travel, more flexible and cost manufacturing industries to outsource globally.
effective. Some fashion companies, for example, would try to
bypass high domestic production costs by using
offshore contractors, who paid workers much
Activity 4 lower wages.

Work with a partner. Electronics and computer programming

1. Which modes of transport do you think Electronics manufacturing has emerged as a
Lesotho needs to develop to meet the needs dominant outsourcing industry in the world.
of people in Lesotho, as well as import and Several consumer companies from Asia have
export needs? Give reasons for your become global players in subcontracting.
response.
2. Do you think Lesotho already has an The advantages and disadvantages of
efficient transportation network? Give outsourcing
reasons for your answer. There are several economic reasons why
outsourcing may be an advantageous way to
produce goods and services:
Quality products and services: These can be
Outsourcing and globalisation delivered if the company or service outsourced
Outsourcing is the process of subcontracting a to is a specialist in what they do.
business process to a third party. Many of the Cost effective: Outsourcing can be cost-
activities that were previously local are now being effective – through transferring portions of a
performed across distances beyond national business organisation to low-risk countries or
borders. Business organisations have adapted new nations, for example where labour costs are low.
technologies that allow them to operate in Expertise: Business organisations outsource
different parts of the world with less direct seller– parts of the business to vendors who have
customer interaction, thus reducing the cost of expertise in special fields, so that the
operations. Outsourcing can help companies to: outsourced task is performed efficiently without
reduce costs of production compromising the quality of the product.
become more competitive Time: Outsourcing gives the original business
find new consumers organisation more time to strengthen the core
increase their production network. business.

In the past, multinational corporations would There are several potential disadvantages to
conduct all the operations shown in the above outsourcing:
diagram on the same site. It was very expensive for Risk: The business organisation may be at risk
these corporations to run all their operations from of exposing confidential business information
one site. Labour in developing countries is much through the outsourcing process.
cheaper and many corporations therefore Hidden costs: Other costs may appear after
transferred some of their business operations signing contracts with vendors.

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Some may also argue that outsourcing production The impacts of tourism on development
to developing countries could negatively affect Investment: Organisations and governments
employment and stability in the home country are investing in tourism services such as resorts,
where the company is based. various types of accommodation, parks,
shopping malls, recreational facilities and other
infrastructural services that develop tourism.
Activity 5 Trade: The act of travelling stimulates trade. At
the destination, tourists pay for food,
Work on your own. accommodation and transport. They may also
1. How can outsourcing be beneficial for purchase crafts and goods from the place they
companies? visit, which stimulates trade on a smaller scale.
2. Name two industries where outsourcing is Foreign exchange earnings: The destination
frequently done. country receives foreign currency.
Government revenue: Charging taxes on
income generated by companies promoting
tourism generates revenue that can be
International travel and the channelled into development initiatives.
tourism industry Employment and income: Tourism has
International travel refers to people (tourists or created a wide range of employment
businesspeople) travelling abroad for pleasure or opportunities in related fields, such as
business. Tourism refers to the business activities transportation services and accommodation.
connected with providing accommodation services Cultural: Tourism promotes the conservation
and entertainment for people who travel. The of national heritage. It leads to cultural
tourist industry provides tours and services (for appreciation and may assist in reviving the
example, transportation) to tourists. cultural life of people in the area visited.
Environment: The development of parks may
There are three main categories of tourism: have both positive and negative impacts on the
1. Domestic tourism: The journey is taken environment. Ecotourism encourages the
within the country in order to explore places of conservation and protection of natural
interest. resources and areas. On the other hand,
2. Regional tourism: The visitor travels to overdevelopment of tourist facilities in certain
another country in the same region. areas could threaten ecosystems and resources
3. International tourism: The tourist travels to in those areas.
another country that is not in the same region
as their home country.
Activity 6
Modern tourism is experiencing increasing
internationalisation and globalisation. Advances in Work with a partner.
technology, communication and transportation are Research a case study of a successful tourism
increasing people’s mobility, leading to more operation in Lesotho. Use the phrases in bold in
exposure to different societies and cultures. Many the list above to help you identify what impact
tourism organisations are global organisations the operation has on the country and the
operating across national borders. Therefore communities involved. Compare your ideas with
tourism is now the largest multinational economic other pairs in the class.
activity. It involves the greatest flow of goods,
services and people across the continents. Actually,
tourism is the most visible expression of
globalisation. Globalisation has also opened new Lesotho’s travel and tourism
opportunities for development of tourism in industry
different countries. A large portion of Africa’s Tourism has become the leading economic activity
GDP comes from tourism, which means that many contributing to the reduction of poverty. In order
tourists visit African countries and spend money to respond to the impacts of tourism, the Lesotho
there. Low-cost airlines enable more people to government has developed the Lesotho National
travel long distances. Tourism Policy.

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The Lesotho National Tourism Policy provides

guidelines and a framework for the development of Summary
tourism in Lesotho and sets out a strategy of In this unit you have learnt about the
government’s policy of poverty alleviation, following:
employment creation and economic growth. The Globalisation refers to the many
policy encourages the formation of smart links and interconnections among
partnerships between the public and private sectors international communities and
in the implementation of tourism development. countries, which make up the
The policy also puts forward practical and fair modern world system.
programmes that prioritise the needs of tourism. Globalisation has resulted in the
removal of barriers to trade and
Tourism attractions in Lesotho political borders, as well as
Lesotho has a range of natural and cultural technological advances.
resources that are tourist attractions, including Globalisation has impacts in terms
mountains, rivers, waterfalls and dams, rock of economy, technology, politics,
formations, caves and mountain passes, cave culture and environment.
drawings and paintings, dinosaur footprints, nature There are advantages and
reserves and historical places and museums. disadvantages associated with
globalisation.
Globalisation has opened new
Activity 7 opportunities for
telecommunications and
Work with a partner. transportation services.
Identify one specific tourism activity or location Outsourcing, which is the
in Lesotho. subcontracting of a business
1. Brainstorm a list of criteria that you think process to a third party, plays an
could be used to evaluate the effectiveness important role in globalisation,
of the tourism activity or location as adding especially in industries such as
value to Lesotho’s development. textiles and electronic goods.
2. Use your ideas to draw up a strategy that Modern tourism is experiencing
you could use to evaluate and, if necessary, increasing internationalisation and
improve the effectiveness of the activity or globalisation and has the potential
location. to contribute to development.
Lesotho’s tourism industry plays a
role in the economic development
of the country. The Lesotho
National Tourism Policy provides
guidelines and a framework for the
development of tourism in
Lesotho.

Lesotho contains rock paintings that are of cultural

Lesotho’s natural beauty attracts many tourists. and historical interest.

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Population and development

Chapter 3
Unit 3.1 Population change

Unit objectives
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
define the population terms (e.g. density, over- and under-population, population growth,
crude birth and death rates, natural increase, natural decrease, infant mortality, immigration,
emigration)
understand the pressure of population on resources: food, land, water, minerals, energy, etc.
understand the reasons for changes in population: positive reasons (e.g. improved sanitation,
access to clean water, education, government policies, etc.); negative reasons (e.g. HIV/
AIDS, other pandemics, drought, war, etc.)
understand the impact of changes in the crude birth and death rates on population structure
and growth rate
understand the impact of changes in population structure and size on development
use Lesotho’s population pyramid over time in comparison with those of other countries.

Introduction
The study of population is important so that we can identify trends in society and be able to decide
what will be important in the future. There are different effects on a society, depending on whether its
population is increasing or decreasing in number. In this chapter, you will study key issues related to
population, including population change, urbanisation, migration and the effects of rapid population
growth.

There are several key terms related to population study that you need to know in this chapter to be
able to understand population dynamics and their relationship to development:
Birth rate: The number of live births per 1 000 people per year
Death rate: The number of deaths per 1 000 people per year
Immigration: The movement of international migrants into a country
Emigration: The movement of international migrants out of their home country
Infant mortality: The average number of deaths of children under one year of age per 1 000 live
births
Life expectancy: The number of average years a person born in a particular country might be
expected to live
Natural population change: An increase or decrease in the number of people living in an area

Defining population
Population may be defined as all inhabitants or When we study ‘population’, we usually refer to
organisms of the same species or group who live in the people who inhabit the same community,
the same geographical area, town or country. country or region.

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Population density the number of people living in an area by the size

Population density refers to the number of people of the area in which they live. A sparsely (less)
per square kilometre. It is calculated by dividing populated area has relatively few people per square
kilometre. A densely populated area has many
people living per square kilometre.

Factors that affect population density

There are favourable factors that influence people
living in certain areas in great numbers. The factors
may be physical (climate, vegetation, water, natural
resources, relief and soils) or human (social,
economic and political).

A densely populated area has many people living per A less populated area has few people living per square
square kilometre. kilometre.
Table 3.1 Reasons for variation in population density across the earth
Human factors
Densely populated Sparsely populated
Economic Port Limited port facilities
Good roads, railways, airports Poor transport links
Industrial areas Lack of industrial development
Development of tourism Lack of tourism development
Political Government investment Lack of government investment
New towns Depopulation of industrial and old industrial areas
Reclamation of land Loss of land
Social Better housing opportunities Poor housing opportunities
Education and health facilities, entertainment Limited health and education facilities and
entertainment
Retirement areas and facilities Poor facilities for retirement
Physical factors
Densely populated Sparsely populated
Relief Flat plains and low-lying areas High, rugged mountains
Broad river valleys
Foothills of active volcanoes
Climate Evenly-distributed rainfall with no temperature Limited annual rainfall
extremes High annual humidity
Areas with high sunshine and heavy snowfall, for tourism Unreliable seasonal rainfall
Seasonal monsoon rainfall
Vegetation Grasslands that are easy to clear and use for agriculture Forests
Soil Deep fertile silt left by rivers Poor soils in mountainous or glaciated areas (covered
Volcanic soils in ice)
Natural Minerals e.g. coal, iron ore Lack of minerals
resources Energy supplies Lack of energy supplies
Unreliable supplies

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Activity 1 Table 3.2 Factors which affect the birth rate

High birth rates in Low birth rates in
Work on your own. Factor
LEDCs MEDCs
1. Define the following terms in your own words: Economic Children can work on It is very expensive to
a) Population density farms or earn money bring up children, so
b) Densely populated begging or selling people tend to have
c) Sparsely populated goods in the city. fewer children.
Children often There are pensions
support elderly for the old and
Now work with a partner. parents. therefore burden is
2. To work out the average population density often not on children
per 1 000 km2, you need to divide the to look after aged
population by the land area. The land area parents.
of Lesotho is 30 355 km2 and its population Social There is little use of Many methods of
birth control. birth control are
is approximately 2 067 762. What is the
6 to 10 children in used.
population density of Lesotho? a family is a normal The normal amount
3. Discuss the human and physical factors that amount of children of children per family
affect population density in Lesotho. for a family to have. is 2 to 3.
4. Do you think there are areas of Lesotho that Political Governments will not The government
have an ideal population density? Give always provide family finances family
reasons for your answer. planning education. planning.

In general it is true that birth rates in the world are

declining, as more and more people are practising
Reasons for changes in birth control. Wealth and education lead to people
population having fewer children. However, the world
Population change may mean an increase or population continues to grow.
decrease in the number of people living in an area.
The population may change as a result of natural Death rates and population change
causes and migration. Natural increase occurs Low death rates contribute to population growth.
when the birth rate is greater than the death rate, Death rates tend to be falling throughout the
while natural decrease occurs when the death rate world. The reason for this is improved primary
is greater than the birth rate. Crude birth rate healthcare, which reduces the chances of a person
means the number of live births for every 1 000 becoming ill in the first place.
people in a country per year, while the death rate
is the number of deaths for every 1 000 people in a Migration
country per year. Population change may be as a result of migration.
People who move from one country to another are
Population growth is an increase in the number of known as migrants. Immigrants coming into a
people that live in a country, state or city. To country increase the population of the country
decide whether there has been population growth they go to. Emigrants going out of a country
in an area over a specific period of time, we use the reduce the population of the country they leave.
following formula:
birth + immigration – death – emigration = Over the past 20 years in Lesotho, emigration
population growth/decrease trends have changed a lot, from mostly male
workers leaving to work in the gold mines in South
The world’s population grew from 1 billion to Africa. Broken down by sex, today 16 per cent of
7.37 billion between 1800 and 2015. Population emigrants are women and 84 per cent are men.
growth is currently estimated at an average of 80
million people per year.
Activity 2
Birth rates and population change
High birth rates contribute to population growth. Work with a partner.
The average birth rate is much higher in Africa, Study the information in the table and answer
where there are many developing countries, the questions.
compared with Europe, where most of the
countries are developed.

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Country Country Country

A B C
Birth rate 7.98 26.5 26
Death rate 10.28 15.8 13.95
Natural increase/
decrease

1. Use the information in the table to calculate

the natural increase or decrease in the three
countries’ population. (To calculate the
natural increase/decrease, minus the death
rate from the birth rate and vice versa.)
2. Research demographic, economic and social
issues that have resulted from Lesotho’s Adult literacy classes give adults a better education.
emigration patterns.
marriage later and have smaller families. This
reduces population growth in advanced
Other reasons for population change economies. The reverse is true of women in
Different countries experience different rates of developing countries. Traditionally, women
population change. Some of the factors may be marry young and have large families. They have
positive and others negative. Let us examine the little decision-making power. This increases
positive and negative reasons for population change. population growth.
Improved technology and food supplies: Political reasons: Governments may adopt
The invention of farm machinery such as policies either to encourage or to discourage
tractors, sprayers and combined harvesters has births. For example, governments can
greatly improved food supplies. When food encourage population growth by offering
supplies increase, health improves. A balanced financial benefits for children.
diet (including protein, carbohydrates, fat, War and violent conflicts: Wars generally
vitamins and a sufficient food intake) lowers reduce the population. They cause the deaths
death rates. This allows more people to live of civilians as well as soldiers. Wars also disrupt
longer. people’s normal lives and break up the family
Health: Over the past century, public health structure, which can result in lower birth rates.
has improved in many parts of the world. This These low birth rates and increased death rates
has resulted in improved food supplies, better may result in sudden changes in the structure
medicines and clean water supplies. What this of the population – i.e., the numbers of people
means is that death from easily curable diseases in certain age groups for those war years.
such as measles, whooping cough and HIV/AIDS: The HIV/AIDS epidemic has
gastroenteritis (diarrhoea or vomiting) have serious effects on population change. In
declined. Modern medicines have led to a countries hardest hit by this epidemic, a
decrease in infant mortality and maternal decrease in population growth, reduced life
mortality rates, as well as an increased life expectancy and a drop in the fertility rate are
expectancy. These factors lead to an overall experienced.
change in population. Drought: The failure of crops as a result of
Education: As more and more people are drought has led to millions of people dying.
practising birth control, birth rates in the world For example, the Sahel region in Africa suffered
are declining. As educational standards severe famines in 2012. This in turn resulted in
improve, family size tends to fall. Quite a an increased death rate.
number of studies have shown this. This is
because educated women are more likely to
choose to have fewer children, practise birth Activity 3
control and family planning methods. Educated
women also tend to have careers and work Work on your own.
outside the home. Refer to the picture in the list above and answer
The role of women in society: In developed the following questions.
countries, women are more likely to choose

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The impact of the age structure

1. Suggest two ways in which classes such as The age structure of a country gives us insights
the one shown in the picture add to into the economic, political and socio-political
population change. security challenges that country faces at that point
2. What other social and development effects in time or in future. Each of the four age structural
might happen as a result of increased female stages that a population of a country passes
education? through stretches the resources of that society. The
stages of the age structure are:
very young
youthful
The pressure of population on transitional
resources mature.
The growing world population puts huge pressure
on resources such as water, arable land, energy, wood In each of these stages, the government’s stability
and biological resources. The challenge is to feed the and its political and economic management are put
world’s population while conserving ecosystems. under pressure. Now let us consider briefly the
common development challenges and
We say that overpopulation is taking place when opportunities it brings about.
an environment can no longer support the number
of people or organisms that inhabit it – i.e. there is If the proportion of children (15 years and under)
a strain on resources. An area may be said to be or older people (65 and above) increases, the result
underpopulated if the population is not large is a challenge of age dependency. Another
enough to maintain an economic system. challenge is that of a population putting great
pressure on already limited resources. On the other
Effects of overpopulation hand, a decrease in the proportion of children and
The following are some problems that come from, an increase in the proportion of youth and
or are worsened by, human overpopulation: working-age adult population would lower
inadequate fresh water, sewage water treatment dependency ratios. It also opens a window of
and effluent discharge, and competition for opportunity for economic growth as the age
water demands structure matures and a larger proportion of the
reduction of natural resources, especially fossil population enters the workforce. Sound policies
fuels need to be put in place to ensure that when a large
increased levels of air pollution, water pollution, number of people enter the labour market, they are
soil contamination and noise pollution adequately educated and jobs exist for them. This
deforestation and loss of ecosystems that is not the case in quite a number of developing
sustain global atmospheric oxygen and carbon countries. As such, weak governance and poor
dioxide balance socio-economic development can turn
changes in atmospheric composition and thus demographic opportunities into demographic
global warming challenges.
irreversible loss of arable land and increases in
desertification and deforestation Age structure is also linked to democracy.
mass species extinctions from reduced habitat Countries with more than 60% of the population
in tropical forests due to slash-and-burn younger than 30 years are more likely to face
techniques that are sometimes practised by problems with political freedom, civil liberties,
shifting cultivation weak institutional capacity and regulatory qualities.
poverty paired with inflation in some regions, Peace is one of the measures of development. This
resulting in low levels of capital formation important measure of development may not be
starvation, malnutrition or poor diet with ill achieved by countries whose age structures are
health and diet deficiency diseases more youthful. This may be because the likelihood
low life expectancy of such countries experiencing civil conflict is
elevated crime rate highest. The civil conflicts erupting in these
over-use of infrastructure countries may be worsened by low rates of
higher land prices secondary education.
competition for rare resources between and
within countries, which can lead to wars and People aged 60 and above usually have different
civil unrest. needs and behaviours than younger people. They

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tend to work and save less. They also require more The following pyramid shows a typical population
healthcare and, in many countries, depend on structure for a developed country:
social pensions for a large portion of their income.
If the population contains a large section of older
people, adopting or changing certain policies (such
as cutting health and pension benefits) would
prove difficult.

The proportion of elderly people, 80 and above, are

likely to show declining health and the need for
full-time care increases. This also increases the need
for financial support, as private savings tend to shrink
rapidly. As their numbers swell, they place further
demands on government and familial resources.

The impact of changes in the

crude birth rate and death rates This shape is typical of a developed country. It is
narrow at the base, wider in the middle and stays
on the population structure and quite wide until the very top, as there is a sizable
growth rate percentage of older people. Note that there are
Before we look at the impact of crude birth rate more elderly women than men. The USA, Japan
and death rate on the population structure and and Italy have population structures that are this
growth, we need to understand what we mean by shape.
population structure. The age and sex composition
of a population is known as the population The impact of birth and death rates on
structure. The population structure of a country is population structure
how it is made up of people of different ages and The Demographic Transition Model describes
of males and females. The common method to population change over time. It has four stages:
show the structure is a population pyramid. Stage One: This stage is a balance between
birth rates and death rates (both high), which
The following pyramid shows a typical population results in very slow population growth. Death
structure for a developing country: rates are often high because of poor hygiene,
lack of medical care, poor supply of water and
food, and a lack of education.
Stage Two: The death rate declines (thanks to
improvements in food supply and medical
care), while the birth rate remains high, or
perhaps even rises slightly. This causes a growth
in the population. Another characteristic of
Stage Two is a change in the age structure of
the population. The decline in death rates
shows the increasing survival of children.
Hence, the age structure of the population
becomes increasingly youthful.
Stage Three: The population moves towards
stability through a decline in the birth rate, due
to urbanisation and changes to traditional
This population pyramid is wide at the base, which values, increasing female literacy and
means there is a large proportion of young people employment and improved contraception.
in the country. It tapers very quickly as you go up Stage Four: At this stage the birth and death
into the older age groups and is narrow at the top. rates are both low. Therefore the stage is
This shows that a very small proportion of people characterised by high and stable total
are elderly. This shape of pyramid is typical of population. In this stage the population age
developing countries, such as Lesotho, Swaziland structure has become older.
and Kenya.

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Activity 4 Table 3.3 shows that the USA has a low population
growth. Lesotho, on the other hand, has a fast
Work in a group. population growth. The high birth rate in Lesotho
1. a) Draw a population pyramid using the results in a high proportion of the population
following values: being aged 15 and under. As shown in the pyramid
for Lesotho, the proportion of the population
Age group Male % Female % under 15 is about 50%. This means the country has
0–9 14.6 14.2 a high dependency ratio. It will therefore struggle
10–19 12.6 12.4 to improve its economy through allocating more
20–29 10.7 10.5 resources for investment in productive sectors and
30–39 5.6 5.4 creating employment, as the most immediate
40–49 3.6 3.6 responsibility is to support people with the basic
50–59 1.7 1.7 necessities of life, such as food, education and child
60–69 0.8 0.8 healthcare.
70+ 0.9 0.9
For developed countries such as the USA, in
b) List the features of the pyramid you have contrast, the problem is too few rather than too
drawn. Suggest reasons for these features. many children. This is true for most of the
2. Explain the effect this structure would have economically developed countries. In these
on the development of a country. countries the birth rates are the same as, or below,
the death rates. This means that the replacement
rate, which is when there are just sufficient children
born to balance the number of people that die, is
Lesotho’s population pyramid not met.
versus other countries’ The impact this will have for development is that
population pyramids there will be too few consumers and skilled workers
We will compare the USA and Lesotho. Table 3.3 to keep the economy going. This could lead to
shows the basic population data and the graph that closures of schools and shops, especially in smaller
follows shows the population structure. towns and villages, problems in providing pensions
and social care for an ageing population and a
Table 3.3 Basic population data for the USA and reduction in the country’s competitive advantage
Lesotho, 2013 in science and technology.
USA Lesotho
Birth rate per 1 000 per year 13.2 27.5 Implications of population growth in
Death rate per 1 000 per year 8.4 14.1 Lesotho for development
Rate of natural increase % per year 0.5 1.3 If the population scenario described in the previous
Percentage of married women using 76 47 section continues, it would have a negative effect
birth control methods on Lesotho’s demographic and socio-economic
(Source: compiled from: http://apps.who.int/gho.data/node.main. standing.
CBDR107?lang=en and http://kff.org/globalindicator/
contraceptive-prevalence-rate/)
The population under fifteen years (pre-
reproductive years) in Lesotho has decreased from
36% in 2014 to 33.5% in 2015. In the early 1990s
it was estimated at 45–46%. However, despite the
decrease, the population under 15 years in Lesotho
is still above the global average, which was
estimated at 26% in 2015. This means the country
has the potential for large population growth.

Lesotho is faced with the challenge of high youth

unemployment and unemployment in general. The
unemployment rate was estimated at 25% in 2015.
The situation might worsen if no solutions are
found. These high rates mean that the economy is
generating tax revenues that are far below its

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Case study: Lesotho potential. This may lead to increased government

borrowing and/or slow delivery of public goods
Lesotho is approaching the third stage of the and slow economic development. Unemployment
Demographic Transition Model. Its population among the youth is linked to an increase in crime,
was estimated at 2 076 762 in 2015. The sex conflict and civil unrest.
distribution is around 97 males for each 100
females. Population increase in Lesotho leads to a high
demand for essential services such as education and
The average population density in the country healthcare. In Lesotho, there are 468 primary
is around 68.3 people per square kilometre. schools and 326 secondary/high schools. There
The density is lower in the highlands than in are 372 health facilities that include three tertiary
the western lowlands. healthcare institutions, 18 secondary care hospitals,
305 primary care centres and 46 pharmacies. The
Lesotho’s population pyramid figure has doctor to patient ratio was estimated at 1:20 000
features that are typical of LEDCs, namely a in 2015. The presented education and health
very broad base, steeply tapering sides and a scenarios suggest that there is a need to increase
narrow top. facilities to meet the educational and healthcare
demands of the Basotho. Population increase is
The broad base of Lesotho’s population likely to negatively affect the quality of educational
pyramid reflects the large proportion of and healthcare services. Funds will be needed for
children below the age of 15. The proportion the recruitment/payment of educators and medical
of the population between 15 and 65 years practitioners and the building and maintenance of
stands at 61.6% while that of 65 years or older infrastructures.
is 5.4%.
Population growth often results in unsustainable
The crude birth rate is high (28.5 per 1 000) pressure on the environment. The challenges of a
and each woman will give birth to an average of high fertility rate and the impact of climate change
3.37 children. Two factors explain the large often happen in countries such as Lesotho, which
number of births: are the least prepared to adapt to climate change.
Women have large families because they Drought as a result of climate change reduces
expect to lose some at infancy. The infant grazing opportunities. Thus the keeping of
mortality rate is at about 53.44. livestock such as goats, sheep and cows is on the
The steeply sloping sides of the pyramid decrease in Lesotho. Bad weather has also led to a
suggest that death rates are high (16.7 per decrease in food production and low dietary
1 000). Life expectancy is about 48.2 years variety.
and is falling as a result of HIV/AIDS. The
majority of AIDS-related deaths occur
among young adults. This is likely to have Activity 5
devastating impacts on the country because
of the following reasons: Work with a partner.
• Young adults are economically the most Explain three ways in which population growth
productive part of the population, affects development planning.
supporting dependants such as children
and old people.
• Young adults may have to give up work to
care for relatives who are affected by
HIV/AIDS.
• Many millions of children, whose parents
die of HIV/AIDS, will become orphans.

HIV/AIDS is the leading cause of death in

sub-Saharan Africa. Of the 34 most AIDS-
affected countries in the world, 29 are in Africa.

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Summary
In this unit you have learnt about the following:
The difference in numbers of births and deaths causes population change.
Population change is often related to advances in economic development.
Countries pass through several stages of growth, as shown in the Demographic Transition
Model.
Physical and human factors influence the global distribution of population.
Population structure and population growth vary between developed countries and
developing countries.
Population change affects population structure. It can result, for example, in either too
many or too few people in the under-15 age group, or an ageing population.

Unit 3.2 Causes and impacts of urbanisation

Unit objectives
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
define the terms: urbanisation, urban growth, etc.
explain how development leads to urbanisation
describe the effects of urbanisation on both rural and urban areas
describe and evaluate possible solutions to problems resulting from urbanisation, including
problems in both urban areas (e.g. shanty towns/squatter settlements) and rural areas (e.g.
family break-ups, decline in agricultural production, change in gender roles, population
imbalance, etc.).

Urbanisation and urban growth cities in the Less Economically Developed

Countries in early stages of development tend to Countries (LEDCs) are growing so fast: very high
have large numbers of people living in rural areas. population growth rates and migrants moving to
As countries develop, there tends to be a dramatic cities from the countryside.
change in the proportion of the population living
in cities and towns. The urban population has These are some terms that are important to
increased dramatically as a result of industrialisation understand:
and modernisation. This process is known as Urbanisation is an increase in the proportion
urbanisation. There are two main reasons why of a population living in a city. Urbanisation
occurs when people migrate to urban areas in
search of jobs and better living conditions.
Urban growth means the improvement of
towns and cities. This might happen without an
increase of the percentage of people living in
cities.
Migration is the movement of people from
one place to another.
Rural–urban migration is the movement of
people from rural areas to urban areas.

Causes of urbanisation
There are many factors that cause people to move
from rural areas to urban areas. Migration is the
main reason for urbanisation. It increases the
Urbanisation happens when more and more people proportion of people living in urban areas. There
come to live in cities and towns: Johannesburg CBD are two kinds of reasons: things that attract people

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to cities, known as pull factors and things that lived in rural areas. They lived in very small
drive people away from rural areas, known as push villages, or small family groupings, which survived
factors. on the resources available in the environment.
During the colonial era, towns were set up as
Push factors centres of administration.
Some factors force people to leave their rural areas
for urban areas. These include: After independence, towns and cities continued to
a lack of job opportunities in rural areas grow. They attracted a large number of people
landlessness, which means that some people do from rural areas who were looking for a better life
not own any land, so they are more motivated in towns. The proportion of people living in urban
to move to urban areas to seek employment areas has increased rapidly and is continuing to
a poor harvest, which can lead to food increase.
insecurity; people may then move to urban
areas in search of an income The following key case studies show how the
isolation of remote areas – some villages are process of development has led to urbanisation in
situated in very remote areas where they do not some major towns in different parts of the world.
have access to infrastructure or services Although the information provided in these case
natural disasters such as floods – people may studies is specific to these urban areas, the general
move to places where their lives are not principles apply to many urban areas in developing
threatened by natural disasters countries.
poor healthcare services
poor communication services
no or poor access to clean water and electricity Case study: Singapore – Asia
poor quality schools
land degradation. Singapore is situated at the tip of the Malay
Peninsula. This position made it very valuable
Pull factors as a port and a naval base. Singapore has since
Some factors attract people to urban areas. These become the focus of immigration from other
include: parts of Asia, especially from China. Singapore
many job opportunities, for example in has large oil refineries and large plants for the
factories, public service and the private sector repair and servicing of bulk tankers. Many
better schools international oil companies have established
better healthcare services their headquarters in Singapore. As a result, the
access to modern housing city has attracted many immigrants. Today, the
more entertainment facilities city is faced with the problem of overcrowding,
better communications and transportation since it attracts people even from neighbouring
networks. countries. There is also a shortage of housing.
Many city dwellers are packed in shophouses,
which are divided into a maze of small cubicles.
Activity 1 These shophouses were originally designed to
house single families, but now they house a
Work on your own. number of families.
1. Think about people in Lesotho who move
from rural areas to urban areas such as
Maseru. List the push and pull factors that
you think influence their decision to move.
2. Compare the factors that you think
influenced them to move with the factors
listed above.
3. Now discuss the factors you thought of with
the rest of the class.

Development and urbanisation

In the LEDCs, urbanisation is increasing rapidly.
Before the colonial era, most people in LEDCs

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Case study: Kinshasa – Democratic situation creates other problems of increased

Republic of Congo (Central Africa) hunger, malnutrition and disease – it worsens
the conditions of poverty that cause people to
Kinshasa is the capital city of the Democratic leave rural areas in the first place.
Republic of Congo (DRC), formerly a colony Family ties and life are disrupted. When family
of Belgium. The city developed because of members are away for a long time, marriages
trade. The Congo River leads to the sea and is may break up, children do not have consistent
therefore a good trade route. The city was built role models and older people are expected to
on the banks of the Congo River and it grew raise grandchildren on their own when they do
steadily due to improved water transport and not have the means to do so.
good rail links to the sea. Its trade began to The security of women, children and the
flourish. After World War II, industry also elderly becomes a problem because able-bodied
began to develop. Since then, the city expanded males are away and cannot protect them.
rapidly and has been transformed into a Women left behind in the rural areas may
bustling city of two million people. Many assume new roles as being heads of families,
people live in squatter camps. which adds to their already existing social roles;
they have to make decisions when their
husbands are away in town. This becomes a
problem due to the fact that traditional
Activity 2 customs prevent women from owning or
controlling property. Women are therefore
Work with a partner. disempowered to make the decisions that they
Read the case studies. Draw and fill in a table need to make as heads of households.
such as the one that follows in your exercise book. Migrant workers may bring new diseases back
home, such as HIV.
How the
Factors
Problems
Villages are sometimes made up of a few
that led households, so when large numbers of people
city was experienced
to greater
formed by the city leave rural areas, the villages become
urbanisation
depopulated.
Singapore
Kinshasa The following are some positive effects of
urbanisation for rural communities:
Migrants send part of their wages back home,
so families can potentially improve their lives.
The effects of urbanisation on Migrants develop new skills and they bring
rural and urban areas these new skills, along with new ideas back
Urbanisation has played an important role in home to develop their communities.
development in LEDCs, but there are also
challenges associated with urbanisation, especially The effects of urbanisation on urban
when there is a lack of proper planning involved in areas
rapid urbanisation. When large numbers of people As a result of urbanisation, cities have grown faster
leave rural areas to migrate to urban areas, we refer than ever before and their population has increased
to this as rural depopulation. rapidly.

Effects of urbanisation on rural areas

People migrate from rural areas to urban areas for a
number of reasons. Many of the migrants are men
and women between the ages 15 and 45. This
situation has bad and good effects for rural areas.

The following are some negative effects of rural

depopulation:
Women, children and older people are left
behind to carry out heavy duties, such as
working in the fields. As a result, agricultural Rapid urbanisation often leads to the formation of
production may drop even further. This shanty towns or squatter camps.

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The following are some examples of problems The following are some of the ways that may be
linked to urbanisation: introduced to prevent urbanisation:
Poor housing and informal settlements: Community self-help projects: People in both
Especially in LEDCs, large numbers of the rural and urban areas could be encouraged to
urban population live in shacks, slums or mud be self-reliant by establishing income-
houses that may be flooded and fall apart generating projects. The income, in turn, may
during the rainy season, or are unbearably hot be used to improve services such as water
during the summer months. Large families supply, sanitation and infrastructure and create
often live in a single house, while others have sustainable jobs and income in rural areas.
no homes at all. Living conditions in these Creating job opportunities: Industries may be
places are very poor. Shacks are built out of any set up in rural areas in order to reduce the
waste material that can be found, such as number of people migrating to urban areas.
flattened oil cans, plastics or card boxes. These Decentralisation: This means passing some
settlements often lack basic services such as powers to the local government so that local
electricity and toilets and this leads to very people are involved in decision-making
unhealthy living conditions. processes and are able to tackle their problems.
Poor sanitation: In urban areas, governments Land reallocation: Land could be
and local authorities may fail to provide people redistributed more fairly to the people who
with services such as safe water, waste disposal need it in order to increase agricultural
and sewerage systems. The reason for this is production. In communities where traditional
lack of planning on the side of government and patriarchal ownership of land is the norm,
the rapid growth of shanty towns. traditional practices could be addressed so that
Crime: Where a lot of people congregate women could be allocated land to prevent them
together to live and work, there may be an from migrating to towns. When people are
increase in crime. Most urban areas around the landless, they are more likely to migrate to
world experience higher rates of crime than towns.
rural areas. Crime may be related to social Loans and credit schemes: People should have
problems such as alcohol and substance abuse, access to loans and credit schemes to improve
inadequate employment for the rapidly their lives and to encourage trade between rural
urbanising population and many other reasons. and urban areas.
Unemployment: Push factors in rural areas Improvement of infrastructure: Roads and
force a large number of people to leave for other transport infrastructure could be
urban areas to seek employment. improved in rural areas to promote easy
Unfortunately, factory employment is not communication and trade between rural and
growing rapidly and industry does not urban areas. Schools and clinics could be built
necessarily employ large numbers of people. or upgraded in order to increase accessibility.
Crime prevention units: Community policing
units could be set up to reduce crime.
Activity 3

Work with a partner. Activity 4

Make a mind map to summarise the problems
linked to urbanisation and rural depopulation Work in a group.
in Lesotho. Make suggestions for how you Role-play the following scenario:
think they could be solved. You are members of a community council. Elect
a chairperson. You need to solve the problem of
rural depopulation of an area of Lesotho.
Brainstorm ideas you could introduce to address
Evaluating possible solutions to these problems. Write up a strategy document
urbanisation problems that you could present to the community to
Cities and towns will continue to grow in the next vote on.
thirty to forty years. Some governments are trying
to reduce rapid urbanisation by introducing Evaluate another group’s scenario and strategy.
measures that will solve problems in both rural and
urban areas.

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Summary
In this unit you learnt about the following:
Urbanisation is an increase in the proportion of a population living in a city.
There are two reasons for urbanisation: things that attract people to cities, known as pull
factors, and things that drive people away from rural areas, known as push factors.
Urbanisation has played an important role in development in LEDCs, but there are also
challenges linked to urbanisation, especially when there is a lack of sufficient planning
involved in rapid urbanisation.
When large numbers of people leave rural areas to migrate to urban areas, we refer to this as
rural depopulation.
Governments can implement schemes to prevent very rapid urbanisation.

Unit 3.3 Migration

Unit objectives
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
define the terms forced migration, voluntary migration, refugee, asylum seeker, economic
migrant, etc.
understand the causes of different forms of migration
evaluate the positive and negative impacts of the migration on low- and middle-income
countries and their development
investigate ways of managing migration.

Defining migration migration. People who feel forced to move are

Migration is the movement of people from one referred to as refugees. Asylum seekers are people
place to another, usually in large groups. Since who leave their country of origin, as a result of
ancient times, humans have been migrating. conflict, famine or other life-threatening reasons
Sometimes people move from one place to another and request the government of another country to
within the same country – this is called internal accept them as migrants.
migration. Examples of internal migration are
moving from rural areas to urban areas (rural– When people move because they choose to, we
urban migration) or from urban areas to rural areas refer to this as voluntary migration. People who
(urban–rural migration). Movement may also take migrate out of a country are called emigrants and
place between countries – this is known as those who migrate into a country are called
international migration. immigrants. Some people migrate in order to work
in another country. They are called economic
When conditions beyond people’s control cause migrants. Economic migrants can be seasonal,
the movement, we call this forced or involuntary contracted or permanent.
International
(e.g. asylum seekers)
Involuntary
Internal
(e.g. due to natural
disasters)
Migration
International
(e.g. job seekers)
Voluntary
Internal
(e.g. searching for a
A Somalian refugee camp in Eldoret, Kenya better quality of life)

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Activity 1

Work with a partner.

1. Copy the following table into your exercise book and tick the columns to identify what type of
migration is shown in each case.

Involuntary Voluntary Internal International

Scenario
migration migration migration migration
1. A man leaves his home in Maseru to take up a job in
Johannesburg.
2. A family moves from a rural farm to a town in the same
district so that the children can go to a school with better
resources.
3. A teenage girl has to move to another district to live with
her aunt and uncle so that she can attend school there, as
the school in her district has been closed.
4. A Nigerian family migrates to a different country because
they are afraid of the violence in their country.
5. A man who works for a bank gets a job promotion and is
transferred to another city in the same country. His family
goes with him.
6. A woman moves from her home town to a larger city
where there is a university, so that she can continue her
tertiary studies.

2. Do you think countries should have strict laws and regulations to control migration in and out of
their borders? Give reasons for your views.
3. Do you think involuntary migration has implications for development in LEDCs? Explain why you
think so.

Table 3.4 Examples of push and pull factors for

Causes of different forms of migration
migration Push factors Pull factors
There are many reasons why people migrate.
Economic factors
Migration could happen as a result of social,
• unemployment •h  igher salaries
economic, political and environmental factors. • a lack of opportunities •m  ore job opportunities
•e  conomic instability or • investment opportunities
Reasons for migration can be divided into two recession • a better quality of life
factors, namely push factors and pull factors. Push •d  eclining agricultural
factors are powerful, negative factors that cause production
people to move away from a place. Pull factors are Social factors
factors that are attractive or give people hope for • hunger • a better quality of life
• s ocial unrest or war • c heaper or better
better conditions in a new place. • a lack of social services education
• a high crime rate •b  etter social services
• s afety and security
Political factors
•p  olitical instability •p  olitical freedom
•w  ars or civil conflict • r eligious freedom
•p  oor governance, for •p  eace and stability (i.e.
example lack of freedom of no social unrest)
expression or participation
Environmental factors
•n  atural hazards, e.g. •b  etter agricultural
earthquakes potential
•u  nfavourable climatic •b  etter climatic conditions
conditions, e.g. drought • a safer, cleaner
• pollution or other dangerous environment
environmental conditions

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the desire to live in a bigger house with a

garden rather than a flat or small city dwelling
crime
an increase in house levies and house prices
congestion – of both people and traffic
pollution
the desire for a more peaceful lifestyle.

Causes of international migration

In the SADC, for many years there has been a
movement of migrant labour to South Africa. This
is a typical example of international migration.
Reasons for international migration include all the
Drought in Africa’s Sahel region in 2012 affected push and pull factors listed in Table 3.4.
millions of people.

Causes of internal migration Activity 2

For most developing countries in Africa, Asia and
Latin America, rural–urban migration is the most Work with a partner.
common type of internal migration. 1. a) Name two pull factors and two push
factors that can cause international
Reasons that force people to move from rural to migration.
urban areas include the following: b) Classify each of the factors you have
In rural areas, the services provided are very named as political, social, economic or
basic, for example clinics offer primary environmental.
healthcare and schools have limited facilities. 2. Discuss factors that can influence urban–
Urban areas, on the other hand, provide better rural migration in MEDCs.
schools, hospitals, private medical care, 3. Now work in a group. Make a list of ways in
shopping centres, clubs, parks and cinemas. which globalisation can positively influence
People may move to urban areas in order to migration patterns in LEDCs. You might
access these facilities. have to do research to help you answer this
As the population in a rural area increases, it question. Share your ideas with the class.
puts strain on the farmland available to
subsistence farmers. If people cannot secure
land to practise agriculture, they usually move
to urban areas to look for another form of
The impact of migration on low-
livelihood. income and middle-income
Rural areas have limited job opportunities and countries
therefore unemployment often becomes a Migration can have both negative and positive
problem. People migrate to urban areas with effects on countries. Migration can have important
the hope of securing better-paying jobs. effects on the development of low-income and
In many areas, climate change has resulted in middle-income countries.
drought, lack of good harvests and floods,
which force people to look for alternative The following are some of the possible effects of
sources of livelihood elsewhere. migration on the country of origin:
Poverty is a big motivating factor for migration. Migration from rural to urban areas can lead to
Shrinking markets for certain types of produce a higher rate of unemployment in urban areas.
means that people may need to migrate to Migration could lead to a loss of skilled human
search for other employment. resources. This happens when skilled people
leave the country to seek better opportunities
Urban to rural migration is not very common. elsewhere. This is known as the ‘brain drain’.
However, it does take place in MEDCs whose rural An increase in population in one area often
areas have better facilities, such as access to leads to environmental pollution.
electricity, water, good roads and hospitals. Migration changes the family structure and
Movement away from an urban area to a rural one roles in the family often have to be adjusted.
could be due to: Migration in countries such as Lesotho has

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increased the number of female-headed Activity 3

households.
Families in low-income and middle-income Work in a group.
countries may benefit from income sent back Many Basotho migrate to South Africa to find
by relatives who have found jobs in other work, for example in the mines. What effects do
countries. you think this has had on development in
In some cases, migration helps reduce pressure Lesotho? Think of both the social and economic
on agricultural land and food supplies in implications for the country. Draw a mind map
low-income and middle-income countries. with your ideas. Share your ideas with another
Migrants sometimes maintain contact with group.
family in their home country and this could
benefit development. The exchange of money
can become an important source of foreign
exchange, as well as the exchange of knowledge Ways of managing migration
and ideas between the home and host country. Unmanaged migration can have many negative
effects for countries and migrants. Sound
Some aspects of migration can be harmful to migration policies are important to manage
developing countries: migration, for the sake of the recipient country as
The cost for a developing country could be well as the immigrants.
high in terms of the brain drain, which may
leave the country of origin without valuable
human resources necessary for long-term
growth. As migrants leave, they take with them
the value of their skills and training.
The money that migrant workers send home
decrease their households’ labour market
participation.

The following are some of the possible effects of

migration on the recipient country:
The population of the receiving country
increases. This may put pressure on social
services available. Illegal migrants often risk their lives trying to enter
Migration could help address the problem of their destination country.
skilled labour in the recipient country. For
example, South Africa has benefited from The following are some strategies that could be
skilled Zimbabwean migrants. Skilled used to manage migration:
immigrants can make an important Develop a migration policy strategy: These
contribution to the development of the strategies should recognise the great potential
recipient country. that migration holds to contribute to the
Xenophobia may occur and lead to social growth, development and stability of
unrest. Migrants become the minority in the economies and societies worldwide.
recipient country and thus are more likely to be Recognise the importance of the free
discriminated against. Competition for limited movement of people: States must adopt
resources can worsen this xenophobia. labour policies that allow for the free
Migration can contribute to overcrowding in movement of persons with the community.
urban areas, which may lead to a higher crime Establish labour exchanges: Labour
rate and other social implications. regulations or agreements regarding the
Migration can add to the development of the employment of skilled people from one country
informal sector and informal trade. Migrants in another country would benefit both the
who cannot find jobs in the formal sector often country of origin and the country of
do informal work, such as washing cars and destination.
polishing shoes. These migrants are vulnerable Invest in human resource development: This
and may be exploited. can help prevent the problem of brain drain. In
other words, governments should invest in
strategies to retain trained people.

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Set up dialogues within the country and Activity 4

region to deal with issues of migrant labour:
Open discussions on issues of migration should Work in a group.
be encouraged, to find solutions that include all A lot of Basotho leave Lesotho to go work in
stakeholders. South Africa, leaving Lesotho with fewer people
Establish quotas for unskilled workers from to engage in economic activities within the
other countries: This will help countries to country. Suggest policies that the government
control economic movement and thus ensure of Lesotho can put in place to control this
that there is enough provision made for movement.
internal economic movements.
Manage effective migration: This could be
done by providing standard travel documents,
for example visas, passports, temporary travel Summary
documents, work permits, residence permits In this unit you have learnt about the
and study permits. This will help to restrict the following:
movement of people who do not comply with Migration can be internal and
the requirements. international. Migration can be
Encourage cross-border patrols with voluntary, as in the case of migrant
neighbouring countries: This strategy workers, or forced, as in the case of
addresses the issue of illegal migration. refugees and asylum seekers.
Assist migrants: This could be done in cases People migrate due to social,
where migrants would like to go back to their economic, political and environmental
country of origin. reasons. Push factors and pull factors
Establish interstate collaboration: Interstate cause people to migrate.
cooperation could have a progressive effect on The most common form of internal
issues of migration, for example an migration is from rural to urban
international dialogue on migration areas.
Develop regulations: Regulations could be Migration has a significant impact,
developed in an effort to assist and protect both negative and positive, on the
refugees. development of countries.
There are various strategies that
countries can put in place to
manage migration. Managing
migration can help to prevent the
possible negative impact on both
countries as well as the migrants.

Unit 3.4 Rapid population growth: implications and strategies

Unit objectives
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
undertake a case study of a country or area where rapid population growth is or has been an
issue (e.g. China)
understand policies related to issues of population in Lesotho
evaluate programmes designed to overcome population growth.

Policies related to population Contraceptive services

issues in Lesotho The government of Lesotho provides a range of
Lesotho has several programme strategies to manage contraceptives. These methods are condoms, oral
population issues. Because Lesotho is an LEDC, it is contraceptive pills, IUDs and injectable
important to balance population growth in terms of contraceptives. Family planning services are
the resources available, in order to uplift people’s provided as an important part of health services.
quality of life and standard of living.

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Activity 2

Work in a group.
Do research to find the extent to which the
government of Lesotho has contributed in
reducing population growth.

You may use the following points to guide you:

Access to birth control and family planning
Reducing poverty
Education
Women’s empowerment
Government incentives
Immigration policies

Rapid population growth

In Unit 3.1 you learnt about population change
and population growth. Preventing population
growth in developing countries appears to be more
difficult than in developed nations, for several
reasons. The most important is the age
Contraceptives play an important role in managing composition, as we have already seen in Unit 3.1.
population growth.
In this unit, you will do a case study of a country
that has experienced rapid population growth.
Activity 1

Work with a partner. Activity 3

Investigate the family planning facilities that are
available in your community, as well as local Work with a partner.
attitudes and perceptions about family planning First, revise what you have learnt about rapid
and contraception. Produce a report about your population growth and its impact on the
findings. Do you think education plays a role in structure of a country’s population as well as its
controlling population? Give reasons for your development.
response.
Choose a country where rapid population
growth has been an issue. China and India are
Programmes designed to overcome two examples.
population growth
Do research about that country. Investigate the
The following are some policies governments can
following aspects:
use to manage population growth:
The causes of the rapid population growth
Provide access to birth control and family
The effect of the population growth on the
planning.
country’s economy, development and on
Reduce poverty: Research has shown that
people’s quality of life
families that reach a certain income level have
What policies or programmes the country
fewer children.
implemented to manage the population
Empower and educate women: If women are
growth and whether these policies or
empowered and have opportunities to pursue
programmes were effective.
careers and other options outside marriage and
motherhood, they can choose to have smaller Also include any other information you think is
families. relevant. Remember to give statistics to show
Provide government incentives: These the rate of population growth and how this
include tax breaks and education campaigns. changed over time. Also remember to name the
Develop immigration policies: A country can sources where you found your information.
choose to encourage or discourage immigration.

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Summary
In this unit you have learnt about the
following:
For many reasons, preventing
population growth in developing
counties appears to be harder than
in developed nations.
Programmes that can contribute to
managing population growth
include birth control, the
empowerment of women,
government incentives,
immigration policies and reducing
poverty.

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The environment and development

Chapter 4
Unit 4.1 The nature of rural development

Unit objectives
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
understand the broad definition of environment
understand Lesotho’s environmental policy
describe the nature of traditional societies, the use and ownership of land, the division of
labour and types of social and cultural activities, and dependence on the local environment
understand the impact of colonialism on the environment
describe peasant farming/subsistence farming, cash cropping and seasonal farming
describe and illustrate examples of commercial farming: tools and technology, development
of monoculture and large-scale projects, plantations and crop rotation
describe and evaluate selected rural development schemes and strategies (loans and credit
schemes, small-scale rural projects, farmer cooperatives, resettlement schemes [e.g. the
Lesotho Highland Water Project Resettlement Scheme], integrated rural development
schemes and mobilisation of rural population, grassroots development, appropriate farming
methods) and evaluate the problems involved in their implementation.

Introduction
All living things are connected to each other in the environment. Sustained life on Earth has become a
major concern to the international community, because human activities have a large effect on the
environment and cause huge changes to it. This has an impact on development.

Defining the term ‘environment’ The economic environment includes all

The term ‘environment’ can be defined as the way activities in which people are involved in order
people interact with one another and with nature. to create wealth such as jobs, production and
When people settle in an area, they change the money.
environment so that it suits their needs: they build The political environment relates to
houses, shopping malls, schools and clinics. They institutions of power such as government,
construct roads and they use land for agriculture chiefs and the local government. The political
and many other activities. They use natural authorities are responsible for decisions that
resources. control access to resources, the economy and
how people live together (laws).
Aspects of the environment The social environment refers to how people
The term ‘environment’ consists of many aspects live together. Societies have established cultural
that relate to the physical environment as well as practices, norms and values that create social
human activities that impact on this environment harmony.
– biophysical, political, economic and social. The biophysical environment is the part of
the Earth where life exists. This is called the

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biosphere (biodiversity). It is made up of the Lesotho’s environmental policy

atmosphere (gases), the oceans (liquids) and The increasing population in Lesotho has an effect
the Earth’s land surface (solids). These three on the physical environment. To show its
elements are linked together by a flow of commitment towards sustainable development and
energy, water and chemicals. The biosphere is environment, Lesotho has established the National
also divided into two interrelated parts: the Environmental Action Plan (NEAP). Its roles are
biotic (living) world, which includes plants, to:
animals and human beings and the abiotic create increased awareness of environmental
(non-living) world, which includes water, air concerns
and sunlight. The biotic and abiotic elements implement international conventions on
make up the ecosystem, which is the main biodiversity, climate change and desertification
working unit of nature. controls.

Even though the concept ‘environment’ includes Lesotho has also endorsed (declared their public
all these aspects, for the rest of the chapter we will approval of) the following international
use the term ‘environment’ to refer to the conventions on the environment:
biophysical environment. Convention Relative to the Preservation of
Fauna and Flora in their Natural State
Convention on Fishing and Conservation of
the Living Resources of the High Seas
Convention on Climate Change
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the
Ozone Layer

Activity 2

Work with a partner.

1. Pretend that you are officials in the Ministry
of Tourism and Environment Affairs.
The biophysical environment a) Draw up a framework of ideas that you
would include in a national policy for the
environment.
Activity 1 b) Discuss your suggestions with the rest of
the class.
Work with a partner. 2. Now read the National Environment Policy
1. Below is a list of human activities that affect of Lesotho carefully.
the biophysical environment. Copy this table
into your exercise books and list the ways in NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL
which these activities affect the environment. POLICY, 1998
The overall goal of the National
Activity Effects Environmental Policy is to achieve
Agriculture sustainable livelihoods and development for
The construction industry Lesotho. The objectives of the policy are:
Mining 1. To secure for all Basotho a high quality
Generating electricity environment to enhance their health
Transport and well-being.
2. To raise public awareness and promote
2. Think about the biophysical environment understanding of essential causal
that surrounds you. Create a diagram that linkages between development and
shows how it is connected to the political, environment and to ensure that
economic and social environment in which environmental awareness is treated as an
you live. Present your diagram to the class. integral part of education at all levels.
3. To use and conserve the environment

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and natural resources for the benefit of organisations and agencies to achieve
present and future generations, taking optimal use of transboundary shared
into account the rate of population natural resources and effective
growth and productivity of the available prevention or abatement of
resources. transboundary environmental impacts.
4. To conserve the Basotho cultural
(Source: Southern African Institute of Environmental
heritage and utilise it for the benefit of Assessment. Available from: http://www.saiea.com/
the present and future generations. dbsa_book/lesotho.pdf)
5. To encourage and facilitate individual,
NGO, community, religious a) Compare the National Policy with your
organisations and business community policy. Which aspects are similar? Could
participation in environmental you add any ideas that do not appear in
management. the National Policy?
6. To halt environmental degradation and b) Classify the statements of the National
to restore, maintain and enhance the Environment Policy into the definition
ecosystems and ecological processes of environment you learnt about earlier
essential for the functioning of the in this section.
biosphere and to preserve biological
diversity.
7. To implement the principle of optimum
sustainable yield in the use of natural The nature of traditional
resources and ecosystems. societies and the environment
8. To foster community management and Traditionally, there were three different types of
revenue sharing from sustainable rural societies, namely hunter-gatherers, nomadic
utilisation of natural resources on pastoralists and agriculturalists.
customary and public land. Hunter-gatherers lived entirely off the land and
9. To put in place comprehensive moved from place to place. They hunted
environmental regulatory measures to animals and gathered wild fruits and other
stimulate sustainable economic and foods.
social development. Such development Nomadic pastoralists kept herds of cattle and
will be complemented by social and other animals such as sheep or goats. They
economic incentives to influence moved from place to place in search of pastures
positive behaviour towards for their animals.
environment. Agriculturalists settled in one area. They grew
10. To set up comprehensive programmes crops and reared animals.
of resource inventorying and
accounting, complemented by regular
and accurate environmental assessment,
monitoring and dissemination of
information to all sectors of society.
11. To ensure that the true and total costs
of environmental use and abuse are
borne by the user, i.e. the ‘polluter pays’
principle.
12. To enact and implement a land tenure
policy which enhances sustainable
natural resource management.
13. To empower women to play a key role
in natural resource use and management The Maasai of Kenya still live as semi-nomadic
activities. pastoralists today.
14. To cooperate in good faith with other
countries in the Southern Africa
Development Community (SADC)
region, in Africa and with International

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Table 4.1: Characteristics of different traditional rural societies

Hunter-gatherers Nomadic pastoralists Agriculturalists
Ownership and No one owned land, but all All members of the tribe had All members of the society had
use of land members of the society had rights to use land. rights to use land.
rights to use land.
Division of labour Small groups shared labour. Families shared labour. Men Men cleared land and cultivated
and specialisation Men were hunters while women looked after animals while it. Women also cultivated land,
gathered fruits, roots and other women gathered vegetables and built huts and collected water
foodstuff from the environment. made clothing from animal skins. and vegetables. Some further
specialisation took place. Men
made tools out of iron and
women did weaving and pottery.
Social and These people were nomadic – These groups reared animals, Agriculturalists settled in one
cultural activities they moved from one place to therefore they lived on natural area. They reared animals and
another in search of food. They grassland for pasture. They were grew crops. They cleared land
lived in small groups. They made nomadic and travelled around in for agriculture by burning
weapons such as poison arrows. search of pasture. They traded vegetation. They used fire and
with agriculturalists. iron tools and they practised
shifting cultivation.
Dependence on Hunter-gatherers were entirely They were dependent on the These societies grew crops and
environment dependent on the environment environment for pasture and reared animals. They changed
for shelter, weapons and food water for their animals. They the environment in that they
(wild plants and animals). If there would move to new places in cleared land to plant crops.
was not enough food in the search of adequate pasture and They were dependent on
environment, they would move water. They also gathered wild the environment in terms of
on to another place. fruits and vegetables from the soil quality, water supply and
environment. weather conditions.
Skills and They made tools from natural They used simple tools made They used tools made from iron,
technology resources such as stone. They from stone and wood. such as hoes and ploughs, for
also made weapons such as agriculture. They also relied on
arrows and they used poisons fire.
harvested from plants and
animals.

Agricultural societies before colonialism The impact of colonialism on the

and their impact on the environment environment
Most modern communities in Africa have Colonialism is a practice whereby one nation
developed from agriculturalists who had settled in dominates another. When European countries
one area. As settlements became permanent, they colonised large parts of the world (such as South
grew in size and number of people. Agricultural America, Africa and Asia), their activities had a
societies produced food for their own huge effect on the areas they colonised.
consumption. This is called subsistence farming. Colonialists brought European ideas and
They did not sell their products to outside markets. practices into the new environments. They
Trade did happen within the same community – introduced commercial agriculture and this
families traded goods for other goods they needed. displaced many people.
This is how agricultural societies survived – by By planting many new crops and plantations
internal trade. and clearing the land for building structures,
the natural balance of the habitat was
disturbed.
Activity 3 Alien vegetation was introduced, which
survived better than local indigenous
Work in a group. vegetation, as those alien species had no natural
1. In what ways has agriculturalism impacted enemies in the environment.
Lesotho? Discuss your ideas. Overgrazing became a problem. Wild animals
2. To what extent do you think agricultural were chased away and people kept their own
development has had the potential to stock, which affected the environment through
improve people’s quality of life through overgrazing.
history? Large areas of land were cleared for cultivation,
which resulted in a loss of biodiversity.

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The colonial control of land also led to land Commercial farming

dispossession for original inhabitants of Large-scale commercial farms are in many ways the
colonised areas – land resources became scarce opposite of peasant farming. The aim of
for dispossessed African societies. In many commercial farmers is to sell and export their
cases, the most fertile land was used for products and make a profit. In fact, the farms are
commercial agriculture, while traditional run like businesses. Examples may be drawn from a
African communities were left with areas that number of countries, such as coffee plantations in
had the least fertile soils and conditions. Kenya, tobacco farms in Zimbabwe and different
The introduction of the cash crop system farm in South Africa.
meant that subsistence farmers became peasant
farmers. The following are some features of commercial
agriculture:
All of these factors played a role in creating Commercial farming is capital-intensive.
conditions of rural poverty, which have persisted in Commercial agriculture uses tools and
the post-colonial era. technology. It uses modern complex
technology such as tractors, combine harvesters
and aeroplanes to spray crops.
Activity 4 In commercial agriculture, labour is employed
in a formal way – labour is performed by hired
Work on your own. workers who perform specialised jobs, for
Conduct research to find out how colonialism example driving tractors, cultivating and
has impacted on countries in southern Africa. harvesting crops and looking after livestock.
Write up some notes in a bullet-point summary. Large commercial farms may employ people
with formal scientific and agricultural
qualifications to assist with research and
Types of agriculture managing the running of the farm according to
Different forms of agriculture have specific strict scientific principles and guidelines.
implications for development and the economic Commercial farms also use large amounts of
stability of communities. chemicals such as fertilisers, pesticides and
herbicides, to produce crops.
Subsistence agriculture
Subsistence agriculture, also called peasant farming,
is when a community produces enough food to
feed itself, but has no extra (surplus) with which to
trade. Subsistence agriculture usually has a labour-
intensive approach to farming, with little or no
technology involved. Producing the food may take
up a large portion of time for most members of the
community.

Cash cropping
Cash cropping is a type of agriculture whereby
crops are grown for sale to other people outside
the farm. Examples of cash crops include asparagus
in Lesotho and tobacco in Zimbabwe. Commercial agriculture uses complex technology.

Peasant agriculture As a result of the use of scientific and technological

Peasant agriculture is when farmers grow crops for intervention, commercial agriculture may produce
both consumption and selling. The crops they large quantities of goods. There is also the
produce are called cash crops. Today, in most development of monoculture – large farms
developing countries, most farmers are peasant specialising in producing one type of crop. This
farmers. may have negative impacts on the soil. Large-scale
farmers do not usually practise crop rotation.
Seasonal farming
Seasonal farming is when crops are planted
according to certain times of the year.

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Activity 5 Resettlement schemes: One example is the

Lesotho Highlands Water Project (discussed in
Work in a group. the next section).
Compare and contrast peasant and commercial Modernising farming: Farmers may be given
farming in terms of their impact on the training; this may also include the use of hybrid
environment and their ability to influence seeds and pesticides, improved irrigation,
human development. Present your ideas in a fertilisers and modern technology such as
mind map summary. tractors.
Integrated rural development: The integrated
rural development approach aims to improve all
aspects of rural life and to stimulate economic
Rural development schemes and growth so that the general standard of living
strategies will improve. This is a top-down approach.
Most people in developing countries are farmers This approach is discussed in greater detail in
who live in rural areas. They own small pieces of the next section.
land and therefore produce very little. Most people
in rural areas are very poor and it is difficult for Aims of the integrated rural
rural farmers to escape poverty. Many of them are development approach
trapped in the vicious cycle of poverty (a concept An integrated approach to rural development has
you learnt about in Chapter 1). several key aims, namely:
modernising farming
Something must be done to reduce poverty in providing basic social services
rural areas. Therefore rural development is an reducing the dependence on urban economies
important issue which government must raising rural people’s standard of living.
address. Rural development programmes aim to
increase production in rural areas and to Integrated rural development addresses a large
improve the quality of life of rural people. Rural number of problems which are interrelated.
development is necessary for a number of Integrated rural development includes:
reasons, namely: an improvement in roads and transport
to increase the food supply and reduce the provision of primary healthcare
malnutrition the improvement of literacy and development
to increase rural incomes in order to reduce the improvement of the water supply
poverty and malnutrition the establishment of farmers’ cooperatives.
to slow down the rate of migration to urban
areas. The whole community should gain from integrated
rural development.
There are many strategies that can be introduced
by developing countries such as Lesotho in order Land reforms and resettlement schemes
to develop rural areas, for example: Farming is very important in rural areas. However,
Loans and credit schemes: Loans from banks it is difficult for farmers to improve farming if there
and credit schemes can be made available to is not enough land to make a living. Also, if
farmers at low interest rates. farmers do not own land or have a right to land, it
Farmer’s cooperatives: A cooperative is a becomes difficult for them to borrow money from
group of farmers who have joined together in banks in order to invest in farming. The solution to
order to increase their production by buying in this is land reform, whereby land is allocated to
bulk and reducing transport costs. farmers in the hope that this will reduce poverty.
Small rural projects: These projects aim at
generating different sources of income, such as The case of the Lesotho Highlands Water
seedling production, particularly for forest and Project
fruit trees, and weaving (an example is Hatooa The Lesotho Highlands Water Project is a
Mose Mosali, an organisation specialising in transnational project between Lesotho and South
tapestries which are then sold to tourists). Africa. Water is transferred to South Africa through
These projects are usually directed at women, tunnels from a series of dams in Lesotho. Due to
because many men have migrated to towns or the size of the project, it has affected large
they are migrant workers in South African numbers of families who had to be resettled
mines. elsewhere. As a result, families lost farmlands and

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homes and this has contributed to rural poverty. Self-reliance: Farmers should believe that they
The Project addressed the problem by can achieve food security without outside help.
compensating people for the loss of their land and Hard work: Farmers must be prepared to work
training them for new jobs. hard.
Field training: Farmers should be trained in
Different approaches to community their own fields by the trainers.
development schemes Spontaneous technology spreading: Farmers
Grassroots development encourages communities must learn from others, especially their
to start their own projects, compared to a top- neighbours.
down approach, whereby the government decides Reluctance to use modern methods:
on the projects. Grassroots projects have a higher Machobane was not keen to adopt modern
chance of succeeding, because they work from the methods, except as a last resort.
bottom up – there is sense of ownership because
the projects are initiated by the local communities. The Machobane system focuses on helping farmers
Local communities identify their own needs and to feel independent and self-reliant. It aims at
then design projects based on this. Grassroots establishing a network of self-reliant people,
projects use local appropriate technology, which is supporting each other and dialoguing with those
affordable and easy to maintain. who support them.

Agricultural initiatives by the

government of Lesotho Activity 6
The Lesotho government has introduced a number
of agricultural initiatives aimed at improving Work on your own.
subsistence farming by raising living standards and Conduct research to find one example of a
crop production of farmers. With funding sourced project with a top-down approach and one
from Sweden, the World Bank, Taiwan and other example of a grassroots development project in
donor agencies, the following programmes were Lesotho. Evaluate each project and determine
started: the Food Grain Self-Sufficiency Project which has been more successful. Write up your
and the Machobane Agricultural Project. findings in a short report.

The Food Grain Self-Sufficiency Project

This project was aimed at increasing yields in the Problems involved in the
agricultural sector. The farmers were assisted with
seeds, fertiliser, herbicides and personnel. In
implementation of rural
return, farmers were expected to give two thirds of development schemes and
their produce to government. Although the project strategies
was achieving its objectives, the sharing of output Even though governments in developing countries
discouraged the farmers. want to stimulate development in rural areas, there
are often problems related to the implementation
The Machobane Agricultural project of the development schemes and strategies.
The Machobane project was a sustainable
mountain agricultural programme. It was The following are some common problems
introduced because land in Lesotho has low experienced with loan and credit schemes:
productivity and yields are subject to changes due It is often difficult for farmers to get loans from
to extensive farming methods and inadequate the bank.
nutrients in the soil. In his proposal, Machobane Farmers find it difficult to repay the loan with
believed that solutions to the problems facing interest.
Lesotho in agriculture can be solved by the Sometimes farmers have to use their land as
Basotho using local resources. In his opinion, security for the bank, in case they fail to repay
modern methods were unnecessary, because they the loan. This means farmers risk losing their
create a financial risk for the farmers. It is no land.
longer a government project, but there are some Female farmers struggle to obtain loans,
farmers who still practice this method of because women do not own land.
production.
The following are some common problems
The system emphasised the following: experienced with farmer’s cooperatives:

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The cooperatives’ benefits are also enjoyed by This approach is very expensive to implement.
large-scale commercial farmers. For example, It relies on imported expertise and technology.
when prices are reduced, commercial farmers It relies on foreign aid.
also enjoy this benefit. This becomes a problem Often the project is not sustained after it has
when commercial farmers buy all the stock of, come to an end, due to mismanagement of
for example, fertiliser or seeds sold at low funds, or inappropriate technology.
prices. This would prevent small farmers from It uses a top-down approach. In other words, it
benefiting. is initiated by governments of international
Farmers often lack the skills necessary to run experts. As such, it does not necessarily address
cooperatives. local needs.

The following are some common problems The following are some common problems
experienced with resettlement schemes: experienced with grassroots development schemes:
Land ownership is a problem when farmers do It requires training local people.
not have rights to land. There is a lack of funding from the government
Family members often have to migrate, as there for these types of projects.
is not enough land.
The redistribution of land results in loss of the
wealth that was created by large commercial Activity 7
farmers.
People are displaced to areas where they may Work in a group.
find it difficult to adapt. Analyse the problems described above.
Villages and cultural heritage are destroyed. In each case, draw up a list of criteria or
People’s lifestyles change. conditions that you think could ensure the
success of each type of intervention despite the
The following are some common problems difficulties.
experienced with integrated rural development:

Summary
In this unit you have learnt about the following:
The term ‘environment’ covers several aspects that relate to the physical environment as well
as human activities that impact on this environment – biophysical, political, economic and
social.
Lesotho has established the National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) to create increased
awareness of environmental concerns and to implement international conventions on
biodiversity, climate change and desertification controls.
Lesotho’s National Environment Policy aims to achieve sustained livelihoods and
development for Lesotho.
Traditional societies and colonial societies both impacted on the natural environment, as in
both cases humans performed certain actions in relation to the existing environment.
Agriculture has a significant impact on the environment.
Subsistence agriculture is when people produce just enough for their own needs. Subsistence
agriculture is labour-intensive.
Commercial agriculture uses technology and is capital-intensive. It often involves
monoculture, which impacts heavily on the environment.
Rural development initiatives aim to uplift rural communities.

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Unit 4.2 The world market for agricultural products

Unit objectives
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
understand the impact of population growth and the demand for food supplies
describe the ways in which agriculture can be modernised to increase output: pesticides,
fertilisers, irrigation, land reform, plant breeding, GM crops, hydroponics, animal breeding
and production programmes
examine the impact of transport, preserving and freezing on the world market for
agricultural products
evaluate agricultural systems in Lesotho and other countries, in terms of cash crop and
livestock production (e.g. rice, cotton, flowers, coffee, wool, mohair, dairy products) versus
growth of staple foods for the local population.

The impact of population growth agriculture, thus threatening food security,

and the demand for food supplies especially in developing countries.
The world population has generally been growing Fossil energy, which is used in developing
exponentially as a result of high birth rates and countries for the production of fertiliser, may
lower death rates due to improved primary be depleted if the population continues to
healthcare and development indicators. The world increase.
population is increasing at about 1.3 per cent per
annum. This population growth can have serious It is evident that population growth can threaten
effects on food security and natural resources: food security. Rapid population growth rates can
If the population continues to grow, it will result in increased poverty and worsen food
affect its density, age composition and the security outcomes, especially in Africa.
dependency ratio. Increased population density
resulting from population growth can reduce
the size of land holdings and the quality of Activity 1
food that people eat.
High population growth also leads to the Work with a partner.
over-exploitation of resources. An increase in Discuss and describe the problems that any
population will put pressure on the arable land, country with a fast growing population is likely
water and other resources. The continued to face. Focus on the ways in which this could
production of food is dependent upon fertile affect food supply.
soil, ample water and energy. The continued
growth of the population will increase the
requirement for these resources.
Increased pressure on land for farming and Ways to modernise agriculture to
settlement could result in land degradation, increase output
desertification and the loss of natural habitats. In recent years, farmers have found ways to
Fertile land suitable for crop production is increase their yields by adopting new technologies,
being lost through soil erosion, resulting in less such as hybrid food strains, selective breeding, the
areas being available for food production. use of fertilisers and pesticides, and the use of
Water is important for any crop to grow, be it synthetic nitrogen. The application of these
cash crop or crops grown for subsistence, such scientific and technological techniques in
as grains. Of all the water available, agriculture agricultural production ensures high productivity
production uses more water than any other by farmers. You will learn more about both the
economic activity. About 87% of the world’s positive and negative effects of these methods later
fresh water is used up by agriculture. Currently, in this chapter. Some of the most common
worldwide, there is a scramble for water methods that are used to modernise agriculture
resources among individuals and economic include:
activities. An increase in population will worsen Mechanisation of agriculture: This means
this situation and also reduce produce from using agricultural machinery to mechanise the

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work of agriculture. Mechanisation involves the done with microorganisms such as bacteria and
use of technology such as tractors, harvesters yeast, as well as insects, plants, fish and
and irrigation equipment. Mechanisation mammals.
encourages large-scale production and improves Hydroponics: This is a way of growing plants
the quantity of farm produce – it has long been in a mineral solution instead of in soil.
a feature in commercial farming. Nutrients are added to the hydroponic system.
The use of hybrid seeds: Hybrid seeds were
developed during the 1960s, during a period
known as the ‘Green Revolution’. Hybrid seeds Activity 2
are developed by artificially cross-pollinating
plants that would not naturally pollinate. It is Work on your own.
done to produce seed with desirable features 1. List the methods that have been introduced
from both plants. The introduction of hybrid in Lesotho to improve crop production.
seeds led to an increase in the amount of crops Describe how these methods have increased
that could be produced. The use of these has agricultural yield in Lesotho.
since spread to many countries. 2. Can you think of any disadvantages of some
Introduction of chemical methods to methods used to increase crop yield?
increase yield: Fertilisers, pesticides and
insecticides have been introduced to manage
pests and increase yields per unit of land. You
will learn more about the negative effects of
Impact of transport, preserving
this later in this chapter. and freezing on world markets
Advanced irrigation and stock management for agricultural products
techniques: Technology has been introduced
in irrigation (for example drip, pivot, sprinkler) The impact of transport
to improve the ability to water crops. New Transport plays an important role in agricultural
developments in veterinary medicine and production and development. It bridges the
animal nutrition have been introduced to distance between producer and consumer. Rail and
manage stock health and yield. These methods truck transport have helped farmers to move their
can be applied to small and large farms. products to the market place.
Improved varieties of crops: Technology has
made the introduction of varieties possible, Transport increases production, because it opens
which can enhance output. One example is the bigger markets than is otherwise possible. It also
maize varieties SG 413 and SG 4141. In citrus helps to shorten the time between production and
there are varieties of grapefruits, for example, consumption. As a result, costs of storage are
such as star-ruby and mash. reduced. For instance, supermarkets in Lesotho
Introduction of genetically modified that sell fruits and vegetables can get this fresh
organisms (GMOs): When scientists use produce from South Africa daily.
genetic engineering to change the genetic
material of an organism, such as a plant, that The impact of preserving and freezing
organism has been genetically modified. This is food
Preservation is used to extend the shelf life of fresh
produce, to extend the availability of local fresh
produce and to minimise waste, which keeps costs
down. Food preservation has enabled farmers to
keep their produce for a longer period of time,
thus opening up new markets for them. Consumers
are now able get the same products all year round.

Freezing food preserves it for a long time. The

optimum temperature for freezing most foods is
between –15 °C and –18 °C, because this is the
temperature at which the bacteria which spoils
food stop growing. Freezing makes it possible for
The mechanisation of irrigation contributes to food to be transported over long distances, thus
increasing output. creating more markets for agricultural produce.

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Activity 3 King Letsie III has introduced a form of

agriculture called the sufficiency model. It was
Work on your own. developed by King Bhumibol Adulyadej of
1. Give two examples of produce that can be Thailand. The model emphasises careful use and
preserved. management of land and water. Its aim is to enable
2. What benefits do we get from preserving people in rural areas to produce food for their own
food? needs as well as a surplus that they can choose to
3. How does food preservation influence the sell.
market for agricultural products?
The sufficiency model is an organic farming model.
Manure made from leaves and chicken waste is
Agricultural systems in Lesotho used. The method promotes a balanced approach:
More than 50% of Lesotho’s population live in it divides land into four sections, in a ratio of
rural areas and rely on farming for subsistence. 30:30:30:10. The emphasis is on diversification
They practise both crop farming and animal (producing a variety of crop or animals): the
farming at subsistence and commercial level. The sections are then used for different purposes,
mountainous environment of Lesotho means there depending on the farm, for example livestock,
is less land suitable for growing crops and many horticulture, citrus and fodder crops.
Basotho men work in South Africa. In Lesotho,
cultivated land amounts to less than 1.5 hectares
per family. Activity 4

Subsistence crop farming in Lesotho Work in a group.

As you have learnt, subsistence farmers produce to 1. Discuss the problems faced by subsistence
feed their families and maintain small herds of farmers in Lesotho. How can they be solved?
livestock such as cattle and goats. Maize, wheat and 2. The agricultural sector is a critical source of
sorghum are the main crops, along with peas, income, or an important supplementary
beans and potatoes. source, for more than half of the population
in Lesotho. What do you think the
In Lesotho, the good farming areas are in the government of Lesotho can do to help the
north-western lowlands. The rest of the country is rural population produce more food?
too mountainous and too dry to produce high Write up your ideas in a report.
crop yields. In fact, only 11% of the country is
farmed. Subsistence agriculture is practised, with
very little use of chemical fertilisers and capital.
Pressure from over-cultivation and overgrazing has Agricultural systems in other
degraded fields and pasture in many areas. These countries
factors, combined with erratic rainfall, soil erosion Botswana, Swaziland and Namibia have a similar
and HIV prevalence, have been the major causes of agricultural system to Lesotho. They practise
shrinking food production. subsistence farming and commercial farming in
terms of both crops and animals. Land is acquired
from the communal land. These farms are generally
small.

Subsistence farming in Botswana

Subsistence farming is practised on tribal land by
about 70% of the population. Farms are relatively
small. Crops grown include sorghum, millet,
maize, watermelon, pumpkin and sunflower.
Animals that are kept include sheep, goats, cattle,
horses, donkeys and poultry. Drought causes many
problems for agriculture. Farmers struggle with
poor soil, diseases and pests, poor farming practices
and a shortage of labour. Crop farming is on a
In Lesotho, the good farming areas are in the north- decline due to these problems. It contributes very
western lowlands. little to food security.

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The Botswana government wants to improve food Botswana has greatly influenced this type of
production, so subsistence is now influenced by farming. There are three abattoirs: in Lobatse,
modern farming methods. Subsidy schemes have Francistown and Maun. Most of the beef is sold to
been introduced to assist subsistence farmers in the European Union, but there other buyers such
crop production. One such scheme is ALDEP as South Africa, Zimbabwe and Zambia.
(Arable Land Development Policy) which was
launched in 2006. ALDEP aims at: The government has put strategies in place to
improving crop production improve the industry, for example disease control,
improving outreach by extension workers improved prices and subsidising some services
ensuring that the assistance packages are (such as improving the breed through artificial
properly used insemination).
strengthening of demonstration farms.
Agriculture in Namibia
Through ALDEP, farmers receive draught animal Namibia, like Lesotho, practises both arable and
power, farming implements, water tanks, fencing, commercial crop and pastoral farming, but pastoral
threshing machines, canoes and paddles (for farming is the most common. Subsistence pastoral
farmers in the Okavango). Other schemes include farming is practised on communal land, which
Citizen Entrepreneurial Development Agency constitutes 41% of the land tenure in Namibia.
(CEDA), BAMP and Temporary Liquidity Livestock production on communal land
Guarantee Programme (TGLP). contributes 5% of the total agricultural output, yet
it holds 62% of the total cattle population. Beef
Commercial farming in Botswana production is the major activity, but the stock is
Commercial farmers in Botswana focus on small. Livestock contributes 70% of the total
livestock farming. About 70% of commercial agricultural output. The centre of Namibia
farming is in livestock and a very small percentage constitutes 44% farm land with freehold tenure.
engages in arable farming. Commercial arable This is where commercial farming takes place.
farming takes place on the Barolong farms in the Commercial pastoral farming provides employment
south, Pandamatenga farms and Talana farms. The in Namibia.
major crops grown here are sorghum, maize and
pulses or beans. On the Talana farms cotton, Farmers rely on natural grazing for their livestock,
vegetables, maize and potatoes are grown in but farmers occasionally provide mineral
winter. supplements, as Namibia is a hot country. Namibia
has suffered severe droughts for years and the
Commercial pastoral farming is carried out on government has been offering subsidies to assist
freehold, fenced land. Farmers use paddocks to the farmers.
control grazing and breed animals inside the farms.
The system involves a lot of capital investment. Farming in MEDCs
Farmers keep mainly the indigenous breeds Farming in MEDCs is intensive. Unlike in
because these breeds can withstand the hot climate Lesotho, Botswana and Namibia, developed
of the country. The existence of abattoirs in countries use a small amount of land but obtain
high yields. Farming is commercialised and highly
mechanised.

Activity 5

Work with a partner.

1. What are the similarities in agriculture
between Lesotho, Namibia and Botswana?
2 How could these countries benefit from
mechanised agricultural practices, if at all?
3. Conduct an evaluation of the advantages
and disadvantages of the different
agricultural systems: commercial and
Cattle farmers in Botswana keep indigenous cattle subsistence farming for development.
breeds, such as the Tswana.

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Summary
In this unit you have learnt about the following:
A fast-growing population can threaten food security.
High population growth puts pressure on environmental resources.
Overpopulation leads to unemployment and poverty.
Mechanisation of agriculture increases output.
Improved varieties of crops increase output.
Transport enables farmers to move their products from the farm to the market.
Preservation and freezing gives commodities a longer life.
Lesotho practises both subsistence and commercial farming in crop production and pastoral
farming.
Botswana and Namibia have a similar agricultural system to Lesotho, even though practises
differ according to the natural environment.

Unit 4.3 The impact of changes in agriculture and strategies to

ensure sustainable development

Unit objectives
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
understand the causes and impacts of the flight from the land of origin
understand the causes and impacts of land degradation: soil erosion, overgrazing, pesticides,
nitrate pollution, burning of vegetation, etc.
compare the sustainability of modern farming systems and of organic farming as a type of
sustainable development
investigate the sustainability of farming methods used in Lesotho (e.g. Machobane,
Mantloane, Ngoapa o jale, etc.).

The causes and impacts of the people who suffer most are the poor, because they
flight from the land of origin cannot afford to protect themselves. For example,
In places where environments are affected by if drought strikes, poor people suffer most because
natural disasters and other life-threatening events they do not have enough food reserves. Due to
such as conflict, people often flee their land of these environmental disasters, some people are
origin to seek safety, food security or better forced to leave their land of origin and start a new
opportunities elsewhere. This kind of instability in life somewhere else. This is a common pattern in
a population has impacts for people as well as the many parts of Africa.
environment and has critical implications for Floods: During storms and serious floods,
development. Refugees are often the target of houses and villages are affected. In some
development initiatives. cases essential property is destroyed.
Farmland may be destroyed, leading to crop
Environmental disasters failure. As a result, a large number of people
Environmental disasters include events such as might be forced to leave the area and migrate
droughts, floods, hurricanes, volcanic eruptions, to areas which are less likely to be hit by
cyclones and snow. The severity of the disaster is floods.
usually judged by the death toll and the amount of Drought: Drought is a common natural
injured people, destruction of property and the hazard in southern Africa. The ongoing lack of
overall number of people affected. rainfall has had serious impacts, including crop
failure, which has led to increasing food prices
Natural disasters have massive socio-economic and and dependency on food relief.
ecological impacts in LEDCs. Recently, disasters Earthquakes: During an earthquake, buildings
have become more frequent and more destructive and infrastructure are destroyed, leading to the
due to climate and environmental changes. The displacement of people. There may be other

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problems, such as disease caused by the agriculture and the soil has begun to lose its
destruction of sanitation facilities. fertility. With more land being cleared, the bare
Disease: Southern Africa is plagued by many soil is exposed to rain and wind.
diseases, some of which are contagious. The Loss of vegetation through overgrazing:
severity of disease can cause people to flee the Overgrazing happens when the carrying ability
infected area. of land is exceeded. This happens when animals
graze on a small piece of land for a long time,
not giving the vegetation a chance to recover.
Burning of vegetation: The burning of
vegetation to clear land results in a loss of
nutrients and an increase in carbon-dioxide
levels.
Poor farming methods: Planting up and
down the slopes causes the soil to be easily
washed away by water.

The following are some ways that land degradation

can impact the environment and people:
Soil erosion: This leads to a loss of fertile
Flooding destroys property and damages farmlands. topsoil and the destruction of the habitat of
It may force people to flee the area. insects and other organisms that live on and in
the soil. Soil erosion leads to low agricultural
Human-made disasters production and the formation of gullies.
Wars and civil conflict, especially in Africa, have Deforestation: Deforestation means the
caused millions of people to be displaced from destruction of indigenous forests (removing
their homes into neighbouring areas. These people forest trees in order to use the land for different
may become refugees. Refugees often have little purposes). Sometimes wood from forests is
protection, work or food. Refugee settlements used as a source of energy (firewood), or trees
often result in environmental degradation which in are removed for agriculture. Deforestation
turn increases human vulnerability, limiting destroys the natural habitats of animals, which
livelihood options and exposing refugees to risks. can lead to the extinction of species. It may also
Host areas are also socially and economically increase the greenhouse effect, as trees are
affected by refugee crises. responsible for absorbing carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere. Deforestation leads to more
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and an
Activity 1 increase in global temperatures.
Desertification: Desertification means that the
Work in a group. soil can no longer support the living things in
Choose one natural disaster event. Discuss the the environment. This is caused by population
social and economic impacts of the disaster pressure, overgrazing the land, poor irrigation
event. Then present your work to the class. methods and deforestation. Roughly one third
of the surface area of Africa is under threat of
desertification. It leads to loss of soil fertility,
low food production and low food security, all
The causes and impacts of land of which may force people to leave their land of
degradation origin.
Land degradation is largely a result of increasing Pesticides: Pesticides are toxic chemicals used
population pressure, poor land management and in controlling pests. Most pesticides contain
widespread poverty. It is caused by large areas of DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane). These
land being cleared for agriculture. chemicals stay in the soil – they do not break
down easily. The poison accumulates in the
The following are some actions that lead to land bodies of the animals, birds and fish that eat the
degradation: plants or drink water infected with the
Soil erosion: This is the removal of fertile soil, chemicals from the soil. Traces of DDT have
by water or by wind. As the rural population been found in nearly every organism tested –
has increased, more land has been cleared for even in human breast milk. DDT destroys

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microorganisms in the soil and interferes with Features of modern farming

the food chain. It therefore it has a huge Modern farming enables people to produce food
negative effect on plant and animal life. on a large scale, but it is also expensive, as farmers
Nitrate pollution: This refers to water have to buy the technologies and inputs to farm
contamination caused by the presence of intensively. For example, large-scale irrigation must
excessive amounts of nitrates present in the soil be used, as well as fertilisers, herbicides, pesticides,
from the use of non-organic fertilisers. The seed and mechanised resources such as tractors.
compounds cause entrophication – when water Skilled labour is needed to operate machinery.
reaches a high concentration of nutrients, Most fertilisers contain nitrate (NO3) salts, which
especially phosphorus and nitrates. These are dangerous to living organisms in the soil and
typically promote the growth of algae. If you can contaminate water. They also damage aquatic
drink water that is high in nitrates, it can organisms. The herbicides and pesticides are toxic
interfere with the ability of your red blood cells and interfere with environmental processes of
to transport oxygen. People who use wells need reproduction.
to monitor the levels of nitrates in the water.
Using hybrid seeds allows farmers to have high
yields (more harvestable crop from the same area
of land) and a short growing season, which may
enable them to produce two crops in a year.
However, farmers have to buy new seed every
planting season. The practice of monoculture
(producing the same crop every year) depletes
nutrients in the soil.

Characteristics of organic farming

Organic farmers attempt to work in harmony with
natural conditions to grow crops, rather than using
invasive technology to change the environment in
Dongas are a sign of soil erosion. which food is grown. Organic farming is often
labour-intensive and takes place on a smaller scale
than modern commercial farming. However,
Activity 2 organic farming methods are thought to be better
for the environment because they do not introduce
Work on your own. harmful substances such as chemicals (pesticides)
If you were the Minister of Agriculture, how and they are able to preserve the biodiversity of an
would you respond to the use of pesticides area. Organic farming is thus said to be more
containing DDT? Explain your answer. Is your sustainable than many commercial modern farming
response sustainable? operations, as it does not have a negative impact on
the soil or the environment.

Modern farming systems versus Activity 3

organic farming
Modern farming is the practice and adoption of Work with a partner.
new, improved agricultural methods which include 1. Compare and contrast modern farming and
the use of synthetic fertilisers, pesticides, hybrid organic farming.
seeds and technology such as capital-intensive 2. Which one is more sustainable for Lesotho?
machinery. Organic farming is an agricultural Why do you say so?
practice that relies on environmental processes and 3. Present your ideas to the class.
includes techniques such as crop rotation, the use
of green and compost manure, as well as biological
pest control. Organic farming often uses cattle for
ploughing and kraal manure as fertiliser. Organic The sustainability of farming
farming uses basic tools and simple technology for methods in Lesotho
production. Remember that sustainability refers to meeting the
needs of the current users of an area without

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weakening or harming the environment it for

future users. Summary
In this unit you have learnt about the
There are a number of farming methods that are following:
used in Lesotho. Table 4.2 examines these different In places where environments are
farming methods and their sustainability. affected by natural disasters and
other life-threatening events such as
Table 4.2 Farming methods used in Lesotho conflict, people often flee their land
of origin to seek safety, food security
Ngoape o
Machobane Mantloane
jale
or better opportunities elsewhere.
Flight from the land of origin
Method Different Stones are Only the represents instability in a population
crops are used to build area where
and its ability to develop.
grown in a small, crops are
one field at elevated grown is Environmental disasters such as
the same plot. ploughed, floods, droughts, earthquakes and
time, for leaving human disasters such as conflict and
example some areas warfare all impact on the socio-
beans and undisturbed. economic and environmental
maize.
conditions in an area and thus
Advantages Different The method The
crops are saves undisturbed impact heavily on development.
produced. moisture. soil is left to Land degradation is largely a result
It can be recover. of increasing population pressure,
used by poor land management and
everybody. widespread poverty.
Causes of land degradation include
soil erosion, overgrazing, burning
vegetation, the use of poisons such
as DDT and poor farming methods.
The impacts of land degradation
include deforestation and
desertification, all of which impacts
on people’s lives and the country’s
development.
Modern farming is practised on a large
scale and includes the use of hybrid
seeds, chemicals and machinery.
Organic farming is practised on a
The Mantloane farming method smaller scale and uses natural
methods that are in harmony with
the existing environment so as not
Activity 4 to introduce poisons or invasive
elements into the process or food
Work in a group. supply.
Compare and contrast the farming methods Several farming methods are
used in Lesotho in terms of sustainability practiced in Lesotho, including
principles. Which method is most sustainable for Machobane, Mantloane and Ngoape
Lesotho? Give reasons for your response. o jale.

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Unit 4.4 Land use pressure and methods of land conservation

Unit objectives
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
understand how increasing population leads to deforestation or forced use of marginal land,
leading to desertification
describe how rapid urbanisation and development increases demand for land for utilities
(water supply, power supply, etc.)
consider the impacts of the exploitation of land for mineral extraction
describe the impacts of mass tourism on the environment
describe and evaluate conservation methods to preserve/conserve land and retain
biodiversity (e.g. national parks, nature reserves, ecotourism, national forests, heritage sites,
areas of special scientific interest, protection of endangered species and CITES, etc.).

Increasing world population and The use of marginal lands and

deforestation desertification
Increasing population growth leads to Deserts are normally formed by natural processes
deforestation, which is a growing problem that occur over a long period of time. However, in
worldwide. Forests support the lives of many plant some cases, deserts form as a result of human
and animal species. Forests also help to regulate the activities, particularly on marginal lands (land with
climate and control the effects of global warming, poor quality of soil and often found on the outskirts
as they reduce the levels of the greenhouse gas of already cultivated areas). As marginal lands are
carbon dioxide (CO2). The process of put under immense pressure by human activity, they
photosynthesis removes the CO2 from the tend to deteriorate and become unproductive.
atmosphere and releases oxygen, which is necessary
for life. The burning of trees also increases the Some of the human activities that lead to the
problems caused by excess CO2 in the atmosphere. deterioration of marginal lands are overstocking
and overgrazing. Keeping too many animals on
Most causes of deforestation are related to human marginal lands destroys vegetation and soil
activity. Deforestation occurs when land is cleared structure. Poor vegetation and soil structure
for farming, housing and other activities. Other encourage erosion by wind and water. In some
reasons for deforestation include harvesting wood marginal areas, nomads moving to less arid areas
for firewood, building materials and exotic woods. disrupt the local environment and increase the rate
Population growth means that people need more of erosion of the land. Nomadic people trying to
wood to fulfil all these needs. escape dry desert conditions may contribute to
turning productive land into a desert through their
land use practices. The destruction of soil structure
through poor farming methods also contributes
directly to soil erosion. These poor land practices
may be due to increased population and livestock
pressure on marginal lands. Pressure on marginal
lands may therefore lead to desertification.

Activity 1

Work on your own.

1. Define deforestation and desertification in
your own words.
Deforestation occurs when land is cleared for 2 Discuss the economic causes of deforestation.
farming, housing and other activities. 3. Discuss how the process of deforestation
affects wildlife and people’s lives.

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Rapid urbanisation and sector are unable to employ all the people
seeking work. Some people find work in the
development, and the increase informal sector, but there are often many
in demand for land for utilities people who are unable to find work.
As you learnt earlier in this book, urbanisation is
the increase in the proportion of people living in
towns and cities. Prior to 1950, the majority of Activity 2
urbanisation occurred in MEDCs. Rapid
urbanisation took place during the period of Work on your own.
industrialisation in Europe and North America in 1. Define the term urbanisation in your own
the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Many words.
people moved to urban areas to get jobs in 2. Identify the social and economic factors that
industries in many large towns and cities. Since cause rural and urban migration in Lesotho
1950, urbanisation has slowed in most MEDCs, as by listing them in point form.
people start to move to rural environments. 3. In not more than a page, discuss the
possible effects of rapid urbanisation on land
Since 1950, the LEDCs in South America, Africa and utilities in a city or urban area.
and Asia have experienced rapid population growth
in urban areas. Between 1950 and 1990, the urban
population living in LEDCs doubled. The main
cause of urbanisation in LEDCs since 1950 is rural The impacts of the exploitation
to urban migration. You learnt about the causes for of land for mineral extraction
urbanisation in Unit 3.2. Minerals are mainly extracted for economic
purposes. Developed countries tend to set up
The following are some effects of rapid operations to extract raw minerals in developing
urbanisation on land and utilities: countries. The extraction process has social,
Inadequate housing: An unexpected, high economic and environmental impacts.
influx of people to towns and cities often puts
pressure on limited housing facilities. Exploiting mineral resources has a range of
Developing countries often have informal advantages that impact favourably on development:
settlements on the outskirts of large cities and Useful products can be made from mined metal
also in the inner-city areas. These settlements to improve the standard of living of people.
lack basic amenities such as clean water supply, Valuable revenue is earned when the minerals
electricity supply or sewage systems. Unsanitary or their products are exported.
conditions are made worse by overcrowding Jobs are created for people, especially when
and the fact that informal economic activities in mining creates a new source of employment in
these settlements are often located in a poor country or in an area of high
unplanned spaces where sanitary facilities, such unemployment in a developed country.
as running water and toilets, are non-existent. Wages earned go into the local/national
Breakdown of services: Rapid urbanisation economy, leading to improvements in schools,
leads to overcrowding in cities. This means that health service and transport.
more people need to use utilities such as water, Mining often involves the construction of road
electricity and so on. This may lead to the and rail systems, which leads to improved
breakdown of basic services and systems within infrastructure that impacts positively on other
the city – roads, water, health, sewage, food parts of the economy.
and others. Social amenities such as schools and
hospitals cannot cope with the high population The exploitation of mineral resources is also
numbers. associated with some negative impacts for
Food insecurity: Rapid urbanisation often leads development:
to overcrowded informal settlements. The Dust from mining, quarrying or processing
infrastructure to make food available in these causes air pollution.
settlements often is inadequate or non-existent. Chemicals and other forms of matter deposited
Many poor people suffer from diseases related to as a result of mining operations in the local
poor health conditions and a shortage of food. water systems can have negative health effects
Unemployment: In a situation of rapid on aquatic life and even animals and people
urbanisation, the government and private that drink it.

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The landscape is scarred by mining, quarrying Noise pollution: Noise pollution from
and waste tips. aeroplanes, cars and buses, as well as
Mining operations may destroy the natural recreational vehicles, is an ever-growing
landscape (flora and fauna). Mining leads to a problem of modern life. Noise causes distress
loss of wildlife habitat. to wildlife. It can cause animals to change their
Mining operations or the transport of raw natural behavioural patterns.
materials and products cause noise pollution. Solid waste and littering: Waste disposal can
When the process of mineral extraction is become a serious problem in areas with high
complete, the mining location may be concentrations of people – this includes tourist
abandoned without the area being rehabilitated attractions or large tourism facilities. This can
(although this is no longer the norm in potentially be harmful to the natural
multinational mining operations). This means environment. Solid waste and littering can spoil
that ditches, gullies and trenches would stay the physical appearance of the surroundings,
behind. The abandoned land is then exposed to pollute water and shorelines and cause the
further degradation through natural forms of death of marine wildlife. Hotels and other
erosion. tourism or recreation facilities mean that there
is more sewage to process and this can cause
New ways of extracting metals that have fewer pollution. Water containing waste can pollute
environmental impacts are being researched. water bodies (such as lakes, rivers or oceans)
close to the tourist attraction and this can be
very harmful to the fauna (animals) and flora
(plants) of the area. Sewage that is released into
the ocean can destroy coral reefs. Sewage
pollution can also threaten the health of
humans and animals.

Activity 4

Work on your own.

1. Define the term ‘mass tourism’ in your own
Mining operations destroy the natural landscape and words.
wildlife habitats. 2. Discuss the positive and negative impacts of
mass tourism in developing countries.

Activity 3 Work in pairs.

3. a) Brainstorm a set of criteria for a tourism
Work with a partner. venture in Lesotho that is
Discuss the positive and negative effects of the environmentally and developmentally
extraction of mineral resources. Present your responsible and sustainable.
ideas to the class. b) Now design your own venture according
to these criteria.
c) Present your work to the class.

The impact of mass tourism on

the environment Land preservation and
Although tourism causes economic growth in
many countries, there are also environmental conservation methods to retain
problems associated with tourism, as listed below. biodiversity
Uncontrolled tourism may pose a threat to many Biodiversity refers to the variety of life of all
natural areas around the world. species on Earth. It is also a measure of the health
Air pollution: Transport by air, road and rail is of biological systems. Conservation is a means to
continuously increasing in response to the preserve, save, reduce or prevent loss, neglect,
rising number of international tourists damage or extinction. There are different elements
worldwide. Tourism means more air travel, that need to be conserved, including soil, water,
which is associated air pollution. energy as well as endangered animals and forests.

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As you have learnt, sustainable development is Protecting wildlife through laws that ban or
development which uses resources in such a way prevent hunting or that control the cutting
that they will last for a very long time. It is down of trees
development that conserves the environment so that Educating the public about the need to protect
we can continue to use it for future generations. and preserve the environ­ment for the welfare of
future generations
The following are some means of conserving
resources such as soil, water and forests:
Solving the problem of soil erosion: Contour Case study: Bokong Nature Reserve
farming (ploughing around a slope instead of
down a slope) helps to avoid soil erosion. Bokong Nature Reserve lies high in the
Farmers can also build walls around hill mountains of Lesotho. There are many
contours to prevent the soil being washed away. activities at the nature reserve, such as hiking,
Solving the problem of deforestation: Tree pony rides and bird watching, to attract
planting programmes have to be set up. In tourists. The reserve contains large afro-alpine
Lesotho, the government has established a new wetlands – important ecological areas that are
Ministry of Forestry to promote and encourage home to many species. There are also areas of
the Basotho to plant trees. If for every one tree heathland, where visitors may see Vaal
cut down, a new tree is planted, future Rhebuck. Visitors to the reserve may spot the
generations will benefit from these trees. bearded vulture, as well as many endemic bird
Additionally, more economical appliances such species. There are also large numbers of the ice
as stoves can be designed, so that less firewood rat in the reserve. The valleyhead fens are
is needed. distinct wetland areas that are of great
Solving the problem of water ecological importance – they contain unique
contamination: We need to use water wisely plant species that have adapted to high altitudes
and avoid contaminating rivers and lakes. We and moist conditions. Another big attraction in
can also build water purification plants to purify the reserve is the Lepaqoa Waterfall, which
our water. freezes in winter – a spectacular sight.
Solving the problem of air pollution:
Technology that reduces the amount of
pollution coming from factories can be used.
For example, factories install electrostatic filters Activity 5
to remove dust and smoke while harmful gases
are removed with water filters called scrubbers. Work with a partner.
This technology is used in the USA and 1. Read about the ways in which certain
Europe. However, the equipment can be costly environmental problems can be solved. Also
and therefore this kind of technology is too do research on the Lesotho Highlands
expensive for the poorer developing countries. Water Project (LHWP), with a focus on its
ecological effects.
Wildlife conservation 2. Do more research on the Bokong Nature
Wildlife conservation refers to caring for and Reserve, or another reserve of your choice.
protecting plant and animal species and their Evaluate if the reserve uses a sustainable
habitats from harm or destruction. An endangered approach to keeping biodiversity and
species is a population of a living being that is in encouraging sustainable development in
danger of becoming extinct. Wildlife conservation southern Africa.
is becoming increasingly important, as human
activities have a considerable negative effect on
endangered plant and animal species.

The following are some wildlife conservation

methods:
Establishing national parks and sanctuaries,
including the preservation of the original
habitats of organisms
Establishing specific reserves for endangered
plants and animals

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Summary
In this unit you have learnt about the following:
Increasing population growth adds to the growing rate of deforestation worldwide.
An unexpected, high amount of people migrating to towns and cities often puts pressure on
the limited housing facilities for living and work purposes, as well as other utilities such as
water supply and power supply.
Mining has many negative effects on the environment, such as land degradation and the
destruction of natural habitats.
Although tourism can improve the national economy, mass tourism can be a threat to the
environment, for example through traffic exhaust fumes, littering, increased sewage
production and noise.
Sustainable development is development which uses resources in such a way that they will
last for a very long time. It is development that conserves the environment so that we can
continue to use it for future generations.

Unit 4.5 Global environmental problems and reduction strategies

Unit objectives
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
use a case study to understand the causes of deforestation of tropical forests and its effects
on biodiversity and assess different strategies to reduce this
understand the possible causes of climate change and its impact and evaluate possible
strategies to limit climate change and its impact
understand how acid rain occurs and the impact of acid rain on ecosystems and evaluate
possible strategies to reduce acid rain and/or reduce its impact
understand the causes of urban air pollution (e.g. industry, traffic, etc.) and the types of
pollutants (e.g. carbon monoxide, particulates, nitrogen and sulphur oxides, etc.)
describe the impact of the pollutants and evaluate strategies to reduce such impacts
understand how water pollution from industrial production and sewage can be an
environmental problem and evaluate strategies to reduce its impacts
evaluate strategies to dispose of solid waste (e.g. landfill sites, recycling, reusing, etc.).

In previous units you have learnt about Case study: Causes and effects of
environmental problems in relation to deforestation in the Mau Forest in Kenya
development. In this unit we will examine these
issues in greater detail by studying specific case Kenya is classified as a country with a low forest
studies. cover (less than 2% of the total land area). The
Mau Forest is Kenya’s largest forest and is
Causes and effects of located in the Rift Valley province of Kenya.
The forest covers an area of 900 km2.
deforestation and forest
degradation The causes of deforestation and forest
The following case study provides insight into the degradation in Kenya include clearing natural
causes of deforestation and forest degradation. forests to grow plantations, logging, converting
natural forests into agricultural land, human
settlement, forest removal and fires. The
forestry department, saw mills, politicians and
other influential people are also responsible for
deforestation and forest degradation, in the
sense that these key people and institutions,

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who are responsible for laws controlling and Ogiek culture, they see traditional conservation as
protecting the forests, fail to provide alternative vital. They have, therefore, put in place various
opportunities for communities who make their traditional conservation measures that were passed
living entirely from the forests. It is assumed on to the community by the elders.
that, since the forest is government property, no
individual or community has a legal right over Possible interventions to prevent the
the forest. This leads to some people using the deforestation process and the resultant problems
forest for their own profit (exploitation), while include protecting the rivers and streams in the
other people are separated from the very area, getting the community involved in forest
resources on which they depend for survival. conservation and formulating policies and laws.

In addition, the main causes of deforestation and The following are possible solutions to the
forest degradation have been identified, namely: underlying causes:
policy issues such as weak government policy Decision-makers should involve local
on forest conservation and protection and the stakeholders when they make policy.
inability of government and other agencies to Management of the forest should be done by
implement policy on forest conservation and a board of trustees.
protection Support for sustainable forest management
political issues, such as the practice of giving should be encouraged at the local level.
patches of forest to supporters of politicians Support for forest protection should be
for political support encouraged at the global level.
macro-economic policies, such as high Activities that reduce the pressure on forests
increase cash crop farming for exports. should be promoted.

Effects of deforestation on biodiversity NGOs, policy-makers, the Ogiek Welfare

Forests are rich in biodiversity. They host many Management Committee, the Kenyan Forest
different types of indigenous tree species and Department, the Ministry of Water Resources,
mammals. Forests, especially those in the tropics, the Ministry of Agriculture, the Kenya Wildlife
serve as storehouses of biodiversity. Deforestation, Service, the Ministry of Lands and Settlement,
fragmentation and degradation destroy this local authorities and others should all be involved
biodiversity. The Ogiek people live in the Mau in implementing the possible solutions.
Forest. They are dependent on the forest for all
resources. One possible limitation of the proposed
strategies is that funds are required to help
Deforestation reduction strategies educate local people and gather support, and
Since forest resources play an important role in the these funds are often hard to source.

Activity 1

Work in a group.
Answer these questions and produce a report
for class discussion.
1. Define biodiversity.
2. Explain how deforestation affects
biodiversity.
3. In relation to the Mau Forest case study,
discuss the possible strategies that can be
employed to control or reduce deforestation:
a) What are the potential strengths of these
strategies in controlling or reducing
Deforestation threatens Kenya’s Mau Forest. deforestation?
b) What are the limitations of these
strategies?

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Climate change off during oil drilling operations, coal mining,

There is much debate about climate change. Some from leaking gas pipelines and landfills and
scientists believe it is caused by natural processes waste dumps.
and changes in the Earth’s atmosphere over time, Agricultural activities: Agricultural activities
while others believe that the rapid changes are a also affect greenhouse gases. Methane is
result of human activities – notably the production released by animals such as dairy cows, goats,
of greenhouse gases that help to trap heat in the pigs, camels, horses and sheep. The clearing of
atmosphere and cause rising temperatures. land to plant crops reduces the natural
vegetation in an area. Natural vegetation such
Natural causes of climate change as trees and shrubs absorb CO2 and thus
The climate is affected by natural events such as regulate these gases in the atmosphere.
volcanic eruptions, ocean currents, the Earth’s Deforestation: You have already learnt that
orbital changes and solar variations. deforestation is an important environmental
When a volcano erupts, it emits gases such as problem. Rainforests have a natural ability to
sulphur dioxide (SO2), water vapour, dust and ‘clean’ the air by absorbing CO2 and releasing
ash into the atmosphere. These gases and ash oxygen. They also regulate temperature. When
can influence climatic patterns for years by forests are cleared for agriculture or other
reflecting heat from the sun back into space human activities, this reduces the number of
and thereby cooling the atmosphere. trees that can help to slow climate change.
The oceans have a major effect on climate.
Ocean currents flow from warmer equatorial Possible strategies to limit climate
areas to cooler polar areas. As they flow, they change
circulate heat. Strategies to limit climate change focus on
Natural changes in the tilt of the Earth lead to reducing or changing the human activities that
small but important climatic changes. A greater seem to increase climate change.
or smaller angle of tilt could lead to warmer or Renewable energy: Developing and using
cooler summers and colder winters, as the alternative sources of renewable energy that do
concentration of the sun’s rays on the surface not release harmful gases may help to limit or
of the Earth change. slow climate change. Renewable energy sources
The sun is the main source of energy for the include the use of wind, water and solar energy.
Earth and its output continues to change. It is also possible to use biomass to generate
Although we may not be directly aware of the energy. These are referred to as ‘greener’
sun’s energy output changing, this can affect sources of energy. Using renewable energy
the Earth’s climate over time. sources not only reduces the release of
greenhouse gases that influence climate change,
Human causes of climate change they are also more sustainable because they are
The warming of the Earth over the past 50 years renewable.
has been influenced by human activities in many Reduction of carbon dioxide emissions:
different ways. Vehicles that use fossil fuel energy release
Burning fossil fuels: People have been greenhouse gases. Vehicles that use renewable
burning fossil fuels such as coal and oil to energy sources may help to limit climate
supply energy to run industrial processes – change. In some countries, people are
electricity generation, machines, vehicles, etc. encouraged to use other forms of transport
Burning fossil fuels releases CO2 and other such as public transport, bicycles and so on, to
gases into the atmosphere. As more and more reduce the number of cars on the roads.
people drive vehicles powered by fossil fuels, Limiting the culture of consumerism –
the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere reduce and recycle: Reducing consumerism or
increases. CO2 is the most important introducing more ethical or responsible
‘greenhouse’ gas. The concentration of CO2 in consumer behaviour (for example, buying
the atmosphere ‘traps’ heat that is naturally locally grown vegetables instead of ones that
radiated from the surface of the earth and have been imported from far away) may help to
causes the atmosphere to warm up. The prevent or limit the effects of climate change.
amount of CO2 in the atmosphere has been Reforestation: Reforestation – planting more
increasing since the Industrial Revolution. trees and vegetation, especially indigenous
Methane is another greenhouse gas. It is given varieties in specific areas – may be a significant
way to ‘cleanse’ the Earth’s atmosphere.

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Sustainable farming methods, such as

organic farming: Because large-scale modern 2. How is Lesotho affected by climate change?
agricultural practices affect the balance of gases How do you think climate change affects
in the atmosphere, preventing climate change the economic, social and environmental
also needs to focus on sustainable farming. future of Lesotho?
• Organic agriculture helps to neutralise 3. Discuss how you think you could promote
climate change by restoring soil organic education about climate change in your local
matter content as well as reducing soil community.
erosion and improving the soil’s physical
structure. As the demand for organically
grown produce increases, organic farming Acid rain
will become more economically successful Acid rain is caused by air pollution from gases
and more popular. released into the atmosphere (emissions). These
• If local farmers practise crop rotation, they gases have sulphur and nitrogen compounds and
can help to reduce carbon emissions. when they mix with water in the atmosphere, acids
Education: Educating people about climate form. These acids then come down with
change is an important tool in lowering precipitation such as rain and snow. We call this
greenhouse gas emissions and encouraging acid rain.
sustainable living. Schools, community forums
and governments can design programmes Causes of acid rain
targeted at raising awareness about climate Acid rain is caused by human activities such as
change and how to address it at every level of factories, power stations and vehicles burning fossil
society. fuels. Power stations that are powered by burning
coal are some of the worst sources of the gases that
cause acid rain. Although acid rain is usually caused
by human activities, it does occur naturally on a
lower scale. Volcanic gases and other gases from
natural biological processes, such as methane from
cattle, are some of the common natural causes of
acid rain.

The effect of acid rain on the

environment
Acid rain damages property due to its chemical
structure. It destroys marble and limestone, which
are often used in the construction of buildings and
monuments as well as gravestones in cemeteries.
Metals such as iron are damaged by acid rain.

Acid rain also has a negative effect on ecosystems.

Acid rain changes the quality of water in rivers and
lakes. Animals and fish that live in the rivers and
Wind and solar energy are examples of renewable lakes are negatively affected. Acid rain in water can
energy. also affect plant life. On land, it damages forests at
high altitudes and also affects soil fertility. These
environmental changes can upset entire
Activity 2 ecosystems.

Work in a group. Possible strategies to combat acid rain

Discuss the following questions and prepare to To solve this problem, global treaties such as the
report back to the rest of the class. Sulphur Emissions Reduction Protocol and the
1. Identify possible strategies to limit climate Nitrogen Oxide Protocol have been passed. Strict
change that you think are appropriate or emissions laws, both nationally and internationally,
relevant to Lesotho. as well as the introduction of alternative energy
sources will help to prevent acid rain in the future.

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Activity 3 Hydrocarbons are compounds of hydrogen

and carbon. They are produced by hydrocarbon
Work in a group. fuels. The danger of hydrocarbons is that they
Draw a flowchart that shows the effects of acid are flammable and can explode under certain
rain. Present your report to the rest of the class. conditions.
Ground-level ozone (O3) is an example of a
secondary pollutant produced when nitrogen
dioxide (NO2) mixes with hydrocarbons and
Urban air pollution and types of sunlight. Sunlight activates ozone formation.
pollutants High levels of ozone are therefore generally
created during hot, still, sunny weather.
The causes of air pollution Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is a result of burnt
Most air pollution is caused by burning fossil fuels, fossil fuels. A large of amount of SO2 is released
which releases smoke containing sulphur dioxide into the air from power plants and transport
and carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Traffic sources.
congestion, industrial operations, mining and Carbon monoxide is caused by the incomplete
electricity generation in coal power stations all lead burning of materials which contain carbon,
to air pollution. These pollutants cause health and including most transport fuels.
environmental problems in urban areas and other
areas when they are spread by wind or air currents. The impacts of pollutants
Poor air quality may affect human health and the
Types of pollutants environment in many ways.
Pollutants are any substances that pollute
something, especially water or the atmosphere.
Pollutants can be found in different forms – liquid,
gas and solid particles. Pollutants are classified as
primary or secondary. Primary pollutants are
produced directly from a process, such as a volcanic
eruption or smoke from a factory. Secondary
pollutants form in the air when different pollutants
react chemically with one another (for example, to
form acid rain).
Nitrogen oxides are a mixture of nitric oxide
(NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). They are
caused by the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles,
industrial processes and during power In some cities, the air is so polluted that people wear
generation. masks when they walk around in the streets.

Table 4.3 Pollutants and their impact

Pollutant Health effects Environmental impact
Nitrogen oxides, such as Nitrogen dioxide can affect the lungs and lead These gases form acid rain, which affects
nitrogen dioxide (NO2) to respiratory infections such as influenza. the soil and vegetation. They also add to the
formation of ozone.
Ozone (O3) Ozone causes irritation to the lungs and Ozone is harmful to crops and natural
causes symptoms similar to asthma and lung vegetation.
disease.
Volatile organic compounds These compounds may cause cancer, central VOCs also cause the formation of ozone,
(VOCs) such as benzene nervous system disorders, liver and kidney which damages crops and natural vegetation.
damage, reproductive disorders and birth
defects.
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) Sulphur dioxide may result in a decrease in Sulphur dioxide contributes to acid rain,
lung function in asthmatics. Sulphur dioxide affecting the soil and vegetation. It also
pollution is more harmful when it is in large destroys certain types of stone used in
quantities. buildings.
Carbon monoxide (CO) Carbon monoxide can lead to a decreased Carbon monoxide plays a role in ozone
supply of oxygen to the heart, particularly in formation.
people suffering from heart disease.

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Strategies to reduce air pollution

Reducing air pollution is a major concern for all us. Water pollution as an
It will require us to all work together to solve this environmental problem
problem. Water pollution is a serious environmental
problem. Water may be polluted through domestic
There are several ways in which air pollution can be as well as industrial waste. In urban areas, sewage is
reduced. Some of these measures require stakeholder usually treated in sewage treatment plants operated
participation, development of management plans, by the local government. Treatment plants are
monitoring and enforcement. These strategies designed to control solid suspended waste. Some
should recognise the important roles of all treatment plants also treat and eliminate
stakeholders and should empower civil society and pathogens. (Pathogens are bacteria, viruses or
the private sector to take an active role in reducing other microorganisms that can cause disease.)
pollution, in conjunction with government.
Industrial facilities also generate sewage and waste
Here are some of the strategies that could be used water. Some sewage can be treated in ordinary
to reduce air pollution: domestic sewage facilities. However, some
Reducing gas emissions: international industries produce waste water that is polluted with
organisations such as the UN and the World substances such as oil or grease, toxic pollutants
Bank have programmes that assist countries to such as heavy metals or other pollutants. This waste
control deforestation. For instance, Reducing water needs to be treated at special facilities. There
Emissions from Deforestation and Forest are also ways to control heated water generated by
Degradation (REDD) provides incentives to power plants or manufacturing plants.
encourage developing countries to limit
deforestation.
Strengthening government and non- Activity 5
government institutions and policies: When
governments are strong and stable, they are Work in a group or as a class.
able to develop good policies and strategies Visit the nearest industrial site in or near your
that slow down the rate of pollution. NGOs are town or city.
also good and effective institutions that take 1. Identify factories or sewage systems that
decisions and implement programmes quickly. cause water pollution.
Increasing investment in research, education 2. Explain how these systems cause water
and extension: Research, training and pollution.
education on environmental issues can help to 3. What are the effects of water pollution in
avoid negative environmental impacts. the area?
Enforcing policy, legislative and regulatory 4. Find out if there are measures or strategies
measures: Effective policies, legislative and in place to control water pollution in the
regulatory measures have to be implemented to area.
reduce pollution. 5. Based on what you have learnt and your
Control devices: The installation of own research on different strategies to
technology that controls and limits pollutants is reduce the effects of water pollution,
another strategy to reduce pollution. suggest realistic solutions that would be
suitable for your town or city.

Activity 4
Solid waste
Work in a group. Solid waste refers to environmental pollutants such
Write a report for class discussion on the as litter, animal and human waste and commercial
following: waste. It is a public concern, because of the
1. Identify and describe the pollutants that negative effects it has on the environment and the
cause air pollution in urban areas. general health of people, animals and plants. It is
2. Discuss the impact of urban air pollution on therefore very important solid waste be disposed of
human health and the environment. safely, to avoid any further damage it may cause to
3. Discuss strategies to reduce urban air the environment.
pollution in an urban area.
The following are some examples of solid waste:

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Controlled waste is household, industrial, Activity 6

commercial and clinical waste that needs a
waste management license for treatment, Work with a partner.
transfer and disposal. 1. Investigate solid waste disposal strategies in
Commercial waste is waste from trade, your area.
business, sport or recreation facilities 2. Create a flow chart to illustrate how solid
(excluding municipal and industrial waste). waste is managed.
Household waste is waste from household 3. Make recommendations about how you
collection rounds, services such as street think it could be managed more effectively.
sweeping, bulk waste collection, hazardous
household waste collection and litter
collections.
Industrial waste comes from factories and Summary
industries (excluding mines and quarries). In this unit you have learnt about the
following:
There are many environmental
problems and forms of pollution
caused by human and natural
processes. These problems and forms
of pollution affect development.
Deforestation limits the Earth’s
ability to regulate temperatures and
climate change.
Climate change is made worse by
both human activities (such as the
burning of fossil fuels) and natural
processes (such as variations in the
Landfills are areas filled with solid waste from tilt of the Earth).
households, schools, business premises and other places. Acid rain is caused by chemical
changes in the Earth’s atmosphere by
Strategies to dispose of solid waste pollutants that are released into the
Recycling: Many types of waste material can be atmosphere.
recycled, for example paper, glass, cardboard, Urban air and water pollution are
plastics and scrap metals. There are specialist caused by the burning of fossil fuels
companies that are able to recycle special types and the release of contaminants into
of waste such as solvents. the air and water systems.
Waste minimisation: Materials that can be Pollutants in the environment cause
re-used are recovered and then used again. health problems as well as
Composting: Composting is a biological environmental problems.
process in which vegetable matter and other There are various strategies to
organic waste, such as garden and kitchen control and manage pollution in the
waste, is converted into a stable rough material environment, including water
that can be applied to land to improve the soil treatment processes and industrial
and enrich the nutrient content of the soil. pollutant limitation.

Unit 4.6 Natural and human-made disasters and development

Unit objectives
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
define the term ‘disaster’ and give examples of both human-made and natural disasters
undertake case studies of different types of disasters and compare their impacts on development
evaluate the ways in which government and NGOs and international agencies deal with the
impact of disasters.

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Disasters Few LEDCs are able to implement quick rescue

A disaster is an accident or event that may result in operations. Emergency services are often
a lot of damage to property, cause injury or loss of under-developed, which means that loss of life
life and/or mass destruction. Disasters can be is greater than in areas where there is effective
natural or human-made. emergency response.
Fires, such as veldfires, can destroy whole
Natural disasters ecosystems. They can also threaten human
A natural disaster is an extreme natural event (such habitation and have a huge effect on
as an earthquake, flood, hurricane or volcanic development, especially in the case of
eruption) that threatens human lives, activities or widespread, uncontrolled fires.
property and/or the environment. LEDCs tend to
suffer the greatest costs when a disaster strikes,
compared to MEDCs. Most deaths related to Human-made disasters
natural disasters occur in LEDCs. Human-made disasters refer to threats that are
caused by human intent, negligence or error, or
Sometimes, one natural event leads to secondary that involve a failure of a human-made system.
disasters as well. For example, a tsunami that Examples of human-made disasters are fires,
occurs in a coastal area may lead to flooding transport accidents, industrial accidents, oil spills,
further inland. stampedes, nuclear explosions and war. The
following are only a few examples:
Natural hazards can happen in unpopulated areas Aviation: One example of a catastrophic
and never develop into disasters. This means that aviation disaster was the Tenerife Crash of
we only really classify natural events as ‘disasters’ 1977, when miscommunications between air
when they impact on human activity. The world’s traffic control and air crew caused two jets to
population has grown very rapidly in the last collide on the runway, killing 583 people.
century and there are now greater numbers of Rail: One example of a devastating rail disaster
people living in dangerous environments. This occurred in 2004 in Sri Lanka, when 1 700
means that natural disasters happen more people died in the Sri Lanka tsunami-rail
frequently and have more disastrous effects. disaster.
Road accidents: Traffic collisions are one of
The following are only a few examples of natural the leading causes of death in many countries.
disasters: Ocean travel: Ships can sink, capsize or crash.
Drought leads to the loss of crops and also Perhaps the most infamous sinking was that of
possibly topsoil. The dry, compact soils that the Titanic which hit an iceberg and sank,
result from a drought do not let water in very resulting in one of the worst maritime disasters
easily during storms, so flooding becomes a in history. Other notable incidents include the
danger. When vegetation dies out due to capsizing of the Costa Concordia. The Costa
drought, soil erosion occurs, which makes the Concordia ran aground on a reef on 14
land less productive. January 2012 as it ran aground on a reef.
Flooding can cause catastrophic damage to There were 4 252 passengers on board. Of the
property and huge loss of life. Floods can also people on board, 32 people were killed, two
lead to sources of drinking water becoming were missing and presumed dead and 64 were
contaminated. injured.
Earthquakes are caused by the shifting of the Industrial disasters: Examples are mining
Earth’s tectonic plates along fault lines. Severe accidents, oil spills and so forth. These disasters
earthquakes can be deadly. In the Pacific tend to have a significant impact on the
Ocean, there is the ‘Pacific Ring of Fire’ that environment.
stretches up and down the west coast of North Sociological disasters include crime, arson,
America and continues across Japan and south civil disorder and terrorism. Arson is setting
to New Zealand. It contains 452 volcanoes; fires deliberately to damage property. Civil
making up 75% of the world’s active and disorder includes disturbances such as riots and
dormant volcanoes. Earthquakes in LEDCs are strikes. Terrorism is the use or threatened use
often much more damaging than those in of violence to create fear or achieve some
MEDCs. Often the buildings cannot resist the ideological goal. The attacks on the Twin
shock waves, as they have been poorly Towers in New York on 11 September 2001
constructed of made from heavy, local rock. are an example of a terrorist attack.

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Structural collapse: Structural collapse is often

caused by engineering failures. Bridge failure Examples and case studies of
may be caused in several ways, such as under- disasters
design or by corrosion. Other examples of Later in this unit, you will undertake case studies of
structural collapse include the failure of dams various disasters. Below are two examples of case
and buildings collapsing. studies, to use as a model.
Fires: Bush, forest and mine fires may be
started by natural causes, but they are also
often started by human negligence or arson. Case study: Hurricane Katrina, 2005
They can burn thousands of square kilometres.
If a fire intensifies enough to produce its own Hurricane Katrina hit the city of New Orleans
winds and ‘weather’, it will form a firestorm. in the USA in August 2005. In two days 80%
of the city was flooded due to levees breaking
and the death toll was estimated at 1826
Activity 1 people. Over a million people were evacuated.

Work on your own. This was a natural disaster which started as a

1. Name three examples of natural disasters tropical depression but developed into a
and three examples of human-made tropical storm.
disasters.
2. Do you think there is any relationship or Hurricane Katrina had a huge impact on the
connection between human-made and USA and on the city of New Orleans in
natural disasters? Write a paragraph to particular.
explain your view. Many people had to be evacuated from the
city. Some of them did not return to the
city.
Most of the city was flooded.
The supply of drinking water was cut off.
Thousands of homes and businesses were
destroyed.
Criminal gangs looted homes and businesses
and committed other crimes.
Tourist attractions were badly affected,
which affected the industry.
People felt anger towards the government:
they felt the local and federal government

Oil spills are human-made disasters that have An earthquake can cause massive losses of human life
catastrophic results for the ocean and all sorts of and destroy infrastructure and property.
marine life.

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did not prepare New Orleans for a disaster; economic disruption. The accident had far-
the canals protecting the city from flooding reaching negative effects on physical and
were not strong enough and the areas mental health, for example a rise in thyroid
people were evacuated to had no proper cancer, cardiovascular disease and leukemia.
facilities. Also, many pregnant women were advised to
abort due to the exposure to radiation.
Communities had to work hard to rebuild the Residents in urban areas around the plant had
city. Help streamed in from all over the USA. to be evacuated.

Lessons learnt: The radioactive materials released from the

Government officials have implemented accident had immediate effects on plants and
better environmental, communications and animals living 20 to 30 km from the Chernobyl
evacuation policies. power plant. Rivers, lakes and other water
The Army Corps of Engineers rebuilt the bodies were also affected by radioactive
levee system, making the barriers higher and materials. This had a detrimental effect on fish
supporting them with steel beams. and other aquatic life. Water bodies are still
Acts that would help revise the evacuation being affected by runoff of long-lived caesium
plans were revisited. and strontium released from contaminated
Residents’ access to evacuation and alert soils. The animals and vegetation in the
information were improved. affected forests and mountains were particularly
contaminated.

The lesson learnt from the Chernobyl accident

is the importance safety. After the accident,
substantial investment was made into
improving safety conditions. Modifications
have been made to overcome deficiencies in all
similar reactors still operating.

Hurricane Katrina caused extensive property

damage to New Orleans in the USA.

Case study: The Chernobyl nuclear

radiation disaster

The nuclear disaster in Chernobyl was caused

by an explosion and a fire at the nuclear plant.
It was a result of mismanaged electrical
engineering or a flaw in the design of a reactor,
which was also operated by inadequately
trained personnel. This was worsened by
serious mistakes made by the plant operators. It
was also a direct result of the Cold War The nuclear disaster in Chernobyl was caused by an
isolation and the lack of any safety culture. explosion and a fire at the nuclear plant.

The accident caused a massive amount of

radioactive material to be released into the
environment. This caused serious social and

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Activity 2 development. The revenue of poor countries

often goes down after a natural disaster.
Work with a partner. Governments in these countries have to put
Answer these questions. their already small amount of resources toward
1. Read the Hurricane Katrina case study. What rebuilding at the expense of other social needs,
were the effects of Hurricane Katrina on: such as healthcare or food security.
a) people Redistribution of resources: Sometimes
b) property disasters can generate more capital and
c) economic activities? sometimes they can serve to redistribute the
2. Read and discuss the Chernobyl case study. existing capital. Following a disaster, money
What effect do you think this disaster will moves from taxpayers to the construction
have on development? industry, insurance companies pay out claims to
policy holders and the medical sector
experiences a surge in disaster victims. The
You will undertake and compare your own case redistribution of resources boosts the economic
studies at the end of this unit. standing of various sectors in the economy.
Spikes in commodity prices: Due to scarcity,
disaster often creates a large spike in the prices
The impact of disasters on of various goods, especially food and minerals
development such as gold and oil. Although high commodity
Natural and human-made disasters often have prices may be beneficial to producers and
long-term effects that both prevent as well as producing nations, these prices may inhibit
stimulate development. The environmental damage consumer spending. Low consumer spending
from disasters can be extensive and can include slows economic growth.
damage to infrastructure and the destruction of
entire ecosystems, which is harmful to the The social impact of disasters can be more harmful
ecological balance, biodiversity and the food chain. than the immediate physical effects of the disaster.
The following are some examples of the possible
The following are some examples of the possible social impact of disasters:
economic effects of disasters: Housing: Destruction of housing can have
Destruction of infrastructure: Disasters other major long-term impacts on a society. In
always destroy infrastructure such as roads, the developing world, a house often doubles as
factories, business premises and communication a business location, so business cannot be
networks. This causes massive disruption to conducted if the structure is gone.
business and productivity in the country. Furthermore, a major means of social mobility
Businesses run at a loss and sometimes have to in the developing world is through renting
lay off some employees, or shut down properties. A major destruction of housing
altogether. The disruption of business results in removes this means of income and can return
low economic output and a high sections of society to a lower level of poverty.
unemployment rate. For example, Hurricane Health: In most developing countries, the
Katrina caused millions of workers in Louisiana, healthcare infrastructure is already poor. This
Texas and Mississippi to lose their jobs and the infrastructure simply cannot cope with the
economy was further depressed by the strain on resources that disasters create.
reduction in consumer spending. Damage to hospitals, health facilities and water
A boost in Gross Domestic Product (GDP): and sewage systems has the biggest impact on
Some economists propose that despite health. A major long-term consequence results
destruction, disasters can cause economic from the inability of hospitals to function as
growth. Through investing in rebuilding diagnostic units because of equipment damage.
infrastructure, the GDP is boosted. For Although large amounts of money and aid are
example, following the Sichuan Province often made available to countries affected by
earthquake in China, billions of dollars of disasters, a lack of coordination between
infrastructure investment spurred the country’s organisations often makes this somewhat
economic growth. ineffective, given that the local infrastructure is
A strain on public finance: In poorer already weakened.
countries, disasters can put a strain on public Education: Loss of income to teachers and the
finances and thus negatively affect disruption of daycare and other educational

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services are two major impacts on the wider designating a national disaster team – a
economy in the medium to long term. government agency subordinate to a designated
Moreover, the long-term damage of lack of ministry
access to education cannot be underestimated, shifting the emphasis from response and
as it prevents children from receiving adequate recovery to strategic risk management and
education. reduction, from a government-centred
Transportation: Transportation has a major approach to centralised community
impact on the economy of a country. Natural participation. It is the responsibility of the
disasters affect infrastructure more in urban emergency teams to provide emergency
environments and damage to transport means management training for first responders, the
can hamper the economy’s efforts to recover. A creation of single emergency telephone number
damaged transport system also hinders relief and the establishment of standards for EMS
efforts. staff, equipment and training.
Political instability: Political instability can
last for years after a natural disaster. A disaster Types of assistance given in the case of
may spark political instability. This can prevent a disaster
aid efforts and make the situation even worse. The following are the three types of assistance that
In the developing world, where responses to may be offered:
disasters are limited by poor infrastructure, Individual assistance: This kind of assistance is
governments are often blamed for slow action. help given to individual farmers, families and
Political instability can lead to the civil disorder, businesses.
which may seriously limit economic recovery in Public assistance: In this kind of assistance,
the sense that it affects domestic trade and non-profit groups restore public systems and
foreign investment. facilities.
Matching mitigation: In this type of assistance,
there are projects which aim to eliminate or
Activity 3 reduce an area’s vulnerability to hazards.

Work with a partner. Assistance from government or aid agencies may

1. Describe two ways in which a disaster could include providing equipment, supplies, facilities
benefit development. and personnel, technical assistance, loans and
2. Choose one of the case studies that you read sometimes grants. In some countries, private
about in this chapter. Research the non-profit institutions that provide educational
economic, social and environmental effects utility, medical and other essential services are also
of the disaster and evaluate how much eligible for government aid. In other cases, the
development may have been stimulated or government provides matching mitigation funds to
prevented by the disaster. reconstruct buildings or utility systems to
withstand future disasters.

Ways in which government, How NGOs and other aid agencies deal
NGOs and international with disasters
Disaster management is about preparing for
agencies deal with the effects of disaster before it occurs, responding when a
disasters disaster has happened, as well as supporting and
Governments use different but also very similar rebuilding society after any type of disaster.
approaches to deal with disasters. The following
are some of the strategies they use: NGOs, civil society and international agencies also
applying the concept of preparedness in terms have a part to play in preparing for, and responding
of having legislation in place for dealing with to, disasters. For example, civil society – including
emergency management agencies. These the media, the academic community and national
emergency agencies would liaise with the and international NGOs – have an important role
administrative level of government concerned in advocating for improvements, encouraging and
controlling emergency management supporting positive initiatives and holding the
programmes by developing the capabilities of government to account. International agencies –
fire departments, the armed forces and the including NGOs, UN agencies and the Red Cross/
police force for disaster relief operations Red Crescent – can provide resources and know-

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how, both to improve disaster preparedness and

management and through long-term development 3. Explain how the following group of experts
programmes to address vulnerability. These can be of help in disaster management:
institutions share the same goal: reducing a) Bakers b) Bricklayers
vulnerability and protecting and supporting affected c) Doctors d) Politicians
people. There is therefore a need for coordination e) Engineers f) Soldiers.
and collaboration. Lack of effective collaboration
can lead to a failure to deliver the protection and
support vulnerable people have a right to expect. Activity 5

A disaster can damage essential services, such as Work on your own.

communications, electricity, water, sewage removal You are now going to undertake your own case
and transportation. The interruption can seriously studies.
affect the health, social and economic networks of 1. Choose at least one natural disaster and one
local communities and countries. Disaster human-made disaster.
management would then handle the situation and 2. Write up a case study for each. Include
allocate resources to deal with it. details about:
a) the facts of the event
Local, national, regional and international b) how it affected the natural environment,
organisations are all involved in providing a people and urban areas
humanitarian response to disasters. Each will have a c) how the country and organisations such
prepared disaster management plan. These plans as NGOs responded to the disaster
cover prevention, preparedness, relief and recovery: d) what lasting effects the disaster had for
Prevention is about activities meant to provide development.
permanent protection from disaster. Not all 3. Compare your two case studies. Point out
disasters can be prevented – and this is differences in the seriousness of the disasters,
especially true of natural disasters. However, their effects on people and the environment
the risk of loss of life and injury can be lessened in the short and long term and the way the
(mitigated) with good evacuation plans, disaster was handled.
environmental planning and design standards.
Preparedness has to do with minimising the
loss of life and damage. A good example here
would be removing people and property from a Summary
location that is under threat. Preparedness is In this unit you have learnt about the
the main way of reducing the impact of a following:
disaster. A disaster is a natural or human-
Relief is the coordinated response by multiple made hazard that may cause
agencies to reduce the short-term and long- substantial damage to property and
term impact of the disaster. It includes rescue, life and mass destruction.
relocation, providing food and water, Natural disasters include drought,
preventing diseases, repairing vital services such earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and
as transport, temporary shelter, emergency flooding, among other things.
healthcare and telecommunications. Human-made disasters are caused
Recovery includes rebuilding infrastructure, by human activities, negligence or
healthcare and rehabilitation. the malfunction of a human-made
procedure or equipment. Examples
are nuclear disasters and oil spills.
Activity 4 Disasters have economic, social and
environmental impacts and can
Work on your own. influence development both
1. In your own words, define disaster positively as well as negatively.
management. Governments, NGOs and other
2. Describe the activities that NGOs, national international agencies all have a
and international agencies can be involved in role to play in reacting to and
during disaster management. managing the effects of disasters.

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Research and investigation skills

Chapter 5
Unit 5.1 Understand basic components of research

Unit objectives
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
identify and describe an issue for investigation
establish objectives and formulate a research question or hypothesis
identify sources of information
select and use suitable primary or secondary methods of data collection, e.g. questionnaires,
interviews and observation, study of news articles and websites, etc.
represent data using appropriate techniques, e.g. graphs such as pie charts, bar graphs and
divided rectangles, tables, maps and flow charts, etc.
analyse and interpret the data
draw conclusions based on the data collected
make recommendations based on the data collected
evaluate the finished enquiry which should include reference to the limitations of the data
collected.

Introduction
As a student of Development Studies, it is important that you should find out more about issues or
problems. When you carry out an investigation on a topic, we call this research. Research is a
systematic investigation aimed at establishing facts and conclusions, or a process of collecting,
analysing and interpreting information to answer questions.

In research, you investigate because you would like to add new knowledge to existing knowledge.
This investigation must be carried out in a systematic way. To carry out research, you need skills which
include identifying the topic of your interest, collecting and analysing data and drawing conclusions.

In this unit you will learn about all the investigation processes in Development Studies. In
Development Studies we conduct research in order to widen our scope or discover new knowledge.

Types of research collection methods follow a very rigid

There are two types of research, namely procedure.
quantitative and qualitative research. Qualitative research is a method where the
Quantitative research is more scientific than researcher tries to get an in-depth
qualitative research. It uses figures to present understanding of how people behave. It does
data. It deals more with statistics and numbers. not use numbers much; instead it asks
When interviews, questionnaires and surveys questions that will explain why and how things
are used to collect data for this type of research, happen. Data collection methods used in
the questions are always structured. These data qualitative research gives respondents a certain

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degree of freedom when responding to you choose a topic that will motivate you, or a
questions. problem that you would like to solve.
Choose a topic that you can research using
Even though these two types of research are your available time and resources.
distinct, researchers use them in a complementary Make sure there is data or information on the
manner. topic of your choice.
Do not duplicate something that has already
been done – let your findings add new
Steps in the research process for knowledge.
Development Studies
When you conduct research, there are steps you Sometimes the research question could be in the
have to follow, in order to get the answers that you form of a hypothesis, which is an intelligent guess
seek: or a possible way of explaining a scenario. You then
1. Investigate the background to the problem. collect information that will help you to conclude
2. Develop the research problem or question. if your guess is right.
3. Explain the purpose of the study.
4. Develop research objectives.
5. Conduct a review of literature. Example of a hypothesis: ‘Rural learners do
6. Choose appropriate methodology, outline the not perform well in school because they lack
research design and sampling techniques. parental support.’
7 Collect the data. Examples of research topics:
8. Record findings. The impact of poverty reduction
9. Analyse data. programmes on community X
10. Present conclusions or results. The problems created by the relocation of
11. Evaluate the results. people as a result of the building of a new
road
Step 1: Investigate the background to
the problem
This is the introductory part of the study where
you tell the reader what the research is all about. Activity 1
Here you provide background information about
the issue or topic you wish to research. Work on your own.
1. In Unit 1.1 you learnt about poverty and
development. Make a list of questions that
Example: you may have thought of as you were
Mr Mohale, the principal of Moretele High studying this unit (e.g. in relation to rural
School, wanted to find out if parental support development in Lesotho).
has any influence on the performance of rural 2. Develop a research question based on what
students. His introduction was as follows: you thought about and what you would like
to research further.
‘For the past three years the learners of
Moretele High School have been performing
poorly in their external examinations. The Step 3: Explain the purpose of the study
school has made several attempts to call parents This is where you give details about what you are
to open days but the response has been poor. researching and why you are researching it.
The principal and his staff are concerned about
the poor response by parents. The principal and
the staff would like to improve the learners’ Example:
performance.’ ‘Parents are important partners in their
children’s education. It is therefore important
to establish whether passivity on the part of
Step 2: Developing the research parents influences learners’ performance, so that
problem or question the school can take measures to solve the
Choose a topic that interests you. Research is problem.’
quite demanding and therefore it is wise that

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Step 4: Develop research objectives In participant observation, the investigator

Objectives are goals you would like to achieve in joins the group that he or she is observing. For
your study. Objectives contain words such as ‘to example, if you wanted to investigate learners
measure’, ‘to find out’, etc. who skateboard, you may decide to join their
group.
In non-participatory observation, equipment
Example: such as surveillance cameras may be used. Here
In our hypothesis in Step 2 (‘Rural learners do the investigator or the researcher does not
not perform well in school because they lack become part of the group under investigation
parental support’), one of the objectives could – he or she watches without the group
be to find out if there is a relationship between knowing. The advantage of this is that you may
student performance and parental support. get information which you would not
otherwise know.

Step 5: Conduct a review of the

literature Activity 2
Read widely around the topic you have chosen.
Familiarising yourself with the available body of Work in a group.
knowledge in your area of interest will help you Imagine this scenario: A trade union in your
understand the subject of your choice better and town had a disagreement with government and
what has already been done on it. It also helps you decided to hold a meeting to plan industrial
to check the methods used by others on the topic action or a strike. The police sent intelligence
of your choice. You will know which method officers to attend the meeting, posing as
worked well. Information can be obtained from unionists.
books, journals and websites. In the hypothesis 1. What type of data collection method is this?
above, you may find out if any research has been 2. What do you think will happen if the police
carried out on the performance of rural learners, or agents are discovered?
on parents’ support or the influence of parents’ 3. Do you think there are specific ethical
support on learners’ performance. principles that should be observed during
data collection?
Step 6: Choose the appropriate
methodology, outline the research
design and sampling techniques The survey method is ideal for collecting
Methodology refers to choosing a method of data descriptive data. A survey method asks questions
collection that suits your research question. and reports the status quo, or the state of things
There are two types of data: as they are. For example, doing a survey on the
Primary data is information collected for the extent of poverty in a given area would use the
first time in the field or from what you observe. survey method. A survey method is used widely
Secondary data is information which has by politicians before they make decisions, or
already been collected by others, usually found governments before they implement
in written or published works such as books programmes.
and journals and on websites.
The advantages of the survey method are that you
Methods of data collection can use it to collect different kinds of data and it is
Primary data collection quicker and cheaper than a method such as
Observation refers to investigators collecting observation. The disadvantages of the survey
information through watching someone or method are that people may be unwilling to
something closely, without letting the people being respond because they are too busy or because they
observed know that they are being observed. For do not trust strangers. People may also skew their
instance, a ministry official sends people disguised answers to give a certain impression.
as patients to a hospital to check on the services
rendered to patients. Questionnaires are sets of questions which you
prepare and give to people to answer.
There are two types of observation, namely Questionnaires can be mailed, delivered by hand,
participant observation and non-participant or sent electronically. Follow these guidelines when
observation. you prepare a questionnaire:

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Be careful about how you word questions You can mail questionnaires and, in doing so,
which could cause embarrassment, such as: reach many people in at a very low cost.
How old are you? How much do you earn? Questionnaires are quick and easy to distribute,
What are your qualifications? When you ask fill in and process.
these questions, always put them in a range. Open-ended questions give respondents a
For example: chance to speak their minds.
Age: 0–20   21–38   39–58
Ask short and simple questions. Questionnaires also have disadvantages:
Check your questions before you send them to Open-ended questions result in data that is not
respondents. easy to compare, as people may interpret the
Do not make your questionnaire too long. question differently.
Put boxes on your questionnaire so that Questionnaires have a low rate of return,
respondents can tick them. especially if sent by mail.
For sensitive topics, use indirect questions. For Closed-ended questions can be limiting and
example, rather ask ‘Why do people steal?’ sometimes they do not cover all possibilities.
instead of, ‘Why do you steal?’
Do not ask leading questions, such as, ‘How
often do you go to town?’ Activity 3

When you write questionnaires, you can use: Work with a partner.
closed questions – here you offer several Imagine that your school has not been doing
alternatives and ask respondents to choose from very well in English language at IGCSE level.
the alternatives. One example is multiple choice You have decided to carry out an investigation
questions. to find out why. In your investigation you
open-ended questions – here you provide space choose to use questionnaires. Create five
so that your respondents can write freely, or in questions that you would ask your respondents
their own words. in your research.

The following is an example of a short questionnaire:

In an interview the investigator asks questions
orally. Interviews can be conducted through
A survey on the migration of people telephone calls, personally through speaking to
in Suburb X people in the streets and finally through focal
groups (inviting groups to discuss specific topics).
1. In which part of this area do you live?
______________________________________
2. Where were you born?
______________________________________
3. How long have you been living here?
______________________________________
4. Do you intend to go back home?
______________________________________
5. Are you employed?
______________________________________
6. If the answer is yes, where are you employed?
______________________________________ The interviewer can choose to conduct an interview
______________________________________ face to face.
______________________________________
There are two types of interviews, namely
structured and unstructured interviews:
Questionnaires have many advantages: For a structured interview, you prepare
If the questions are formulated well, they can questions in a specific order and you stick to
give reliable results. this order throughout your interview.

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For an unstructured interview, the researcher Sampling

may ask questions the way he or she wishes. Due to the fact that research is time-consuming
The researcher could even develop new and expensive, researchers do not study the whole
questions depending on the flow of the population, but take a sample. A sample is a small
interview. A slight shift from the main subject is part or quantity chosen from the whole population
acceptable. under investigation. The sample must be
representative of the population. After studying the
The advantage of interviews as a data collection sample, you make inferences about the entire
method is that the interviewer is present with the population.
respondent and can follow up if something is
confusing or unclear. Samples can be selected as follows:
Simple random sampling: Here every
The disadvantages of this method are that: member of the population has an equal chance
it can be time-consuming and expensive to be selected.
the presence of the interviewer may make Stratified sampling: Here, you divide your
respondents feel inhibited or intimidated sample in groups and then pick randomly from
it requires that the interviewer has certain skills. the groups.
Without these skills, the information gained Systematic sampling: Here you select people
could be inadequate. at random intervals; for example in a classroom,
you would pick every fifth person and then
Secondary data collection begin the count again.
Documentary analysis is the study of documents
found in research centres, government agencies Step 7: Collect the data
and school systems. The documents include Once you have formulated the research problem,
photos, biographies, diaries, newspaper articles, developed your study design, chosen a research
memos, legal documents and health records. instrument and selected your sample, you then
collect the data from which you will draw
Documentary analysis is commonly used in inferences (conclusions made from evidence) of
historical research. The major disadvantage is that your study. Depending upon your plans, you might
researchers may be denied access to these start interviews, mail out questionnaires, conduct
documents. Otherwise they are cheap and very experiments and/or make observations.
easy to access.
Before you go out to collect information, make the
The pilot study participants or respondents aware of the type of
Any instrument that you choose to collect data information you want from them, why the
with must be tested in a small group before you go information is being sought, what purpose it will
to a bigger group. This is called a pilot study. The be put to, how they are expected to participate in
group you are going to test your instrument on the study and how it will directly or indirectly
should have similar features with the group that affect them.
you are going to study. If you choose a
questionnaire, check if the questions are clear and Sharing information about a participant with
that they will give you the information that you others for reasons other than research is
want to collect. unacceptable and unethical. Therefore you need to
ensure that after the information has been
collected, the source will not be made known.
Example:
Mpho wanted to find the reasons for learners Steps 8 and 9: Record the findings,
failing English language at IGCSE level. She analyse the data and present the data
prepared a questionnaire and gave it to five After data has been collected, it must be
students doing IGCSE. When she checked the summarised and organised in such a way that it
responses, she found out that one question was answers the research questions. Data analysis also
not clear. She corrected the question before she involves classifications – arranging data in groups
gave the questionnaire to the entire IGCSE on the basis of its features. Data can then be
sample group. presented in the form of tables, line graphs,
histograms, bar graph and pie charts.

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Let’s take the example of Mpho’s investigation of possible conclusions and recommendations:
worsening English language results at her school. The use of SMS language has contributed
Her data can be presented as a pie chart: greatly to poor English language results.
Besides the unwillingness to speak English,
poor reading habits and lack of application to
schoolwork have also made the situation worse.
There is a need to involve parents in addressing
the issue of using proper English language
instead of SMS language.
Establishing a debating club might encourage
students to speak English.

A research report must have a reference list – a list

of books, journals and websites that you used. You
must also attach samples of the data collection
The results of research about a country’s instruments you used.
population could be represented in a line graph
such as this one: Step 11: Evaluate the finished product
Evaluation involves:
listing any problems you faced when you
collected the data
evaluating the successes of your study
naming the things that you would wanted to
use, but could not
coming up with possible solutions if you were
to carry out another research project.

For example, if a researcher struggled to use

respondents who worked long hours, then he or
she should consider using a different data
collection method.

Activity 5

Activity 4 Research activity

Work on your own. Work on your own.

The following learners received the top results Use the steps outlined in this unit to develop a
in the mock examinations at Moretele High research question in relation to a development
School: issue relevant to Lesotho. Follow the steps to
Thabo 72%, Disebo 77%, Thato 90%, Tlali 80%, conduct your research assignment.
Neo 79%, Teboho 88%, Lebohang 74%, Pulane
75%, John 85%. Make sure you do the following in the course of
your research project:
Present these results in the form of a table and a 1. Identify and describe an issue for
bar graph. investigation.
2. Find the objectives and formulate a research
question or a hypothesis.
Step 10: Present conclusions and make 3. Identify sources of information.
recommendations 4. Select and use suitable primary or secondary
In this section you discuss your findings, draw methods of data collection, such as
conclusions and make recommendations. If in your questionnaires, interviews and observation,
research you saw the need to carry out further and a study of news articles and websites.
investigations, this could be suggested. For
example, in Mpho’s investigation, these could be

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5. Represent your data using appropriate Summary

methods, for example graphs such as pie In this unit you learnt about the
charts, bar graphs and divided rectangles, following:
tables, maps and flow charts. Research is an organised and
6. Analyse and interpret your data. structured process of investigation
7. Draw conclusions based on the data you aimed at establishing facts and
collected. conclusions.
8. Make recommendations on the data you Developing a research question is
collected. an important step in any research.
9. Evaluate the finished enquiry. Explain the Data is collected during an
limitations of the data you collected. investigation through observation,
interviews and questionnaires.
Your teacher will guide you as you work Data can be of two types, namely
through the process. primary and secondary.
A pilot study must be conducted
before a full-scale research project
is undertaken.
A sample represents the population
under investigation.
Data can be presented in the form
of tables, graphs or pie charts.
A research report gives an outline
of the investigation and answers the
research question.
It is important to include a
reference list at the end of your
research.

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Examination practice questions

A. Many people in rural areas are trapped in C. Answer the following questions:
poverty. Read the case study below and answer 1. Discuss the importance of tourism to Lesotho.
the questions that follow. 2. Discuss two advantages and two disadvantages
of outsourcing.
3. Describe three problems caused by
’Manonyana’s story urbanisation.
For years I worked on a piece of land to 4. Explain two problems of rural–urban
produce food for my family, but I always migration.
harvested so little. Often there was nothing left
to sell at the market. As a result, we live in D. Answer the following questions:
poverty. My children are malnourished and 1. What is a migrant?
vulnerable to diseases. I cannot afford to pay 2. What type of migration is common in Lesotho?
for health services. Two of my children are not 3. Explain some of the push and pull factors that
attending school. have contributed to this migration.
4. Suggest some of the possible strategies that
could be used to solve this problem of
1. Identify four problems which indicate that migration.
’Manonyana is trapped in the vicious cycle of
poverty. E. Answer the following questions:
2. Draw a diagram to illustrate the vicious cycle of 1. Explain four aspects of the environment.
poverty 2. Explain two environmental issues and how they
3. Explain what is meant by the vicious cycle of are threatened.
poverty. 3. Compare and contrast subsistence and
4. Explain why ’Manonyana cannot break the commercial farming.
vicious cycle of poverty. 4. Describe any two rural development schemes
5. Explain two ways in which each of the and state their problems for implementation.
following can help ’Manonyana to improve her 5. Define the following terms:
standard of living: a) land degradation
a) education b) modern farming
b) a regular income. c) organic farming.
6. Name three farming methods commonly used
B. Study the following table, which shows in Lesotho and give the advantages of each.
indicators of development:

Life expectancy Mean years of GNI per capita

HDI ranking Country HDI (2013)
(2013) schooling (2012) (2013)
2 Australia .933 82.5 12.8 41 524
5 USA .914 78.9 12.9 52 308
17 Japan .890 83.6 11.5 36 747
63 Mauritius .771 73.6 8.5 16 777
79 Brazil .744 73.9 7.2 14 275
91 China .719 75.3 7.5 11 477
141 Zambia .561 58.1 6.5 2 898
162 Lesotho .486 49.4 5.9 2 798
178 Mozambique .393 50.3 3.2 1 011
186 DRC .338 50.0 3.1 444

1. Identify the country with the lowest GNI per

capita.
2. What is the life expectancy of Japan?
3. Explain in detail the relationship between GNI
and life expectancy.

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Glossary
ageing population: the increase in the number of dependency: the economic and technological
elderly people in a country in relation to other age reliance of poor countries on rich countries
groups depreciate: to decline in value of a period of time
aid: loans and goods given to LEDCs by MEDCs dictatorship: the form of government in
balance of payments: the value of exports minus which absolute power is exercised by a dictator
the value of imports; there may be a trade surplus disaster: a natural or human-made occurrence that
or a trade deficit can cause damage to life and property and destroy
balance of trade: that part of the balance of a country’s economic, social and cultural life
payments which covers trade in goods (visible discrimination: the unjust or prejudicial treatment
trade) and services (invisible). A country whose of different categories of people
annual exports are greater in value than its imports drought: a prolonged period of dry weather (lack
has a surplus. If its imports are greater, it has a of rain)
trade deficit earthquake: a sudden movement within the
bilateral aid: aid given directly by a rich country Earth’s crust, usually close to a plate boundary
to a poor country emergency aid: assistance given after a natural
biodiversity: the variety of life of all species on disaster
Earth emigrant: a person who leaves one country to live
birth rate: the number of live births per 1 000 in another country
people per year environment: the surrounding in which plants,
capital goods: equipment that helps us to make animals and people live
other goods and services equitable: fair and reasonable
capitalism: an economic and political system in epicentre: the place on the Earth’s surface
which a country’s trade and means of production immediately above the focus of an earthquake
are owned and controlled by individuals and not by export: a commodity, article, or service sold
the state abroad
communism: an economic system where the state fair trade: when producers receive a guaranteed
owns the means of production fair, minimum price for their products regardless of
conservation: a means to preserve, save, reduce or the price on the world market. Fair trade sets
prevent loss or neglect of natural resources minimum standards for the pay and conditions of
conserve: to manage natural systems and workers
resources carefully to ensure their existence into fascism: a form of government that adheres to the
the future principle of absolute power
constitution: a legal document stating how a finite: limited in size or extent
country is to be governed flood: a period of either a high river discharge
contamination: the presence of poisonous and (when a river over flows its banks) or, along the
harmful materials coast, an extremely high tide
corruption: an act where an official breaks a rule fossil fuels: non-renewable forms of fuels such as
for private gain coal and oil which were formed over millions of
death rate: the number of deaths per 1 000 people years
per year free trade zone (FTZ): area within which goods
decentralisation: the spread of power away from may be landed, handled and re-exported freely
the centre to local branches free trade: international trade left to take its
deforestation: the clearing trees and vegetation, natural course without tariffs, quotas or other
usually to plant crops restrictions
democracy: a system of government by the whole global warming: a gradual warming of the Earth’s
population or all the eligible members of a state, climate
typically through elected representatives Gross National Product (GNP): the total value
demographic transition: the demographic change of goods and services produced by a country both
over a period of one to two centuries from high at home and overseas
birth rate and death rates, to low birth and death high-income countries: countries with a high per
rates capita income

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human rights: freedoms and entitlements that poverty: the state of being extremely poor
belong to all quality of life: how satisfied people are with their
immigration: the movement of migrants into a environment and way of life
country from another country recycle: to use materials over and over again
import: a commodity, article or service brought in remittances: salaries of workers working in other
from abroad for sale countries who send money home
infant mortality: the average number of deaths of resource: a feature of development that is needed
children under 1 year of age per 1 000 live births and used over and over again
infrastructure: what a country needs to support secondary activities: where natural resources are
production, such as roads, rail, telecommunications turned or manufactured into goods that we can
international trade: the exchange of goods and use, e.g. cars, computers
services between countries shantytown: an area of poor-quality housing,
international travel: travelling abroad for pleasure lacking in amenities such as water supply, sewage
or business and electricity, which often develops spontaneously
invisible trade: services that are traded, such as and illegally (as a squatter settlement) in a city in a
insurance or tourism developing country
LEDCs: Less Economically Developed Countries socialism: a theory or system of social
life expectancy: the number of years, on average, organisation that advocates the vesting of the
that a person born in a particular country might be ownership and control of the means of production
expected to live and distribution, of capital, land, etc., in the
low-income countries: countries that have a low community as a whole
GNP per capita structure (of population): the relative percentages
low-middle-income countries: countries with an of people of different age groups, usually shown on
income higher than that of low-income countries a population pyramid
but lower than upper-middle income countries sustainable development: development which
MEDCs: More Economically Developed uses resources in a way that allows present
Countries generations to meet their needs without impacting
mixed economy: an economic system combining on the capacity of future generations to meet their
private and public enterprise needs
multilateral aid: help given to poor countries tariff: a tax on goods entering a country
through the World Bank, IMF, UN etc tax concessions: allowing people or businesses to
multiparty system: a characteristic of democracy pay less tax at certain times or under certain
in which different parties can govern the country conditions
according to the proportion of votes received tenure: the holding or possessing of anything
natural increase: population growth caused by an tertiary activities: jobs that provide a service for
excess of births over deaths people, e.g. teaching, nursing and shopping
neo-colonialism: socio-economic and political tourism: the business activity connected with
control that promotes the interests of the former providing accommodation services and
colonists over the neo-colonial countries entertainment for people who are visiting a place
Newly Industrialised Country (NIC): a country for pleasure, sightseeing and business
that has undergone rapid and successful trade deficit: the amount by which the cost of a
industrialisation in the last 30 years country’s imports exceeds the value of its exports
non-governmental organisation (NGO): trade surplus the amount by which the value of a
independent organisations such as charities (e.g. country’s exports exceeds the cost of its imports
OXFAM) that give aid to vulnerable people trading bloc: a set of countries which engage in
one-party state: a country in which the system of international trade and are usually related through
government allows only one political party to rule a free trade agreement or other association
outsourcing: subcontracting business process to a transnational corporations (TNCs): very large
third party companies such as IBM, Samsung and Shell that
pollution: damage done to the environment (e.g. have production facilities in many different countries
atmosphere, water, soil, landscape) undermine: to make something weaker or less
population density: the number of people living effective
per square kilometre upper-middle-income countries: countries with
population pyramid: a chart or bar chart that an income higher than that of lower-middle-
shows the population distribution by age and sex income countries but lower than that of high-
groups income countries

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urbanisation: the process by which an increasing

number of a country’s population live in urban
areas
variable: a factor that is likely to vary or change
visible trade: goods and products that are traded,
such as coffee, electronic goods, equipment or
motor vehicles

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