Fashion

Design
Research

Ezinma
Mbeledogu

SECOND EDITION
Published in Great Britain by

Laurence King Student & Professional

An imprint of Quercus Editions Ltd

Carmelite House

50 Victoria Embankment

London EC4Y 0DZ

An Hachette UK company

Second edition published in 2022

© 2014, 2022 Ezinma Mbeledogu

The moral right of Ezinma Mbeledogu to be identified as the author of this work has

been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in

any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording,

or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from

the publisher.

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TBP ISBN 978-1-91394-766-8

E-BOOK ISBN 978-1-52942-323-5

Quercus Editions Ltd hereby exclude all liability to the extent permitted by law for any

errors or omissions in this book and for any loss, damage or expense (whether direct

or indirect) suffered by a third party relying on any information contained in this book.

First edition designed by Jane Chipchase

This edition designed by Jon Allan at TwoSheds

Laurence King Publishing

An imprint of Quercus Editions Ltd

www.laurenceking.com/student
 Contents

Introduction

What is Research?
Primary Research

Why Undertake Primary Research?

Secondary Research

Why Undertake Secondary Research?

Allocating Time for Research

Keeping Research Relevant

Your Research is Unique to You

Research is an Ongoing Process

How to Start Researching

What is a Design Brief?

Different Types of Briefs

Inspiration

How Do I Start Researching?

The Five Ws
How to Expand Your Research

How to Document the Process – Sketchbooks

Starting a Sketchbook

Cross-referencing

Juxtaposition

Scrapbooks

Mood Boards

Case Study: Rick Owens

Informational Research
Libraries

Books

Magazines

The Internet

Online Magazines, Blogs and Social Media Sites

Copyright

Organizing your Research

Film

Museums

Shopping

Case Study: Iris van Herpen

Creative Research
Art Materials

Drawing Effectively

Photography
Photocopying

Collage

Sampling and Customization

Deconstruction

Draping on the Stand

Case study: Virgil Abloh

Colour Research
Colour

Colour and Fashion

Colour Theory

Colour Wheels

Colour Terminology

Colour Perception

Communicating Colour

How to Create a Colour Palette

Step-by-step Guide to Creating a Colour palette

Colour Distribution

Colour Forecasting

Case Study: Erdem

Fabric Research
The Importance of Fabrics

Fibres and Fabrics

Fabric Facts – Natural Fabrics

Fabric Facts – Man-made Fabrics

Fabric Facts – Mixed Fabrics

Textile Terminology

Sourcing Fabrics

Choosing Fabrics

Fabric Fairs

Case Study: Simone Rocha

Market Research
Researching the Market

Haute Couture

Prêt-à-porter

Competition

The Muse

Brand Identity

Advertising

Public Relations

Trend Forecasting Agencies

Ethical Concerns

Case Study: Dilys Williams

Concept Development
Triangulation

Analysis

Editing

What to Do When You Are Stuck

The Design Development Process

The Portfolio

Case Study: Thom Browne

Concept Development Project

Glossary

Further Reading

Resources

Index

Picture Credits

Acknowledgements
 Introduction

Research is essential to fashion design.

Innovative design is the result of strong investigative research
undertakings. The intention of this book is to unpack the research
process by focusing on the core elements that you will need to engage
with as a fashion student to ensure that you develop your ideas
creatively and thoroughly. Through the research process, you create the
building blocks needed to develop a concept. This book shows you
how to fully explore and build upon an initial idea through a variety of
research methods. In this divergent and expansive first stage, primary,
secondary, colour, fabric and market research is undertaken, giving you
a well-informed position from which to develop your concept with a
deeper level of understanding and subsequent application.
Chapter 1: What is Research? examines the concept of research,
and clarifies the difference between primary and secondary research,
noting the benefits of both. Getting underway on a brief can often
prove quite challenging, so Chapter 2: How to Start Researching
presents a variety of ways to kick-start idea generation.
Making the best use of the resources typically found in a library are
explored in Chapter 3: Informational Research. The possibilities
offered by shopping as a research activity are also explored. An array of
hands-on approaches to primary research forms the basis of Chapter 4:
Creative Research. Both two- and three-dimensional creative
explorations are discussed at length.
The impact of colour is demonstrated in Chapter 5: Colour
Research. This provides a basic introduction to colour theory and
explains the use of colour wheels. From these foundations you will be
able to build up your knowledge and create colour palettes with
confidence.
 Chapter 6: Fabric Research takes a close look at cloth. The goal of
this chapter is to encourage a curiosity about fabric, and to build your
knowledge of fibres, fabrics and their terminology.
Fashion is designed to be worn by people, yet people differ hugely
in their tastes and spending power. Taking time to ‘undress’ the
fashion market and identify its different sectors will help you to define
who you are designing for. This is discussed in Chapter 7: Market
Research.
Chapter 8: Concept Development discusses what happens once
you have completed your primary and secondary research activities.
How do you make the most of your collated research? How do you
interrogate your findings? How do you fine-tune your concept? These
and many more questions are addressed. This chapter takes you
through the design development procedure, ending with the
preparation of finished sheets for your portfolio – the culmination of the
research process.
This revised edition includes updated images and five new case
studies, plus more on ethics, sustainability and research methods. The
final chapter features an inspirational new section following one
student research project from beginning to end.
You will find a true companion in Fashion Design Research.
Numerous quotations from students and professional designers,
combined with a wide variety of images, will inspire you at each stage
of the fashion design process. ENJOY!
What is Research?

As a fashion designer, research is part of your everyday

life. Inspiration can come from anywhere, at any time.

There are methods that you can use to spark ideas, which

all designers use – primary and secondary research. But

how much research should you do? How do you keep your

search on the right track? This chapter will show you how

to ensure your research has depth and relevance, which

will, in turn, generate collections that are creative,

innovative and unique.

 What is Research?

Research is fundamental to fashion design and provides the starting

point for any collection. Without it there would be no design – or
certainly no good design. Research can be conducted at any time and
involves observing the world around you, and collecting and recording
objects, images and ideas that inspire you. Primary research is new
research, created by you; secondary research involves collecting
material created by others, which you might find in books or on the
internet, for example.
Your research can be part of an ongoing process, collecting day to
day, or you can choose to research for a particular project or brief. It
should be perceived not as an arduous task, but rather an opportunity
to discover a treasure trove of potentially useful ideas.
A double-page spread in a sketchbook informed by primary and secondary research. These pages

show initial designs ideas, stand work with annotations and some fabric research.

Research is integral. A wise man once said to me, ‘Fashion does not
come from fashion’, and it’s so true.
Carolyn Massey

For me it is very important to absorb the world’s cultures. These

construct your particular way of communicating, and provide a way to
go beyond your own ‘mental home’.
Romeo Gigli

Research can take the form of mood boards, nights out or a trip away
somewhere. It’s a complete creative process where nothing is left out
of the equation.
PPQ

The Value of Research

Fashion research is a creative investigation that can yield ideas, which
then inspire and contribute to the design process. The deeper the
investigation, the more design opportunities it will provide – thorough
research allows more links between the layers of research material to
be made, simply because there is more material to work with.
Superficial research, as the name suggests, just skims the surface;
fewer links can be made, so it usually results in design ideas that have
undergone insufficient development. Research should define the
concept and the creative direction through a process of assimilation
and editing. By researching you are searching, or searching again.
The fashion industry by its very nature is ephemeral – it is fast-
paced and subject to change over very short periods of time. Nothing in
fashion is totally new; it is a cycle with reinvention at its core. The
ability to innovate – to create the ‘new’ – is developed through strong
research application, which is, therefore, an essential skill for a
designer. Designers cannot create within a vacuum; they are like
sponges, constantly absorbing the environment around them to find
the inspiration needed to create a point of difference – ‘newness’.
Whether engaging with technological advances in fabric or reacting to a
current political mood, designers are at the forefront of creative
endeavours.
A cohesive collection results from strong research application where silhouette, proportion, line,

fabric and colour are explored. In this collection, opaque felted fabric is paired with ultra-sheer

chiffon, the blocks of colour divide the body in an interesting way, and the emphasis on the

shoulders creates a top-heavy silhouette.

 Primary Research

Primary research is a first-hand investigation. It consists of material

that is created by you and which did not previously exist. A wide range
of methods are used to gather and collate this, including experimenting
with fabrics, taking your own photographs, making collages, and
sketching indoors, outdoors, at galleries, museums and other places of
interest.
When sketching at a gallery, you (the important ingredient)
interpret an exhibit through drawing. Your focus should be on recording
the elements of the exhibit that inspire you and can be of use. These
can include anything from colour to form, texture and silhouette.
Drawing at the ‘Tommy Nutter: Rebel on the Row’ exhibition, at the Fashion and Textile Museum,

London.

Drawings made at the ‘Yohji Yamamoto’ exhibition at the Victoria and Albert Museum, London.
 Creating fabric samples, experimenting with design details and
manipulating fabric are very hands-on approaches to fashion research –
for many designers these provide the starting point of a collection.
Issey Miyake, for example, is renowned for his use of pleated fabric
(see here), and fabric manipulation is central to his work. Working on a
tailor’s dummy also allows you to explore and research silhouette,
proportion and form, enabling you to realize or interrogate your two-
dimensional sketches and designs in three dimensions.

Shirt sleeve samples made by bonding fabrics. This piece was inspired by a concept-led approach,

exploring the utility wear of nurses in hospitals.

 Experimenting with projection to decide on the print of a jacket for a collection.

The fabric samples on the right-hand side have been inspired by the artwork images on the left-

hand side of the sketchbook.

 Experimenting with fabrics to further explore your concept can inform both how you design and

what you design.

Photography also fits under the heading of primary research. This is

frequently the quickest method of recording research material. You can
use a camera to document inspirational objects and places. You can
also photograph your experiments while modelling on the stand
(tailor’s dummy). This will provide you with images that can
themselves prove inspirational. Photo-manipulation techniques, using
software such as Photoshop, will then allow you to experiment with
your images, which again can prove to be stimulating.
Photography is a very accessible form of primary research. Dedicating a day or so to venturing out

with your camera can be fun and rewarding, yielding numerous inspirational images.
A variety of mark-making techniques have been used to explore stripes both two-dimensionally and

three-dimensionally. This line of enquiry is a form of primary research and design development. As

you make adaptations, document the process using photography and/or sketching.

Street style photography documents fashionably dressed people; it

is a form of reportage that will give you an excellent opportunity for
hands-on research. Many designers draw inspiration from the street. In
turn the street can draw inspiration from the catwalks and, by the
process of appropriation, transform it into something altogether new.
Street style imagery is available everywhere, from magazines to books
and online. The nature of the internet also makes images accessible
and allows emergent trends on one side of the globe to influence street
style on the other.
There are many street style bloggers who frequent markets, bars,
clubs and the international Fashion Weeks in search of interesting-
looking people. Knowing exactly where to go to maximize photographic
efforts is key – it is important to have your finger on the pulse.
 Street style photography can be used to record anyone with an interesting way of combining

garments to create an outfit. These photos were taken during Fashion Week in Paris and Milan.

Creating a collage of found objects, images and other ephemera

can be classed as primary research, too, because although the objects
existed before, the collage did not. (Within art and design a ‘found
object’ is one that was not originally intended as art; having being
found, or ‘chosen’, however, it takes on an aesthetic value.) Collage as
a primary research endeavour has many uses at various stages of the
research and development process; see Chapter 4 for more
information. Fundamentally, creating a collage provides a reasonably
quick and spontaneous way to document ideas. The process of
exploring and experimenting with different materials and images to
create stimulating visuals can be fun as well as thought-provoking.
More information and ideas on how to undertake primary research
can be found in Chapter 3.

The traditional Inuit clothing on the left has inspired the colours, textures and naive stitch details

shown in the collage on the right of this sketchbook page.

Invest in a camera that is portable and user-friendly. Over a period of a month, take a

photograph every day of something you find interesting and inspirational. Only one

image a day is permitted – be spontaneous. Once the month has ended, develop the

images, display them in a book and review them.

 Why Undertake Primary Research?

Why draw or take photographs when you can buy postcards,

photocopy from books and download imagery from the internet? Why
do you need to engage with the world at large when you can
comfortably research from your workstation at home? The answer in a
word is ‘experience’ – your own personal experience of the world
around you is valid and worth exploring. There is a marked difference
between reading a book or seeing a film and being told about that
book or film by someone else. This is because first-hand engagement
allows for your own interpretation of an experience, uncompromised by
the views of others.
It is hard to beat the stimuli gained from first-hand engagement
with objects and places. Touching, smelling, hearing and tasting are all
very evocative experiences. There are numerous theories on how
children learn and make sense of the world, but first-hand experience
plays a major role. Touching a piece of fabric gives you an
understanding of its properties – it might be cool to the touch, soft and
supple, or thick and warm. Smells, sounds and tastes frequently evoke
childhood memories or help to create links between past and present
that can potentially inspire a whole collection. Seeing the true colour
palette of a painting in a gallery, as opposed to its representation in a
book, can often come as a big surprise. Reproductions of images are
often poor impersonators; their colours can appear quite flat next to the
rich hues of an original.

Research is the backbone of a collection. Not necessarily just visual

research but also collecting and memorizing feelings, situations,
emotions. This information goes through our system and becomes a
more tangible theme. Research becomes less subconscious from this
 point.
Sachiko Okada – Blaak
Two views of a statue of a sphinx at the Belvedere, Vienna, are shown here. First-hand experience

allows you to be inspired by an object in theround. Details from the front, right side, back or left

side might inspire a whole collection – why limit yourself?

 The seaside can be very evocative, triggering memories of past and present.

‘Haptics’ is the perception of objects using the sense of touch – nothing feels quite like wet clay.
Different scents can transport you to another time and place.
 Secondary Research

Secondary research is research that is already in existence which has

not been created by you. It helps to broaden the scope of any
investigation by enabling you to access objects, places and facts that
are not readily available to view first-hand. A wide range of research
methods fall into this category. An activity as enjoyable and relaxing as
flicking through a fashion magazine and tearing out pages of interest is
sound secondary research. Reading around a subject, using search
engines, and working your way through a mountain of books,
bookmarking pages to be photocopied, are other methods.
Material can be gathered in the form of images and text from
books, magazines, postcards, journals, videos, the internet and many
other sources. The library is a very good place to start too, as they often
house several different forms of secondary research material under the
one roof.
Be aware of the varying quality of reproduced images. Photocopying
or scanning images at 300 dots per inch (dpi) produces good-quality
high-resolution images. A fair percentage of online images are of low
resolution (often 72 dpi), which results in a pixelated image – this
should be avoided at all costs.
Referencing historical objects and artefacts, such as period
costumes, is another activity that you will frequently engage in. An
awareness of past fashions is an essential part of fashion knowledge,
so frequent exposure will enable you to establish good foundations. It
might not always be possible to find a specific costume on display at a
museum, but you might find it in a book or on a museum’s website.
More information on how to access and use this wide array of
resources can be found in Chapter 3.
Research is what defines each season or collection. It starts with the
very first decision – to make a new collection – and, from that point
on, everything that enters the arena plays a part as research. So, at
that stage I try to surround myself with what I understand to be the
‘right’ stuff for the season, including good books, films and images.
Six and Seven Eighths Design Studio
A 300 dpi high-resolution image (top) and a 72 dpi low-resolution version of the same image

(bottom).
 Why Undertake Secondary Research?

The results of secondary research can be extremely useful and far-

reaching. Whether you need to source historical imagery or enquire into
the solar system, secondary research resources will often provide a far
more accessible and immediate starting point than primary research.
As a student, after receiving any project briefings from your design
tutor, you will most likely find yourself in the university library to begin
with, embarking on your initial research via secondary resources.

Native American painted totem poles in Vancouver.

Composite of images taken from the spacecraft Voyager.
Cuban woman smoking a large cigar.
Peruvian woman carrying a baby, Ollantaytambo.
Cupola of St Basil’s Cathedral, Moscow.
 Allocating Time for Research

A designer’s ability to innovate is heavily dependent on research that

involves deep investigation. However, the length of time needed to
research adequately depends on the timeframe of any given brief, or
project. The timeframes given for briefs within a college can vary
greatly from those in industry; often they are comparatively longer.
To make the most of your available time, it is worth planning in
advance how much time you should give to research. To do this you
will need to work backwards from the deadline, calculating how long
the various stages of the design process (including sampling and
making, if specified) will realistically take you. Everyone works in a
different way; some need longer for the research stage, while others
need more time for the making stage.

For a 10-week project, for example:

- Week 10 might be spent creating the finished sheets of designs for

your portfolio, using computer-aided design or hand-rendering
techniques.

- Weeks 9, 8, 7 and 6 might be spent on pattern cutting (making),

and then making an outfit up in calico (muslin) or the real fabric.

- This takes us to the mid-point. Here you might allow two weeks
(weeks 5 and 4) for documenting initial ideas and then moving on
to design development.

- You might then decide that you can devote the first three weeks to
initial research – collecting visual material, sketching, taking
photographs, gathering fabrics, samples, haberdashery and
fastenings, and so on.
The above-mentioned stages are not mutually exclusive, however –
there is a tendency for some overlap. The length of a project will
significantly affect how much time you allocate to research and the
other stages of the design process.

Toileing, sampling and three-dimensional experimentation are an important part of any design

project and should be evident in some shape or form.

 Keeping Research Relevant

While engaging in explorative research it is important to think about

efficiency. What can you derive from the research in order to design
clothes? Sometimes, when there is a lot of collected material, it can be
quite difficult to see what is important – to identify the potential
creative direction. This also applies when dealing with abstract
material. Periodically throughout the research and development process
ask yourself the following questions:
- Can I derive a silhouette from my research?

- Is there a suggestion of a colour palette that I can explore?

- Does my research point to certain fabrics?

- Can I derive details?

- Does the research allow for playing with proportion? If so, how?

- Have I made the most of any cultural influences?

- Have I explored references to detail sufficiently?

- Is there any suggestion of fabric manipulation that I can explore?

- Have I made the most of any historical references?

These will hopefully keep you on track by making your research

relevant to the task at hand – that of designing clothes.
 A collection based on an A-line silhouette developed through explorative research.

Silhouette
The silhouette is the overall outline of a garment or outfit. It is the first
thing the eye sees before focusing on the details. A silhouette defines a
collection through an emphasis on a specific element: for example,
well-defined exaggerated shoulders and extremely low dropped-waist
trousers (bumsters) were signature silhouettes explored in early
Alexander McQueen collections. Historically, the dropped waistline
epitomized the 1920s silhouette, as did the miniskirt, which was also
instrumental to the short silhouette of the swinging 60s.
 This image of 1920s attire shows the silhouette of the dropped waist of the era.

Proportion
Proportion in a garment or outfit is based on the silhouette. Proportion
relates to how the body is divided into parts, and how the parts then
relate to each other. The body can be divided vertically, horizontally or
diagonally, and also in a range of other ways. Experimenting with the
placement of blocks of colour or fabric help to emphasize proportion.
The illustrated line-up of a final collection of menswear shows the impact that blocks of colour have

on defining proportion. The vertical and horizontal lines give different emphasis to the male form.

Line
The line of a garment is synonymous with the cut of the garment.
Here, the focus is on the placement of seams and darts around the
body and how they work visually. Typically, vertical lines work best to
exaggerate the length of the body, while horizontal lines exaggerate the
width of the body; curved lines tend to convey a sense of femininity,
whereas straight lines are associated more with masculinity.

Cultural References
Looking at cultures in general – whether your own or those of others –
can provide useful reference material to be applied to your research
process. Cultural references can relate to dress, architecture and music
– in fact, all manner of things.

Historical References
Period, as well as contemporary, costume (dress) provides a useful
historical reference for fashion design research. Period costume can be
found in specialist museums or illustrated in books, paintings, journals
and online. Clothing has evolved quite dramatically over time –
different eras have supported different emphases on the human form,
which have frequently reflected the trends of specific times.

Cultural and historical references will help you to explore different perspectives on silhouette,

proportion and line.

 Cultural and historical references will help you to explore different perspectives on silhouette,

proportion and line.

Cultural Appropriation
Not to be confused with cultural appreciation, the term ‘cultural
appropriation’ (or cultural misappropriation) emerged in the 1980s in
academic critiques of colonialism, exploring the power imbalance and
exploitation that had been created by the dominance of the West over
peoples in other parts of the world.
Simply put, cultural appropriation occurs when someone from a
dominant culture ‘takes possession’ of a wide spectrum of things
belonging to another culture – including, but not restricted to,
iconography, aesthetics or fashion. In the fashion world, cultural
appropriation can mean being selective about the aspects of a culture
you wish to adopt, thereby reducing garments or traditions that have
significant cultural value to mere fashion statements, and ignoring the
reality of any microaggressions experienced by that culture.
Comme des Garcons were accused of cultural appropriation after using cornrow wigs in their A/W

2020 catwalk show.

After their A/W 2015 show featuring the ‘Shaman Towelling Sweatshirt’, KTZ were accused by the

great grand-daughter of Aua (the last shaman of the Canadian Inuit) of stealing a sacred design from

a garment belonging to Aua.

 Gucci’s A/W 2018 catwalk show received criticism – especially from members of the Sikh

community – for featuring a turban, which Gucci referred to as the ‘Indy Full Turban’. At the time

the turban sold for $790 on Nordstrom’s website. The turban is a significant marker of the Sikh

community and to profit from the sales of the turban without this understanding is considered

cultural appropriation.

There is a very fine line between cultural appropriation and cultural

appreciation, but there is a clear distinction. In the case of cultural
appreciation, borrowing is not a superficial engagement but an act that
demonstrates an understanding of the fuller cultural context, and a
sensitivity towards a culture’s history of marginalization or oppression.

The Christian Dior Cruise/Resort 2020 show in Marrakech is a positive example of cultural

collaboration. To create this collection Maria Grazia Chiuri, Dior’s creative director, worked with

artisans and designers from Africa and the wider diaspora. By tapping into regional resources Dior

also helped to promote African craftsmanship.

 Your Research is Unique to You

The individual designer heavily influences how research is collected

and collated. In fact, their approach tends to mirror their personality –
it might be haphazard and disorderly, or neat and uncluttered. The
interpretation of the material, too, will be as unique as the designer
themself. Even when working from the same body of research,
interpretations will vary from individual to individual.
For uniqueness to materialize, it is essential that the ‘handprint’ of
a designer is evident in their research. This provides a point of
difference and acts almost as a guarantee for a body of work that is
less about imitation and more about creation.

It’s the ugly things I notice more, because other people tend to
ignore the ugly things.
Alexander McQueen

The research process is very important if it progresses naturally.

In other words, it needs to be exciting and enjoyable. I do like the
research process, especially when floating ideas start to become
concrete design tools.
It can be an idea, a thought, something that I might have started
thinking a season before.
Bora Aksu
 Research methods are unique and personal to every designer, and are reflected in their final

designs. The Bless label – the product of two designers – is solely about a conceptual creative

output. Situated between fashion and art, their products can range from clothing to an experience.

Their conceptual (experience-driven) way of realizing garments pervades all facets of their work,

including the shops where they are sold. The Berlin-based shop interior, seen here, reflects the

anonymity of the design duo. Are you in a shop or an art gallery?

 Research is an Ongoing Process

It is good practice always to be aware and on the lookout for

inspiration. Make a habit of collecting imagery and found objects of
interest, even when they seem irrelevant to your current project – they
might prove useful in the future. Too often when looking for inspiration
we tend to disregard things that displease us. However, if something
has caused a reaction in you, even a negative one, it can still be worth
keeping and investigating further.
Fashion designers operate within a cycle of two alternating seasons
– Spring/Summer and Autumn/Winter. Each September–October and
February–March, a different collection emerges from the depths of
design studios located in New York, London, Milan or Paris. Some
designers create two cruisewear and pre-Autumn collections as well,
which brings the total up to five collections a year.
Within the timeframe of a season a lot of activity takes place. This
includes going to international fabric fairs to order fabrics, designing,
creating patterns, sampling, producing a collection, showing it at the
international Fashion Weeks, selling the collection and manufacturing
it. With all this activity the time available for research is less than
expected, and there is never much time to procrastinate because the
following season is always just around the corner. This is why it is
important for designers to engage with the culture around them and
beyond for inspiration at all times.
The S/S and A/W prêt-à-porter fashion year cycles.
How to Start Researching

Most design projects will start with some kind of a

brief, even if it is just one you create yourself. This chapter

will look at the different kinds of brief you will encounter,

as well as some methods to get your research started,

including brainstorming techniques and spider diagrams.

Fashion design research is primarily visual research, so

this chapter will also look at how to move from words to

images, and how then to document that research

effectively in a sketchbook.
 What is a Design Brief?

A brief signifies the inception of any project within the creative

industries. Within a college a fashion design brief outlines the aims
and objectives of a particular time-bound project, typically within
specified parameters – a specific season, a genre (menswear or
womenswear) or a brand, for example.
The duration of a project will vary; both short and longer projects
have their merits and their difficulties. Shorter projects (from one to five
weeks) help to improve your decision-making and application abilities,
but good time management is essential for making efficient use of the
allocated time. Longer projects (five weeks or more) allow time for
more thorough research. These projects usually result in some form of
construction, such as a toile (muslin) and/or garment. Good time
management is also needed on a longer project, so that an adequate
amount of time is spent on each of the different stages of research and
development. Sustaining your interest and enthusiasm for a longer
period can be quite a challenge, although re-engaging with your
research periodically will help.
A member of the academic staff, or a visiting lecturer, will usually
hand out written briefs at the start of a session in which they will also
relay any other important information, such as the aims and objectives,
timetable, the staff that will be working on the project, hand-in details
and more. A briefing session will also give you the opportunity to ask
questions and to discuss any elements of the brief that you feel need
clarification.
 A selection of university briefs, which have been written to inspire and develop creative thinking

and problem-solving abilities.

A brief is designed to inspire active engagement with a project. It

will offer a variety of problem-solving opportunities as you work
through all the stages of the research and development process
towards the final outcome. This will allow you to question your
aesthetics – building upon or disregarding them – as well as your
design integrity, and may frequently take you out of your comfort zone.
All of these things are necessary if you are to create designs that are
unique, fresh and new, time after time.
 Different Types of Briefs

As a student you will encounter different types of briefs serving

different purposes. The aims and objectives will differ, as will the
outcomes and assessment criteria. Some projects will have to be
presented to the rest of your student group, others you will just hand in
on the day of submission. This multifaceted experience is designed to
enhance your teamwork abilities, brand and market awareness, self-
motivation, time management, research skills, communication and
presentation skills. There are five different types of briefs that you will
typically experience as a student: the individual, the team-led, the
collaborative, the sponsored and the competition brief.
You can apply a different approach to all of these briefs. You might,
for example, decide to tackle a brief through market-led research, or
through an emerging concept, theme or narrative derived from your
research, or maybe through your inspirational muse (see Chapter 7). If
it is not stipulated in the brief, you can decide which method is best.
All briefs have the same purpose: they are designed to inspire and
provide the momentum for idea generation. However, briefs rarely offer
you carte blanche; there are normally parameters of some kind to work
within – either academic or external requirements. An academic design
brief stipulates:

- The aims of the brief

- The learning outcomes – what you should learn as a result

- The assessment requirements – what you need to complete and

submit by the end of the project
- The assessment criteria – the guidelines by which your work will be
assessed.

The aims stipulated by a brief will relate back to the programme of

study being undertaken. An ‘Introduction to Design’ brief, for example,
might aim to:

- Introduce you to the processes of research, development and

design

- Enable you to explore the integral relationship between the two-

dimensional image and corresponding three-dimensional form

- Introduce the basics of pattern cutting, manufacture and sample

room practice

- Enable you to develop professional illustrative and presentation

skills.

Learning outcomes relate back to the aims and stipulate demonstrable

learning. For example, by completing the brief you will learn how to:

- Generate and explore ideas

- Demonstrate how to develop and apply illustrative and

presentational methods and techniques to the resolution of ideas

- Demonstrate basic techniques of garment construction.

The Individual Brief

Typically set by a member of staff or a visiting lecturer, an individual
brief will demonstrate how well you work on your own. You should
therefore always make sure you understand what is being asked of you
from the beginning; ask for clarification from your tutor if you are
unsure. Good time management is an essential skill for fashion design,
and engaging in this type of brief will flag up areas for personal
improvement. You might, for example, find that more time spent on
research in greater depth will benefit you in the long run. You might
also find you need to improve in other areas, such as presentation
skills. An individual brief provides an opportunity for your personal
aesthetics to shine through, while also displaying your capacity for
problem-solving.

The Team-led Brief

How well do you work with other people? Do you like to lead? Are you
happy being told what to do? What do you do if someone in a team is
not pulling their weight? How often do you need to meet to
brainstorm? Have you taken on too much? Have team members been
designated equitable amounts of work? Who will co-ordinate
everybody’s efforts? How are you managing your time? Who will
present the work? A team-led brief allows you to experience the
simulated reality of a fashion design team or, on a larger scale,
interactions between the different faces of the fashion industry – textile
designers, photographers, PR (public relations), fashion stylists and
more, depending on the specifics of the brief. In these situations many
of the above questions are a consideration.
Individual roles within a team are typically designated by the group
members themselves. Team-led briefs by their very nature tend to be
challenging; group dynamics have to be managed while the team
works to create a successful product. The individuals brought together
to work as a team may or may not know each other. However, it is
always important for the group to gel. A poorly led team, or one where
there is infighting, is unlikely to produce a good design.
 Japanese artist Yayoi Kusama, known for her dot art, collaborates with Louis Vuitton to create a

capsule collection of clothes and accessories.

The Collaborative Brief

A collaborative brief involves co-operation between a minimum of two
distinct but interested parties. This can typically be the pairing of two
or more students from the same discipline or from two or more
different disciplines. A typical collaboration in industry is where a
professional designer joins forces with another designer, label or brand.
The premise of a collaborative brief is that two minds are greater
than one. It can be pretty challenging working on an even playing field
with another person or company. The rewards, however, can be great,
and new solutions to old problems will often arise.

The Sponsored Brief

Universities continually make efforts to form links with industry to
enhance the student experience. The employment of visiting lecturers,
who typically work in the industry as freelancers or in a full-time
capacity, demonstrates this to a degree. The sponsored brief is another
example.
 Typically, a sponsored brief will be set by a textile mill or a fashion
company, although it may sometimes come from a company from a
completely different discipline. The prizes offered for such a brief can
range from anything from a work placement to a cash incentive. Both
academic staff and a representative from the sponsoring company will
assess your work, either during a presentation or when work is
submitted.

The Competition Brief

A competition brief tends to engage a wider community of students. It
is normally set on a national scale by a company that values an
association with emerging talent. Work placements, cash incentives
and travel bursaries are typical of the prizes awarded to the winners,
while the company benefits from the boost to their profile.

A menswear line-up created as a response to an individual brief. This type of brief normally

provides a good opportunity to allow your aesthetic to shine through.

Technical drawings of front and back views for a sponsored brief.

Design development page for a sponsored brief.

French designer Jean Paul Gaultier collaborates with lingerie company La Perla.
 Inspiration

What is inspiration? It is a word that is used with great frequency in

the creative industries, and is considered an essential element of any
artistic endeavour. Inspiration can be defined as a mental stimulus that
enables you to do or feel something that is creative in nature. On a
spiritual level, inspiration can also be defined as a divine influence that
immediately engulfs the mind or soul. Without inspiration, both
creativity and innovation would cease to exist.
As designers we need inspiration to create the proverbial ‘fire in the
belly’ – it not only kick-starts any project but also provides the
momentum to work through all the stages of the design process. So,
do the same things inspire us all? At times yes, but more often than
not different things inspire different people. Discover your own stimuli
and build upon them by engaging in diverse experiences.
 Interior of Blue Mosque, Istanbul.

Inspiration is a magnificent thing. It’s difficult to explain where it

comes from; it is something given to you. If I were religious, I’d say it
comes from up above.
Ann Demeulemeester

I need many things to nourish my inspiration: objects, images,

stories and pieces of cloth. Anything that can make my mind travel
and work. I continuously need to see new things, new places, to meet
new people to listen to. At the same time, I need to be sure I can still
count on old, steady things – things with a past and that have already
belonged to someone else. Things that have outlived time.
Antonio Marras for Kenzo
Vintage issues of Vogue are very inspiring, particularly for looking at
the contemporaries of the better-known designers of certain periods
who didn’t receive the same recognition. There are so many cutting
techniques and details to be found that may not have been fully
explored, and it is exciting to use them in modern garments.
Chris Brooke – Basso & Brooke

Fabric is my starting point. I’m known predominantly for colour,

prints and embroidery – normally the more they clash, the more I like
it. Fabrics give me my initial inspiration and represent, for the most
part, the essence of what my collections look like.
Dries Van Noten

I always like there to be a bit of a story to each collection, and I

always have this idea of the muse, so I am always thinking about
that.
Peter Jensen

I love reading biographies and I love real life. I often feel that real
life is much more fantastical than anything that comes from our
imaginations. Real life is much more interesting than anything you
could dream up.
Christopher Bailey

LIFE! I think the education imparted to us gives us a culture that is

ours, upon which we base ourselves, and from which we take our
inspiration. This inspiration evolves along with the evolution of our
background.
Martin Margiela
Vintage photographs shot at the beginning of the twentieth century.

Children from the Meo ethnic group, Asia.

A Jody Sperling performance at the 7th Spring of Culture festival in Bahrain.

A Bonda tribal woman in Ankadeli, Orissa, India.

Spiral staircase displaying graphic simplicity and complexity.
 How Do I Start Researching?

After a briefing it is not unusual to feel a bout of excitement, anxiety or

even a mixture of the two. You might be fortunate enough to have
several ideas running through your mind during and after a briefing; at
other times you may be quite perplexed as to what and how to
research. In either case, having a methodology to get you going will
prepare you to make the best use of your time. Taking notes,
brainstorming and creating spider diagrams are accessible and effective
ways to unlock ideas. All you need to get started is a pen and a piece
of paper.
The thought processes of the human mind rarely work in a linear fashion – main ideas can emerge

from peripheral ideas, peripheral ideas can emerge from other peripheral ideas, and so on.

Note-taking
A briefing and lecture provide the perfect environment for note-taking,
as do technical demonstrations in the sample room given by a sewing
technician or pattern cutter. You do not necessarily need a separate
notebook; making notes on the handouts provided by your instructors
ensures that you are more likely to re-read what you have written. If
you do choose to use a notebook, though, select one that is compact.
The habit of note-taking has many benefits:

- It helps to increase your attention span

- It allows you to retain information that you have read or heard

- Note-taking during a briefing will help you formulate questions that

you might need to ask for further clarification of the brief

- Rephrasing text in your own words can aid a better understanding

of the task

- Highlighting key words or sentences that appear problematic will

maintain your focus.

Brainstorming
A brainstorm is an effective problem-solving tool that can be used both
individually and also within a group to generate creative solutions or
ideas in response to a brief. Designating an adequate length of time to
this soon after a briefing is highly recommended.
Typically, a group brainstorm involves all the participants shouting
out ideas, which are then noted down by one person on a large piece
of paper. The diverse experiences of the group members can provide a
wealth of different ideas. Participation from all the group members is
encouraged – a positive environment is created if everyone feels that
their ideas are of value. Initial, unformulated and, at times, ‘out there’
ideas can be tailored into viable yet unconventional ideas that solve
problems creatively.
If you are brainstorming on your own, write down ideas as they
come to you on a large piece of paper. You can then maximize the
usefulness of this pool of initial ideas using spider diagrams.
 A spider diagram exploring the possibilities for research based on the term ‘Naive Art’.

Spider Diagrams
A spider diagram (or, sometimes, mind map), is generated from one
main idea, which is written in the middle of a piece of paper and
represents the spider’s abdomen. Further ideas are then drawn off the
main idea as if they were the legs of the spider. This cycle is repeated,
with these new ideas becoming the main ideas of their own mini-
spider diagrams and generating further ideas, and so on.
Spider diagrams generate ideas with relative ease and produce
remarkably effective results. The belief is that they mirror the way the
brain works – unlike linear notes – by starting with a central idea that
then branches out, generating an infinite number of different
possibilities. They also allow you to explore visually the relationship
between words on the page, opening up your immediate area of
research and adding depth to your investigation.
 The Five Ws

Thorough research is key to innovative design. If you want to become a

successful fashion designer, you must investigate beyond a superficial
level, expanding on your initial ideas and exploring their full potential.
One of the ways to add more breadth and depth to your investigation is
by identifying keywords that relate to your subject. The spider diagram
on the previous page is one way of doing this. Another option is to use
the ‘five Ws’. These triggers will prompt targeted keywords that, in
turn, will direct you when it comes to sourcing relevant and
inspirational imagery. Ask yourself:

- WHO were/are the key people/objects connected to your area of

interest? Researching associated people and things will help
broaden the scope of your research.

- WHAT is the photo about? Summarizing for yourself what an image

depicts – what is taking place, what it might suggest, who or what
is being depicted – will fine-tune your understanding of it, clarifying
the extent of your knowledge and highlighting precisely what it is
that you find interesting about the image.

- WHY was the photo taken, or why is/was the person or object
depicted in the photo influential, interesting or significant? This
question is about establishing context, prompting further and
broader investigation.

- WHEN did your focus of interest take place, or when was your
subject alive? Investigating a particular era in more depth will often
lead to a host of useful keywords.
- WHERE was the photo taken? Situate your subject – identify the
village, town, region or country.

Willa Brown

WHO Amelia Earhart

WHAT Aviation

WHY Pioneer aviator and first African American woman to earn

a pilot’s licence

WHEN 1930s

WHERE United States

Frida Kahlo

WHO Diego Rivera, Tina Modotti

WHAT Mexican folk art, the avant-garde, symbolism,

iconography

WHY Self-expression, political convictions

WHEN 1930s/1940s

WHERE Mexico
Mary Seacole

WHO Florence Nightingale

WHAT Nursing

WHY The practice of good hygiene

WHEN Crimean War

WHERE Kingston, Jamaica; Crimean Peninsula

Edie Sedgwick

WHO The Factory, Studio 54, Andy Warhol

WHAT Pop Art

WHY Socialite

WHEN 1960s

WHERE New York City

Edith Sitwell

WHO Pavel Tchelitchew; Earl of Londesborough; Henry

Somerset, 7th Duke of Beaufort, Noel Coward

WHAT Poet

WHY French Symbolists

WHEN 1920s

WHERE London
Alan Turing

WHO Christopher Morcom, Government Codes and Cypher

School, Gordon Welchman

WHAT Mathematics, rowing, long-distance running, the Enigma

code, the Bombe

WHY German armed forces, conviction, posthumous pardon

WHEN 1930s/1940s

WHERE London, University of Cambridge

 Jean-Michel Basquiat

WHO Andy Warhol, Studio 54

WHAT Graffiti, urban art

WHY Social commentary

WHEN 1980s

WHERE New York

... And What Else?

Sometimes the best way to start working on a brief is to engage in
some form of escapism. Distracting yourself from the task at hand,
whether by going for a long walk, visiting an exhibition or going to a
vintage fair, will allow your brain to wander freely – it might be just the
kick-start you need. Become that proverbial sponge and soak in all that
you encounter. Have a loose timeframe for escapist activities in mind,
and then return to your project, hopefully with renewed vigour (if not a
new approach), ready to embark on research.
Drawing can provide a calm space for your mind to freely wander, and at the same time allow you

to relax.

Green spaces bring you closer to nature and offer a sense of tranquillity and calm.
Choose a word from the following selection: security, grey, eclipse, structure, uniform,

red, nature, danger, kaleidoscopic, constriction, circus, Victoriana.

STEP 1

Create a text-based spider diagram. Think connotations, symbolism, representation,

word association.

STEP 2

Find relevant imagery.

STEP 3

Create an image-based spider diagram that represents the text-based version.

 How to Expand Your Research

Spider diagrams and brainstorming generate ideas in the form of

words on paper. However, words alone do not suffice in fashion design
research; they need to be fully explored and substantiated using
imagery and/or objects. Both primary research endeavours
(photography, drawing or painting, for example) and secondary
research (such as taking photocopies from books, magazines and
journals) will help you to explore different perspectives. Try to be
imaginative – this will lead to the broadest possible spectrum of
possibilities.
There are many different ways to expand your research, each one
personal to the individual. However, the college environment will give
you the opportunity to learn about different methodologies, and to
expand and diversify your methods. Assessment presentations also
provide an excellent opportunity to observe how other students
approach this stage. Be inspired – perhaps try something different with
your next project.
 Whether you are sipping on a latte, espresso, cappuccino or green tea, enjoying café society and

watching the world go by is an anxiety-free activity.

Surrounding yourself with works of art and objects of interest – at museums or galleries, for

example – helps to distract the mind.

Choosing a subject to base my project on, is for me, the most

difficult part. I’ll begin by creating a mind map, exploring the
different areas that a subject could lead me towards. The subject has
to be something that I am interested in for me to feel motivated.
Once I’ve chosen a subject I will read up on it – visiting the library
and using the internet to give my research an intellectual base. I also
 visit relevant places, such as exhibitions and stores, to gather my
research.
Hefina Williams

My research always starts with a lot of reading. I then visualize the

theories/stories I have found by searching through magazines, books
or relevant art exhibitions for material to help describe my main
idea.
Danya Sjadzali

I generally look at things that I genuinely like aesthetically. Usually it

will start with just one image that I have seen or found, and I will
build up a range of images that work together with that one to form
some kind of mood or general look.
April Schmitz

I tend to start researching via history books and people-watching. I

like pitching up a stand somewhere in central London and watching
all the people of the city go about their business.
Alice Overington
 How to Document the Process –
Sketchbooks

What is the best way to document and collate all your research
findings? A sketchbook is the format chosen by most designers from
across the creative disciplines. This provides a space where the design
process – from initial thoughts to final outcomes – is documented and
developed. In addition, any ideas not used to answer the current brief
can be kept and may provide a starting point for future work.
A sketchbook should contain triangulation primary and secondary
research resources, annotations, colour palette development, fabric
story development, initial design ideas and design development (if you
choose not to use a layout pad – see Chapter 8). Triangulation is best
described as the manifestation of initial design ideas through the links
made between various research sources. Good triangulation occurs
when an initial design idea brings together various elements to produce
a total effect that is greater than the sum of its parts.
A sketchbook also allows you to integrate both secondary and
primary research materials. Secondary resources used by themselves
have the tendency to depersonalize research and make it appear flat
and one-dimensional. It is good practice, therefore, to create links
between secondary and primary imagery in your sketchbook,
positioning them side by side, disparate alongside like-for-like imagery.
This visual crossover, will inspire yet more links and, thus, new design
possibilities.
Sketchbooks come in many shapes and sizes, so make sure you
choose one that is appropriate for your needs. Tips for selecting the
right sketchbook can be found in Chapter 4.
This sketchbook page contains a good mix of different elements: fabric swatch, fabric sample,

colour photocopy and initial design idea. Triangulation is evident.

The links made through collected research material have resulted in this line-up of six outfits.
Sketchbooks provide a 2D format for documenting your ideas via a process of experimentation and

exploration. A working sketchbook demonstrates a process trail, in which development is evident.

A combination of primary research (in the form of notes and a fabric swatch) and secondary

research (in the form of imagery) has inspired this sketch of a man’s jacket.
Hand-rendered imagery is given context by supporting secondary imagery.
The image of the muscular boxer and the curves of the WBO middleweight belt have elicited a

response that is evident in the initial design ideas. The silhouette that is being developed on the

stand explores these curves further.

 This page acts as a mood board within the sketchbook, creating a narrative. It successfully

demonstrates the concept, the colour palette under consideration and the fabrics to be used to make

the collection. A lot of thought has been put into the composition and layout of this page.
 Starting a Sketchbook

Starting a new sketchbook can be both exciting and extremely

daunting, but various techniques can be used to alleviate any anxiety.
These can range from skipping the first page to working on single
sheets with the intention of compiling the sheets into a book later.
There are no hard or fast rules – however, it is always best to leave
perfectionism at the front door. The sketchbook is a place to work
through ideas, not a finished piece of work.
As you gather material, creating different layers, annotating,
experimenting and exploring, your sketchbook will become more
engaging for you and any potential viewer. It is paramount that, just
like a diary, it reflects your own personal processes. This is what will
make it distinct and relevant to your particular project. There are also a
number of strategies you can use to achieve good triangulation in your
sketchbook, including cross-referencing and juxtaposition.

Starting a new project often entails starting a new sketchbook. The first page in a blank sketchbook

can be particularly daunting. If it proves too challenging, simply try turning the page over.
The methodology employed here involves working on single sheets with the intention of compiling

a bound sketchbook in the later stages of the project.

 The different elements on this double-page spread – fabric samples, 3D experimentation on a

tailor’s dummy, secondary research imagery, annotations and initial design ideas – demonstrate a

good level of enquiry and exploration. A strong process trail is evident when exploration and

experimentation continue across several pages of a sketchbook.

 Cross-Referencing

Different sources will normally have different perspectives on any

given subject/object, and relying on a single source can render
research one-dimensional. So the practice of cross-referencing –
comparing material from different sources – is necessary for both
validating and enriching your ideas. This applies to both textual
information and visuals. Multiple sources will help to enhance your
understanding and research possibilities by providing different levels of
information too – some more detailed than others. For example, you
might be interested in Victorian Gothic architecture; to develop a good
knowledge of this subject, relying on one image will not suffice. A
broad selection of imagery, offering a range of similarities and
differences, will be much more informative.
Imagery relating to historic and modern military dress has been sourced from various books, and

from different photographers with different perspectives and aesthetics. Drawing on multiple

sources builds up a more thorough knowledge of a subject.

 Juxtaposition

Trying to unleash the potential in your research is your first and

foremost goal. There is often a tendency to keep all the individual
strands of your research separate. This can happen as a consequence
of sticking research imagery into a sketchbook too soon, thereby
creating ‘chapters’, with a lot of starting and stopping.
To create an organic flow, begin by simply collecting any imagery –
do not stick any of it into your sketchbook immediately. Look through
what you have gathered and play with juxtaposition, which is the
placement of (often contrasting) images alongside each other. The
greater the contrast between the images, the greater the juxtaposition.
Alternatively, when sticking down individual strands of research, leave
space for other strands of research to be stuck down alongside them
later. Always leave space for initial design ideas too. This approach will
create links between disparate imagery, and expand your design
possibilities.
 A nineteenth-century waistcoat is juxtaposed with a graphic image using negative and positive

space, an image of a wooden sculpture and a piece of corrugated tubing. By considering elements

of the waistcoat design, ideas have been conceived and explored.

Exploring the notion of symmetry within the abstract, various areas have been cross-referenced here

– reflection in water, the intricate design of butterfly wings, splodges of paint that create a mirror

image and a catwalk image from the Iris van Herpen Spring/Summer 2010 collection.
 The secondary research imagery in this double-page spread has elicited a response. Fabric

suggestions, as well as initial design ideas influenced by the silhouette evident in the images, have

been included. Links have been created and consequently triangulation is evident.
 Scrapbooks

A scrapbook is a place in which predominantly secondary research

resources are gathered – magazine tear sheets, newspaper clippings
and photocopies, for example. A scrapbook will contain little or no
evidence of any primary research endeavours, so, unlike a sketchbook,
will be devoid of any design process or input from the designer.
A scrapbook simply provides a useful place to store things of
interest for future use – a reference source – and will consist mainly of
things created by other people. It has the potential to continually grow
and become vast.
 Magazines provide a healthy source for tear sheets. Referencing a variety of magazines for

inspiration is good practice, as different publications will have their own editorial style. Backdated

issues are also an invaluble resource, and collections of these are often held by libraries.
 Scrapbooks tend to have very little evidence of primary research. This example shows three

superimposed secondary research images. The text, though hand-written, has been copied from a

book or magazine.
None of the secondary images in the scrapbook have elicited any type of personal response.
 Mood Boards

Once you have begun to edit down your research you will then be
ready to create a mood board. Within fashion design, concept boards,
mood boards and storyboards are all essentially the same thing – they
provide a summary of a collection, in which the themes, inspirations,
concepts, colours and fabrics are communicated to the viewer. Unlike a
sketchbook, where a visible development process is an essential
element, mood boards work best when careful editing has taken place
and artistic expression is displayed in a considered composition.
The gathered images are assembled and then mounted on a board.
The size of this may vary – A4, A3 or sometimes larger, A2 for example
(in the US: ANSI A 8½ × 11 in; ANSI B 11 × 17 in; or Arch C 18 ×
24 in). For presentation purposes, however, it works well if all the
work done for a particular project is of the same size.
 The collage technique has been used to create this inspirational composite. The black-and-white

images have different tonal qualities, which helps to bring some images to the fore and push others

to the background.

How to Create a Mood Board

To compile a mood board, an assessment of all research materials
needs to take place. From the array of imagery, fabrics and other
materials collected, select the most interesting, emotive and
informative ones – the attitude conveyed in a mood board should
successfully reflect the attitude of the collection.
The next step is to play with the selected imagery in terms of
composition. Without using glue, place your selected images on a
board and explore the possibilities of juxtaposition. It is not necessary
to fill every bit of space on the board with imagery. Also consider the
use of text. This need not mean chunky paragraphs of text. A single
word can conjure up an ambience succinctly.
Boards also come in an array of colours besides white, so choose a
background that will work best. On the whole neutrals are a better
choice – white, black and shades of grey have less of a tendency to jar
with the selected imagery. On the other hand, this effect might be
exactly what you want.

This mood board has been created for a project on the brand Burberry. It provides a succinct

overview of the colour palette and fabric story as well as the historical and contemporary imagery

that has inspired the collection.

The colours and the fabric embellishments are a focal point of this mood board. These key elements

will very likely be integrated in some way into the design development stage and final designs.

Choose two words that inspire you, which can then be developed into two very

different concepts. Gather sufficient imagery and fabrics to be able to compile an A3

(11 × 17 in) mood board for each one; 3D objects and text can also be used.

Experiment and explore a range of compositional possibilities. Play. Photograph

and rearrange components. Repeat this several times until you are happy with the

outcome. Aim to create two very different boards.

 CASE STUDY

Rick Owens is an American-born fashion designer, based in Paris.

Often referred to as the ‘Prince of dark design’, he has a unique
aesthetic that is characterized by a sense of the post-apocalyptic – a
mix of gothic and grunge interwoven with a glamour that is undeniably
dark.
Owens initially studied Abstract Expressionist painting at the Otis
College of Art and Design in Los Angeles, but he failed to complete his
course – something he attributes to financial constraints and his lack of
the intellectual stamina required to survive in an academic
environment. Having then trained as a pattern cutter at the Los Angeles
Trade Technical College, Owens found employment in the bootleg
fashion industry, creating designer knock-offs. It was this experience
that allowed him to hone his pattern-cutting skills – an ability that he
still utilizes today; unusually for a fashion designer, Owens cuts all his
patterns, from the most understated pieces to the very complex.
Owens launched his label in 1994, selling exclusively to one of
LA’s trendiest, most forward-thinking boutiques: Charles Gallay, where
he gained a notable following among high-profile celebrities such as
Courtney Love. Owens described his distinctive style as ‘glundge’, a
hybrid of glamour and grunge.
With an eye on the international growth of his label, he moved
production to Italy in 2001. A significant career break came when Kate
Moss appeared in French Vogue, wearing one of his leather jackets.
The momentum then increased with the support of Anna Wintour at
American Vogue; Wintour was so enthused by Owens’s designs that
the magazine sponsored his first catwalk show at New York Fashion
Week – Spring/Summer 2002.
Owens designs womenswear, but it is his menswear collections
that are considered to have been particularly ground-breaking, set
against the backdrop of the predictable sportswear and suits offered by
other designers. Owens is known for challenging the limits of fabrics
and silhouettes, but his reputation has been largely built on his
approach to gender and sexuality, pushing past pre-existing limitations.
In Owens’s world, a dress is just as viable in a menswear collection as
it is in a collection designed for women.
Between 2002 and 2007 Owens was the artistic director of the
French furrier Revillon. This meant relocating from LA to Paris in 2002
and subsequently exhibiting at Paris Fashion Week. Accolades to date
include being honoured by the Council of Fashion Designers of
America in 2002 and again in 2017. And in 2019 he wrote LeGaspi, a
book about the life and work of Larry LeGaspi, raising the profile of this
overlooked fashion designer of the 1970s and ’80s.
Autumn/Winter 2018.
Autumn/Winter 2019.
Autumn/Winter 2018.
Spring/Summer 2016.
Informational Research

Visual research is an integral part of fashion design –

the concept, theme or narrative of a collection is often

derived from inspirational imagery. Visual research is

strongest, however, when supported by an in-depth

understanding of its context. Luckily, when inspired by

something, you will want to know everything about it!

Allowing time to read around a subject – to engage in

informational research (a form of research that gives you

access to information) using secondary research

techniques, as shown in this chapter – will enhance both

your research prowess and your designs.

 Libraries

Your college library is a great place to start when seeking

informational research. Libraries offer a comprehensive visual and
information resource, with access to a large database of printed and
electronic books, exhibition catalogues, and printed and electronic
journals via links on the library’s website. There may also be access to
a number of databases from outside the college, although these might
be limited or require a password for logging on.
A multimedia facility is also a common feature and it provides an
invaluable resource; many titles covering a wide range of genres exist
in a digital format. Most libraries provide viewing facilities with the use
of headphones.
Extending your search to other libraries, whether college or public,
can really intensify your search and boost your findings. You can often
check the catalogues of other libraries online. It might also be possible
to arrange an inter-library loan – check with your librarian. (There is
usually a procedure to follow when enquiring about borrowing material
from large public libraries – for example, the British Library in London
requires you to fill in an online form.) It is highly unlikely that you will
be able to borrow books from a college library that is not connected in
some way with your own. However, photocopying (where there are no
copyright infringements) and note-taking are usually permitted.

Finding Your Way Around a Library

Libraries can use different cataloguing systems, and these are often
country-specific. For example, the Library of Congress cataloguing
system is favoured by many US libraries, while libraries in the UK use
the Dewey Decimal system. These and other systems provide easy
navigation through the dense collections held within a library.
 It is important that you become familiar with both the numeric
system used by your library, as well as its general organization. Find
out where the oversized books and digital resources are stored, and
enquire about access to backdated issues of magazines and journals.
Find out how to operate the photocopier, and establish whether there
is any limit on photocopying. Is there a scanner? How many books can
you borrow at any one time? Are there any copyright issues that you
should be aware of?
Most colleges offer a tour of the library at the start of the academic
year, which is the perfect opportunity to gain an overview and ask any
questions. In fact, one of the most invaluable resources to be found in
a library is the team of librarians. They know their stock inside out, and
typically have specialist knowledge.
Libraries are a key resource for informational research. Familiarizing yourself with the floor plan of

your campus library will save you time in the long run.

Making the Most of a Library

Spending random days familiarizing yourself with your library’s
resources will improve your research skills. Broadening your scope of
focus within a library is also vital – variety in all its guises is key. There
can be a tendency to find yourself in the same corner of the library,
musing over the same pile of books and magazines. Experiment,
explore, move about and read books and magazines on subjects that
are unfamiliar to you. To broaden your knowledge and lay yourself
open to the occasional eureka moment, you must broaden your scope
and use the library’s resources to their fullest. Simply leafing through
piles of books and magazines left by other students can create an
accessible bridge to the unfamiliar.
To make your visit to your library a comfortable and fruitful one,
ensure that you:

- Eat and drink beforehand, as libraries prohibit food and drink on

their premises
 Have a pen and paper to hand so that you can jot down any
-
reference numbers from your catalogue searches. Torn paper also
provides improvised bookmarks

- Take your sketchbook – this is where you will eventually collate

your findings

- Take your spider diagram – this will help with any keyword
searches

- Take basic, dry art materials with you, such pencils and dry colour
media

- Have a photocopier card, or the right change for the machine

- Take a memory stick and/or laptop

- Do not forget your library card.

 Books

The potential for visual and textual inspiration from books is limitless.
Depending on how large your college is, and the breadth of study
courses offered, your library will house a comprehensive catalogue of
subject-specific books, so it should be possible to avoid focusing purely
on fashion-related books. Literally pick out random books from the
shelves and have a flick through. You may just stumble upon
something that is relevant to your current project – or a forthcoming
one. Thinking outside the box during the early stages of research will
greatly enhance your research and development process.

Collect Your Own Books

Why not start your own collection of inspirational books, covering your
interests in fashion and beyond? Books are an investment but they
need not cost the earth. There are many stores selling second-hand
books. There are also various websites dedicated to the recycling of
books – Strand Book Store, AbeBooks, Gumtree and Amazon are good
places to start. To keep things affordable, avoid first editions and out-
of-print books where possible. Libraries also occasionally have
clearouts, so you may be able to pick up a bargain there. Creating your
own library will nourish and inspire you, and provide a conducive
working environment at home.
 Dedicate some of your time to exploring non-fashion books catalogued in your campus library –

pick books from shelves at random.

Reading Around Your Subject

To influence the future, a good working knowledge of both the present
and the past is vital. History is present in every aspect of life –
everything has a historical underpinning, everything has a past. There
are several renowned designers whose signature style is blatantly
immersed in historical references; Vivienne Westwood and John
Galliano are good examples.
You are not born with this knowledge; it has to be learned. Looking
at the catalogues of fashion and costume-history books in the library
will start you off. Silhouette, proportion, fabrics, embellishments, use
of colour, tailoring and more have changed significantly since the early
days of clothing.
You must also make a habit of exploring the cultural issues of the
contemporary world in order to contextualize your visuals. Cultural
influences can come from distant, exotic lands, or can be found in your
familiar everyday surroundings – both sources can be relevant, and
may inspire creativity in all aspects of your work, from colour to
proportion, fabric and more.
 Magazines

Fashion magazines offer a great source of informational research, for

both current and past fashions. It is important to note that lead times
(in the production and print schedule) of approximately three to four
months apply to monthly magazines. Fashion spreads in newspapers
and their respective magazines have shorter lead times and so tend to
be more current.
The numerous fashion magazines available range from mainstream
titles such as British, American and Italian Vogue, Elle and Marie
Claire, to the more edgy publications, like POP, Lula, Wonderland and
AnOther Magazine. The latter often take more risks than mainstream
titles, and tend to work with emerging and influential photographers,
fashion designers, stylists and journalists.
All magazines have their own signature style, and any time spent
on dissecting this will add greatly to your fashion knowledge and
awareness of the market. Some questions to get you started in your
analysis are: Which demographic is this magazine pitched to? Does it
represent you? Do you aspire to it? What type of fashion does it
represent – mass market, designer or both? Is it mainstream or edgy?
Is there a lot of advertising? Which brands are advertised? What is the
distribution?
By looking through the designer collections featured in magazines
on a regular basis, you will get a feel for current trends – for example,
what designers are using in terms of colour palettes, fabrics,
silhouettes and proportion. Avoid the temptation, though, to borrow
significant aspects of designer collections and pass them off as your
own. It is crucial that your own unique inspiration provides the
springboard for your work. Remember, too, to ask whether your library
keeps backdated issues of magazines. These will often provide
additional inspiration.

Contemporary magazines help you to keep up to date with current fashion and lifestyle, whereas

backdated issues acquaint you with fashions past.

 The Internet

The internet provides a window on the world. It can make the

inaccessible accessible. It can save you a huge amount of time.
However, it is also very easy to waste a lot of time when browsing
online. Making effective use of this resource, therefore, is key to
effective time management. How do you retain your focus? How do
you manage your time online effectively? How do you check the
accuracy of your results?
The internet can be a good way to gain access quickly to initial
information for research purposes. However, it is important to be
mindful of internet usage – becoming over-reliant on this resource can
result in lacklustre design projects. The quality and reliability of
imagery and information online should not always be taken at face
value. Fashion design research does not start and stop in front of a
computer screen – do not miss the opportunity to truly engage with
other research methods and deepen the development of your concept.
 Spider diagrams provide a valuable starting point for keyword searches. Keep your diagrams

accessible so that you can refer to them at any time for clarification.

Using Keywords
Effective use of keywords is crucial when researching online – being
selective will make your research faster and more focused, whether
searching on the internet or looking through a database. A spider
diagram, or mind map, that you have created previously can often be a
great source of keywords, since these will relate directly to your project.
To be more efficient:

- Make a list of keywords

- Investigate these words further – are there other, similar, words

(synonyms)?

- Is there relevant terminology to be investigated? Look in a

dictionary, thesaurus or encyclopedia for ideas. This itself can be
done online.
- Make a checklist, marking items off as you move down it.

For example, your inspiration might come from the colour green.

- The keywords derived from green could be: nature, ecology, armed
forces, geography, decay, recycling, forestry

- Possible synonyms: essence, conservation, army, cartography,

decomposition, salvage, forestation

- Potentially relevant terminology: ontology, bionomics, the military,

mortification, physical geography, regeneration, arboriculture.

From a single word (‘green’) 21 new keywords or phrases have been

created. These new keywords will then form the basis of a focused,
efficient online search.

Checking the Accuracy of Search Results

Search engines, such as Google, catalogue the infinite information
found online through the use of a keyword or keywords. Searches
frequently yield hits that might run into the thousands. So, a lot of
results, but are they all relevant? More importantly, how accurate are
they? Fact, fiction and opinion can be found in surprisingly equal
measures on the internet. Other forms of media have quite rigorous
systems at work to check for accuracy and authenticity. Books are
edited, journals and papers are peer-reviewed; there is also a level of
accountability in printed media. The internet is not controlled in the
same way.
Always cross-reference any material you find online with
information from other sites and offline sources. For example,
Wikipedia frequently headlines the list of hits from a keyword search.
Wikipedia is an online encyclopedia which any member of the public
can contribute to and edit. While it can provide a starting point – a
quick nugget of information – make sure you check its accuracy against
other sources. It is a useful tool, but make sure you use it wisely.
 Use a search engine such as Google to research online using keywords generated by your spider

diagrams.

Finding Images on the Internet

A Google search can provide you with a vast database of imagery.
However, the results of your search will be only as good as the
keywords you use. A fair amount of imagery you find this way will also
be of low resolution.
Images can also be sourced from image databases, which are
catalogued and curated, giving the feeling of flicking through the pages
of a book. These databases are typically commercial, educational or
image-sharing sites. They offer a rich and diverse source of visual
imagery at the touch of a button.
Commercial databases normally require registration and payment of
a fee for image usage. Usage rights will vary from one database to
another, and from image to image – always check what is permissable.
Photographic Youth Music Culture Archive (PYMCA), Alamy, Getty
Images, Shutterstock and Unsplash all offer comprehensive databases.
You can access imagery online or phone in to speak to an in-house
librarian.
 Educational database sites offer the download of high-resolution
images for free, solely for educational purposes. Examples are
Bridgeman Education, ARTstor and VADS. Free images for educational
purposes can also be found in the image collections of numerous
galleries, libraries and museums. Terms and conditions of usage will
vary, so always check. The Victoria and Albert Museum has a good
collection of historical images. The British Museum, the Guggenheim
and MoMA also offer broad image databases.

The Photographic Youth Music Culture Archive (PYMCA) website is a good online resource for

images of social history and youth culture.

Image-sharing websites such as Instagram, Flickr, ImageShack and

Photobucket offer free images. However, this does not mean that
intellectual property rights have been forgone. Through a globally
recognized Creative Commons licence, the owners/creators can share
their work and also define the rights of usage – anything from no rights
reserved to all rights reserved, and everything in between.
 Online Magazines, Blogs and Social
Media Sites

Most notable fashion magazines have a presence online, facilitating

universal accessibility – something that is simply out of the reach of
the corresponding hard copy.
This presence makes it possible to see the latest from the Paris
catwalks anywhere in the world, keeping everyone abreast of
contemporary fashion.
Fashion blogs are a significant player on the web and provide
current information on fashion and lifestyle. Blogs – from ‘web logs’ –
came into existence at the start of the new millennium. They are
basically online diaries that are shared with interested parties. Huge
inroads have been made by fashion bloggers over the years, often at
the expense of legitimate fashion journalists; their presence has
democratized the fashion industry, and some well-established bloggers
have a larger readership and more influence than bona fide fashion
journalists.
 Dazed Digital, the website of Dazed & Confused magazine, explores the latest trends in fashion,

music, art and culture, and photography.

Some bloggers have a more acute sense of business acumen and

have been able to monetize their blogs by way of fashion/lifestyle
campaigns, advertising and brand projects. However, as Instagram
grows in popularity, there is a cloud of uncertainty over the future of
fashion blogs.
Influencers seldom have blogs and have built their following
through their presence on social media, namely Instagram. The value
attributed to an influencer relates to the size of their following.
Influencers make an income through endorsing brands on their
Instagram posts by wearing product (or product placement). They are
also invited to fashion shows and fashion parties. Being an influencer
can be very lucrative: for example if you have followers in the millions,
a fee of over £30,000/$38,000 for an Instagram post where a product
is worn or evident is not unusual.
Below is a list of influencers with a growing number of followers
and a notable presence on Instagram:

@raindovemodel
@candicemtay
@slipintostyle
@AlealiMay
@jadasezer
@fatgirlsclubpodcast
 Copyright

While researching, you will spend a reasonable amount of time

finding, collecting and collating secondary research resources,
whether textual or visual. Understanding how copyright issues might
affect this process is important. Copyright legislation offers you and
others protection of your intellectual property (your creative work, which
is classed as an asset), safeguarding against the misuse of this asset
in a globalized world. (This does not include an idea in the form of a
thought, just work that has a physical presence.) The broad aim of the
legislation is to ensure that no one uses a piece of work created by
someone else, passing it off as their own. It covers text, images, films,
and music and sound recordings – anything created, whether in
physical or digital form.
You need to be aware of and protect the copyright in your own
works and be aware of the copyright of others. Being knowledgeable
about possible infringements from the outset is not so easy –
legislation often varies from country to country, so there is no one
international set of rules. Be aware of this variability and follow the
laws in your country. Technology has also moved on with such speed
that copyright legislation has failed to keep pace, leaving a great deal
of uncertainty about the dos and don’ts of the digital image in
particular. There have been no test cases to date to use as a
benchmark.
 When downloading images from the internet for your research, be aware that copyright applies to

all visual work. In fashion photographs featuring models, the models themselves are protected by

copyright, along with the photographer and the designer of the garments.

Written permission for the use of written or visual work protected

under copyright is required at all times, with the exception of work that
is in use in ‘the public domain’ and work covered by ‘fair use’. Work
that is in the public domain is typically work with expired copyright.
Work covered by fair use refers to excerpts of copyrighted work being
used for study (non-profit educational purposes), criticism or comment.
Always reference your sources; this is discussed in the next section.
 Organizing Your Research

Spending ages searching through any research material is not the best
use of your time, so try to establish a filing system and stick to it.
There are lots of ways of organizing your material. The most important
thing is that you choose a system that works for you, and that you will
actually use.
You might have two systems in tandem – one for physical material
and another for web searches, books, journals and the like. Box files,
plastic wallets, expandable manila folders and scrapbooks are good for
housing the former. Card indexing, using the Harvard system of
referencing, and creating bookmarks on your web browser, using
reference management systems like Delicious, RefWorks, Xmarks or
Zotero, are all efficient methods for organizing the latter. You might
also decide to categorize your searches further into groups under
headers such as project name, artist, designer, colour reference or
concept.
When using secondary research resources, it is good practice to
record and reference your sources. For example, when photocopying an
image from a book, make a note of the photographer, the year the
photograph was taken, the title of the image and also the title of the
book. The same practice applies to images from magazines. This
information will be very useful if you need to find the material again –
whether it is to ascertain the context or seek out other images by the
same photographer. In some cases, especially when using text, it also
helps you guard yourself against accusations of plagiarism.
The information that is typically used in citing sources, whether for
recording or retrieval purposes, is as follows:

- Book title
- Author/editor of the book

- Publication date

- Publisher

- Website address

- Date and time of search

- Name of artist

- Name of photographer

- Date of photograph.

I use everything from film and books to music and photography. I

keep folders of things that may not be useful for another couple of
years.
Emma Cook
 Film

Cinema has a universal and far-reaching appeal, part of which can be

attributed to the fashion seen onscreen. Film can inspire fashion, and
vice versa; the two are related both aesthetically and commercially.
There are numerous garments that have made it from the big
screen to the international fashion catwalks. The 1930s wardrobe of
Bonnie and Clyde (1967) is believed to have influenced the
renaissance of the beret and cardigan at the time of its release. After
Tom Cruise was seen sporting retro aviator shades in Top Gun (1986),
these shades were back in vogue. More recently, Avatar (2009)
inspired Jean Paul Gaultier’s Spring/Summer 2010 couture collection,
while Sofia Coppola’s Marie Antoinette (2006) inspired Marc Jacob’s
Autumn/Winter 2012 ready-to-wear collection.
 The 1940s fashions in Blithe Spirit inspired Anna Sui’s A/W 2017 collection.

Both fashion and film are visual media that rely on a narrative,
which is why the two can work so effectively together. The use of
costume in film can, among other things:

- Convey an era

- Establish a character

- Create a spectacle

- Create an ambience.

Actively engaging with films, both past and present, will greatly
enhance your secondary research possibilities. A film can inspire a
colour palette, or a principal character might set the tone for a
collection’s narrative or theme – the possibilities are endless. Repeat
viewing is recommended; it provides the opportunity to focus on the
different aspects of a film, allowing you time to decode, analyze and
gather the relevant information.
Ashish’s riotous A/W 2017 collection was inspired by the classic film The Wizard of Oz.
The edgy, sleek look of Celine’s A/W 2019 menswear collection was heavily influenced by The

Matrix.

Choose an iconic film from any genre – one you find inspirational. Explore the film for

useful research information and create a sketchbook. Consider the following in your

analysis:

- The historical context

- The cultural/social context

- The historical/contemporary details - Can you derive a colour palette?

- What types of fabrics have been used?

 Museums

Museums are a rich resource for informational research. Besides

providing an opportunity to draw (see Chapter 4), museums are
designed to be multilayered and interactive learning environments that
cater to a wide-ranging demographic. Museum collections are an
obvious source of inspiration; however, museums also employ staff
who are specialists in their field (appointments often have to be made
to see a specialist) and can provide dynamic and enthusiastic
information on their area of expertise. Museums often host lecture
series, conferences and symposia that relate to temporary exhibitions
as well as the permanent collections; sponsor artist-in-residence
programmes; and provide access to online catalogues, libraries and
study rooms, and to the museum archives (where this applies, it is by
appointment only).
 The Victoria and Albert Museum, London.

Some museums are dedicated to the history of fashion, or have a

department with this focus. In London the Fashion and Textile
Museum and the Victoria and Albert Museum (V&A), in New York the
Museum at the Fashion Institute of Technology (FIT), and in Paris the
Musée des Arts Décoratifs are invaluable sources for historical
reference.
A 1922 Callot evening dress, petticoat and belt on display at the V&A, London.
Detail of lace on a gown from 1903–5.
 Shopping

How can you gather informational research from shopping? As a

fashion designer, invaluable contemporary and historical fashion
information is gleaned from contact with garments. You are unable to
touch a garment in a magazine, whereas handling a garment in person
will allow you to identify its fabric type, observe the weight and fall of
the cloth, see the details and scrutinize the fit.
Shopping does not always mean parting with hard-earned cash.
‘Shopping around’ and ‘window shopping’ are valuable research
methodologies in themselves. Always opt to try on garments of interest
where possible. This helps to build your knowledge and understanding
of technical issues such as fit, contour, fabric, and construction details
such as seams and darts, which can all be explored first-hand.
To enhance this experience, always study the garment’s fabric label
too, so that you can start to appreciate the impact of fabric. Make
assessments of what you see and experience, and ideally jot these
observations down in a notebook; for example, a garment made from
100 per cent cashmere should feel light, incredibly soft and warm, but
you should also note down your own particular thoughts.
Fifth Avenue in New York, with the Michael Kors flagship Rockefeller Center store on the right.

The Louis Vuitton store dominates this section of the Champs Elysees in Paris.
Study labels to investigate the different fabrics that are used in garments. Labels are normally sewn

into the side seam of a garment, or underneath the brand/designer label at the centre back.

Vintage Fairs
Museums can provide a historical overview of fashion through the
centuries. While their displays are great for learning about fabric
selection and for sketching silhouettes and details, it is very rare that
you will ever be given the opportunity to try these garments on. Vintage
fairs, on the other hand, provide you with the opportunity to try on
‘antique’ garments (and sometimes purchase them).
Clothes found at flea markets, garage sales and in second-hand
stores can range in age; generally, clothes that are more than 25 years
old are classed as ‘vintage’. There are also several vintage fairs in the
fashion capitals that are frequented by international fashion design
teams looking for inspiration, the Clerkenwell Vintage Fashion Fair, the
Hammersmith Vintage Fair and the Frock Me Chelsea vintage fair in
London, and the Vintage Fashion Fair in Madrid being just a few.
Renowned markets such as Kempton, Sandown Park and Portobello
Road in Surrey and London, the Brooklyn Flea Market in New York,
and the marchés aux puces (flea markets) at Porte de Vanves and
Saint-Ouen in Paris also continually attract fashionistas, fashion buyers
and designers.
 A vintage stand at the Pitti Immagine Filati fashion industry trade fair, Florence, Italy. Vintage

accessories – bags, shoes and belts – are a good source of inspiration.

Clerkenwell Vintage Fashion Fair in London is a great place to find unique items that can inspire a

whole collection.
 CASE STUDY

The fantastical creations of Dutch fashion designer Iris van Herpen

have appeared regularly at Paris Fashion Week since her acceptance
as a member of the Chambre Syndicale de la Haute Couture in 2011.
Her designs are instantly recognizable, combining futuristic imaginings
with a touch of dark fantasy.
Van Herpen studied fashion design in the Netherlands, at the ArtEZ
University of Arts in Arnhem. Internships at Alexander McQueen in
London and Claudy Jongstra in Amsterdam then played a part in
honing her attention to detail. Her creations are often inspired by the
natural sciences, and explore the use of unexpected materials through
3D printing; Van Herpen made her mark by becoming the first designer
to use this technology for a Fashion Week collection, having been at
the vanguard of those who understood the enormous contribution that
3D printing could bring to fashion.
Van Herpen’s exploration of ‘wearable technology’ goes beyond the
utilitarian. As she has explained, ‘For me, technology is not inspiration
and it’s not a goal, it’s just a tool. I think the biggest potential is in
materials. I really think materials can revolutionize fashion in the
future.’
With her first collection in 2007, ‘Chemical Crows’, Van Herpen
fashioned the brass spokes of 700 children’s umbrellas into jaw-
dropping garments. These drew the attention of the Groninger
Museum, which subsequently purchased some pieces for its collection.
And since her acceptance by the haute couture establishment in Paris,
she has shown twice a year in that city, continuing to build her
reputation and reach.
Van Herpen launched a ready-to-wear collection in 2013, designing
it alongside her couture collections to diffuse aspects of her couture
looks into more wearable fashion. This venture into the ready-to-wear
market, however, was not particularly successful and ceased after her
Spring/Summer 2016 collection.
Is it fashion or is it art? Van Herpen’s creations are sometimes more
like museum exhibits than garments you’d see hanging in a wardrobe,
but her strengths do not relate to conventional success in the
commercial world – rather, she is an innovator, rethinking ideas about
fabric and clothing, and pushing the boundaries of both. A small group
of private couture clients invest in her creations, but the majority of Van
Herpen’s creations are earmarked for curators. In 2012, New York’s
Metropolitan Museum acquired its first Van Herpen piece – a 3D-
printed stylized skeleton made from a synthetic polymer – and the
museum has since acquired another five creations. In 2019, Van
Herpen’s work was exhibited at Seattle’s Museum of Pop Culture, San
Francisco’s Asian Art Museum, and the Modemuseum Hasselt in
Belgium.
‘Between the Lines’ Haute Couture Spring/Summer 2017.
‘Aeriform’ Haute Couture Autumn/Winter 2017.
Display from the exhibition ‘Iris van Herpen: Transforming Fashion’, High Museum of Art, Atlanta,

2015–2016.

‘Sensory Seas’ Haute Couture Spring/Summer 2020.

Creative Research

Creative research uses primary research techniques. It

gives you the opportunity to take out your pencils, paper,

pastels, scissors, glue and camera and really explore your

theme using drawing, collage and photography. This

chapter will also show you how manipulating fabric

through deconstruction, customization and draping can

help you find new and innovative proportions, shapes and

silhouettes.
 Art Materials

Whether sticking secondary research resources in a sketchbook, or

drawing or painting something that you find interesting, a good
selection of art materials is essential throughout the research and
design process. There is a broad range of art materials – or ‘art media’
– available; try to experiment with as many of these as possible as you
explore line, form, colour and texture.
For convenience, art materials, excluding your sketchbook, are best
kept all together in an art box. Here are a few basic items:
Sketchbook Check the weight of a book’s paper by referring to its
grams per square metre (gsm), or its basic weight (expressed in
pounds). The higher the figure, the heavier the paper. Standard
photocopier (text weight) paper is 80 gsm, whereas a postcard (cover
weight) is 250 gsm. Sketchbooks are somewhere in between these,
ranging between 120 and 160 gsm (around 80–90 lb, or sometimes
more). If you intend to use both sides of the pages in your sketchbook,
choose a heavier paper to avoid work showing through and interfering
with visuals on the other side.
Sketchbooks come in a range of sizes, and paper quality varies. The pages may be double-stapled

in the centre, perforated, spiral-bound, or stitched and gummed into the spine of the book. You will

establish the format that works best for you through trial and error. If you are used to working in A4

(ANSI A), A3 (ANSI B) might present a challenge when documenting research.

Layout Pad This is generally used during the later stages of the
design development process, when trying to maximize the potential of
an idea. This item is optional, though; some designers prefer to keep
all development in their sketchbook. Layout pads have a gsm of 75 (or
a weight of around 16 lb), which means the paper is quite translucent.
Similar to tracing paper, this allows copies to be made from an original.
Graphite Pencils These are sold separately or in packs and range
from hard to soft, measured on the HB (‘hard’ and ‘black’) scale. (The
US system rates pencils using a numeric scale – the higher the
number, the harder and lighter the mark produced.) The various stages
of research and development (R&D) – sketching, design development
and technical drawings (or ‘flats’) – demand a different quality.
Sketching often requires softer pencils, whereas designing and
technical drawings require harder pencils for clear, defined lines.
Graphite pencils are measured on the HB (‘hard’ and ‘black’) scale. The mark-making potential of a

pencil is dependent on the softness or hardness of the lead.

Watercolour Pencils These can be used straight from the pack as a

dry media, or they can be used as watercolours when blended with a
wet paintbrush.
Paints It is advisable to have a tin of watercolours, as well as tubes
of gouache or acrylic paints. Both gouache and acrylics can have the
consistency of either watercolours or oil paints, depending on how
much water is used to dilute them.
Black and Coloured Inks These can be used straight from the jar or
mixed with water.
Paintbrushes Brushes come in a variety of sizes, ranging from the
finest detail brush to a large paintbrush. The brush shape can be
round, flat, a filbert (oval), a flat blender, long or short, and the bristles
can be natural or synthetic; synthetic brushes are cheaper.
 The basic range of media needed for the various stages of research and development. The use of

colour in a sketchbook is as important as the use of pencil. The watercolour box set and watercolour

pencils are more portable options than the tubes of acrylic and gouache paint when undertaking

primary research on field trips. Use a small water bottle for rinses, and tissue to soak up excess

water.

Glue You will constantly be sticking primary and secondary imagery

in your sketchbook, so finding a good glue for this purpose is
important. Glues that are water-based have a tendency to curl and
wrinkle sketchbook pages, and the adhesive quality of some is
temporary.
Masking Tape This has good adhesive quality, yet it can also be
peeled off paper easily. This makes it ideal for securing paper when
drawing on an easel. It also provides a non-slippery surface for
annotations on sketchbook pages full of imagery. Masking tape is
available in a variety of widths.
Eraser Erasers are a useful component in an art box. However,
avoid over-reliance on them as a tool; a useful exercise is to practise
drawing over mistakes with a stronger, defined line. This helps you see
your corrections as your drawing skills improve.
 Sharpener or Craft Knife Always have these to hand so that pencil
points can be kept sharp.
Technical Drawing Pens These can be used for hand-rendered
technical drawings. The tip sizes start from 0.1mm, which achieves a
very fine line.
Knowledge of the mark-marking potential of different art materials
is essential. You can also experiment with the way you use these
materials. For example, a stick of pastel can be used on its side as
well as the top edge; gouache paint can be applied with a brush as
well as your fingertips. Applied pressure can also be varied. To widen
the scope of your work yet further, try experimenting with mixed
media.

To get the most out of a variety of art media, experiment with different combinations. The weight,

fall, drape and surface texture of a fabric should dictate the most appropriate media to use for

rendering it. Each of these sketches was completed within five minutes, using a combination of

inks, wax crayons and Pantone marker pens.

 The strength in the simplicity of line is explored in this sketch, drawn using a Pantone pen.

Understanding how to use different amounts of applied pressure, and the different surfaces of a

medium, maximizes the different marks possible from any one medium.
Mixing hand-rendered techniques with computer software such as Photoshop creates images that

are polished but not too flat.

Knowing your materials will help you get the most out of them. The different applied weights of the

pencil marks, as well as perspective and shading, help express the three-dimensional aspects of

both the bag and coat.

 Drawing Effectively

Observational drawing is an essential skill. It is a form of note-taking –

it provides a record. It is normally done in a sketchbook or on loose
sheets of paper and is a form of primary research. An observational
drawing can be of anything; fashion items are particularly useful, but
you will also benefit from drawing other things too, such as
architecture, furniture, wildlife and so much more. Drawing is about
observing and interpreting; whatever the object or subject, the process
and analysis always remain the same – interpreting form, line,
proportion and balance.
 Drawing silhouettes using a continuous line will help you to focus on scale and proportion.

Repetition helps too – over time, as you analyze and rework your drawings, your observational skills

will improve.

In the research and development process there is an interplay

between two-dimensional drawing and three-dimensional realization.
The ability to represent an object accurately through drawing requires
you to make accurate judgements relating to the fundamentals of
design: line, proportion, form and texture.
A useful exercise to try is to draw the outline of an object using one
continuous line. Map out the whole object, keeping your chosen media
on the paper until the drawing ends where it started. Students often
make the mistake of concentrating on one small aspect of a drawing,
such as a face, only to find that there is then insuffucient space on the
paper for the rest of their subject. By forcing you to concentrate on an
object as a whole, this exercise encourages concentration, focus and an
understanding of scale and proportion.
As a representation, there are a few inaccuracies in this sketchbook drawing of a jacket, such as the

symmetry of the lower patch pockets. It is essential for effective self-critique that you study your

drawings objectively. Making adjustments and corrections is part of the creative process.

Evaluative annotations can also be used to add more depth to your

sketchbook. These are explanatory notes, added alongside any
drawings, that explore your thought processes and provide explanations
and/or assessments of the material. This process is invaluable; it
demonstrates an engagement that is deeper than surface level. It
shows that thought processes are actively engaged – a skill that is
extremely useful for the problem-solving realities of fashion design.
Drawing garments from life will help improve your three-dimensional understanding of clothing –

fit, proportion and silhouette.

At a fashion exhibition, for example, you might draw what you see,
exploring drape, textiles, proportion and form, using the contents of
your art box to render different fabric types. When adding your
evaluative annotations you could ask yourself the following questions:
Does the mix of fabrics work – why/why not? Does it remind you of
anything else? Does the colour palette work – why/why not? Is the
silhouette feminine, masculine – what makes it so? What exactly do
you like or dislike about the garment? Recording fabric types, colour
palettes and the year and season of any garments will all be useful
information for your sketchbook, too.
Fashion students drawing at the ‘Tommy Nutter: Rebel on the Row’ exhibition at the Fashion and

Textile Museum, London.

These sketchbook pages show a photograph of a breastplate at the Imperial War Museum in

London. Sketches analyze how it has been put together.

Drawing is a form of note-taking and allows you to keep a first-hand record of anything that catches

your eye – like these drawings, which were sketched at the ‘Yohji Yamamoto’ exhibition at the

Victoria and Albert Museum in London. You should always carry a pocket-sized sketchbook and,

ideally, use it daily.

 Photography

The use of photography as a tool for documentation and

communication in the research process is highly recommended. It can
not only be used to document a final outcome, but is also an
invaluable way of capturing inspiration and generating ideas as you
progress through the research and development process.
Photography is very accessible and can involve nothing more than
the click of a button; most mobile phones have cameras, and point-
and-shoot digital cameras are very easy to use. However, as with
anything, experimentation and practice help to build on basic skills.
There are two types of photography – analogue and digital.
Analogue photography is the traditional method of capturing an image
on light-sensitive film, which is then processed in a dark room to make
photographic prints. Digital photography does not use film; it captures
and stores images as files for digital processing. When printing off any
digital imagery, ensure that the resolution is high – 300 dots per inch
(dpi) is the industry standard – to avoid pixelated images. Both
analogue and digital imagery can be altered through the use of filters
and processing techniques.
 When draping on the stand or on a person, photographs will provide a useful reminder of the

individual steps you have gone through while experimenting.

Keep your phone or camera with you at all times so that you are
always prepared to capture something inspirational, wherever and
whenever you spot it. Anything, from the obvious to the abstract, may
prove useful – people, architecture, tree bark, detritus, sunsets,
textures and colour compositions are just a few examples. A useful tip
for documenting street culture is that most people find phones and
smaller cameras less intimidating. And when photographing outside,
make sure that the sun is not shining into your lens.
Photography can also be an extremely useful way of recording
certain stages of the research and development process, helping to
generate ideas that have started to materialize in three-dimensional
form. When draping fabric on the stand, for example (see here), it is
always good practice to photograph each stage of exploration so that
you have records to refer back to later.
Photographs provide an invaluable resource when documenting exploration and experimentation.

Alongside annotations, they provide a reliable reference source.

 Photocopying

You will often find that photocopies provide an easy way of

incorporating secondary research into your sketchbook. However,
pages and pages of black-and-white photocopies will make your
sketchbook start to look like a scrapbook. Luckily there are several
ways to avoid this and to create a sketchbook that is engaging and
inspiring, both for you and for any potential viewers.
Experiment with scale by reducing or enlarging any images, and
consider using colour printouts as well as black and white. Cutting out
any images rather than sticking down whole sheets of paper will also
help to break up the effect.
You might also want to explore photocopying on different types of
paper. There is a wide variety of paper to choose from, but because it
must be fed through the photocopier it cannot be too thick or heavily
textured.
 Different papers and acetate will produce markedly different levels of transparency and opacity

when images are photocopied on to them.

- Standard photocopying paper is adequate for photocopying text and

black-and-white imagery. There is a tendency for colour
photocopies to appear saturated, though, due to the porous quality
of the paper.

- Gloss/matt printing paper is the paper used for standard

photographs. This quality of paper produces a good representation
of colour.

- Brown paper used for wrapping parcels is available both in rolls

and in sheet form, and can be cut to any size.
 Sheets of acetate are clear and can be fed through a photocopier.
- Their transparency helps to create areas of interest in a sketchbook,
and can be very useful when overlapping visuals.
 Collage

A collage is created by assembling an array of different items or

materials, such as newspapers, photographs and fabrics, and then
gluing them down together on a piece of paper. Thoughtful
consideration of composition, scale and juxtaposition are needed to
create a collage that works visually and generates ideas. A sketchbook
collage may cover the entire paper surface, or it may consist of isolated
elements on a page, with adequate space left for observation drawings,
evaluative annotations and initial design ideas.
Collage offers a level of immediacy when exploring the possibilities
of scale, silhouette and proportion. Reducing and enlarging the scale of
found imagery on the photocopier can often help, too.
This sketchbook collage has been informed by the silhouette and structure of the toile on the stand.
An outfit has been suggested using collage. This technique will enable you to play with different

shapes, exploring proportion, silhouette and balance.

Create a total of six different fashion-inspired collages using a variety of primary and

secondary resources – photographs, drawings, tear sheets and photocopies, for

example. Experiment and explore the possibilities of scale, form, texture, details and

proportion. Work freely without any preconceived ideas – place no limits on your

imagination.
 Sampling and Customization

Research is not limited to two-dimensional exploration in a

sketchbook. Frequently there is an interplay between two- and three-
dimensional practices, and this interplay itself broadens the scope for
both research and development possibilities.
With three-dimensional exploration, proportion, form and silhouette
become more accessible. Sampling, which involves the three-
dimensional interpretation of a specific detail, feature or element of a
design idea, is an essential stage. It provides an opportunity for you to
realize an idea to see if it actually works, or if you need to go back to
the drawing board.
Customization is another example of three-dimensional exploration.
It involves changing one or several aspects of an existing garment – the
change can be slight or significant. This allows you to challenge the
balance of the garment. It can act as a trialling phase in which you
consider various permutations that can be used as prototypes – starting
points from which other design ideas can flourish.
The frill here was originally a cuff detail on a shirt sleeve. It has been used for customization

purposes. Three possibilites are explored for the best outcome.

 Deconstruction

Deconstruction means taking something apart, whether this is an

actual garment or a set of pre-existing ideas. A garment that has been
deconstructed can be reconstructed using a process of
experimentation. Prototypes can also be photographed and elaborated
upon in a similar way throughout the research and development
stages.
As an ideology, deconstruction can provide a methodological
starting point. Martin Margiela, a Belgian designer referred to as one of
the Antwerp Six – a group of six avant-garde designers who all trained
at the Antwerp Royal Academy of Fine Arts in the 1980s – frequently
engaged in a deconstructive methodology. As a method of research it
provides a space to challenge pre-established norms.
A tweed coat has undergone several deconstructive processes. Now the inner workings of the coat

have become the exterior.

Deconstruction is used to challenge the purpose and function of a cardigan.
 Draping on the Stand

The three-dimensional exploration of an initial idea, or the qualities of

a fabric, can be undertaken very successfully when modelling on the
stand (tailor’s dummy), or draping. In fact, some design ideas cannot
be explored fully on paper – this two-dimensional format can be
incredibly limiting, leaving lots of unanswered questions. Draping can
also be used as a problem-solving tool during development. Patterns
can eventually be drafted from prototypes that have been created on a
stand.

Modelling on the stand is a very organic process; the chosen fabric often dictates what is

achievable – fabric content, weight, grainline and whether it is woven or knitted are all contributing

factors. This process can sometimes provide a much quicker solution to a complicated 3D problem

than flat pattern cutting.

 It is important that you always photograph the various stages of this
process, keeping a record that will then inform the research and
development process.

Working on a mannequin allows you to experiment with scale and the placement of design details,

and see how they would work three-dimensionally. Always record your experiments in photos or a

sketchbook for later reference.

Madeleine Vionnet was a renowned draping expert, and is also

revered as the creator of the bias cut. Cutting on the bias (on a
diagonal as opposed to the straight grain) changes the quality of a
piece of fabric, making it more fluid and slightly stretchy. Vionnet was
particularly inspired by ancient Greek art, and comfort and ease of
movement were fundamental elements of her designs. Her
explorations with drape and the bias cut through the use of long
lengths of fabric informed her understanding of form, shape and
silhouette.
 Draping has added fluidity and volume to this Vionnet creation.

Madame Grès was another designer renowned for draping and

modelling fabric to create exquisite garments. Grès had prior training as
a sculptor, which greatly influenced her approach to 3D realization.
By modelling on the stand, Madame Grès created an intricately pleated dress.
 CASE STUDY

Virgil Abloh, the founder and CEO of Off-White, was born and raised
in Rockford, on the outskirts of Chicago. He was the son of Ghanaian
immigrants who settled in America in the 1970s. His mother worked
as a seamstress, so a sewing machine was a permanent fixture at
home; this is where his interest in fashion first began.
During his teenage years, Abloh was a keen skateboarder, as well
as a hip-hop and indie rock enthusiast, and he wove an identity for
himself out of a blend of all three subcultures, expressing this through
his choice of clothing. As the son of first-generation immigrants,
however, Abloh was encouraged to pursue a career that would lead to
stability and prosperity. In 2002 he graduated with a degree in civil
engineering from the University of Wisconsin–Madison, and in 2006
he received a master’s degree in architecture from the Illinois Institute
of Technology.
After working for an architectural firm for two years, Abloh’s interest
migrated towards fashion. In 2009 he set up a retail store called the
RSVP Gallery in Chicago, and the following year he became creative
director for DONDA, Kanye West’s creative agency. Abloh and West
had both worked as interns at Fendi in Rome in 2009 and, as part of a
wider circle of friends, had famously attended Paris Fashion Week that
same year. As Abloh explained to W magazine,

We were a generation that was interested in fashion and weren’t

supposed to be there. We saw this as our chance to participate and
make current culture. In a lot of ways, it felt like we were bringing
more excitement than the industry was.

Abloh had an innate understanding of the importance of promotion

across different platforms. He used graphic design, blogging, retail
stores, social media, concert halls, museum spaces and fashion to his
advantage.
Marcel Duchamp and Andy Warhol provided a wealth of inspiration
for Abloh, and Duchamp’s use of irony is particularly evident in Abloh’s
own approach to his work – rebrandings, deconstruction, borrowings,
claimings, critiques, subversity and word play.
Abloh launched his first label, Pyrex Vision, in 2012. The
merchandise essentially consisted of Ralph Lauren deadstock shirts
screen-printed with the word ‘pyrex’ (bought for $40 and sold for
$550). The label was superseded by Off-White the following year,
which in turn debuted at Paris Fashion Week in 2014. In 2018, Abloh
became artistic director for Louis Vuitton’s menswear collections. He
died in 2021, aged just 41.
Off-White RTW Autumn/Winter 2019.
Off-White RTW Spring/Summer 2019.
Vuitton Autumn/Winter 2019.
Vuitton Autumn/Winter 2019.
Colour Research

Colour research underpins any fashion collection. This

chapter looks at colour theory and colour terminology so

that you will be able to apply and discuss colour with

confidence. A step-by-step guide to creating a colour

palette will also show you how to choose colours that

support your concept/theme/narrative in one of the

essential developmental stages of realizing your collection.

 Colour

We live in an environment saturated by colour – both the natural and

the man-made world – and yet the impact that colour has on our lives
can often be so subtle that we remain unconscious of it. However, a
world devoid of colour would dramatically affect how we make sense
of our surroundings.
Numerous studies have confirmed the ability of colour to alter our
moods. Certain colours, such as yellow, can improve how we feel,
whereas grey can have the opposite effect. Blues and greens, with
their association with nature, have been shown to reduce blood
pressure, whereas red increases it. Some colours may draw one person
in due to their intensity, and yet might repel others for exactly the
same reason.
 Colourful houses in Burano, one of the islands of Venice, Italy.

Colour is one of the first things that attracts people to any object. In
fact, it takes precedence over shape or detail. Babies and children are
more responsive to and stimulated by bright contrasting colours – they
help facilitate their learning – and it is from this early stage in our lives
that our visual language and an elementary understanding of the world
we occupy emerge.
A young Pakistani man dressed head to toe in one block colour.
 Colour and Fashion

Colour research is pivotal to fashion design. Developing a colour

palette for a collection starts at the earliest stages of research and
development. During the course of the design process different colours
are considered, juxtaposed, mutated, edited and selected through a
process of exploration and experimentation.

Bright, striking colours feature in this Spring/Summer 2003 dress by Alexander McQueen.

Fashion is seasonal and so too are the colours used. Designers

place a lot of emphasis on creating ‘newness’, and colour plays a large
part in this. All manner of things can inspire a colour palette – for
example, photography, travel, found objects, cinema, paintings, nature,
vintage textiles, colour forecasting trends; the list is infinite. Climatic
changes have a significant influence too. There is a tendency (subject
to cultural differences about how colour is perceived) to favour dark
and warm colours during the autumn and winter months because of
their ability to retain heat. During the summer months, lighter colours
are popular, due to their ability to reflect heat.
An understanding of the basics of colour theory will enable you to
make informed choices as a designer. You might want to demonstrate
harmony in a collection, and decide that working with muted, nuanced
tones will help to achieve this. Alternatively, you may be more
interested in conveying an element of tension, and decide to opt for
colours that clash with each other. Or, of course, you may be
investigating one of a whole range of other possible options in between
these two extremes.
Sofia Kokosalaki used gentle pastel tones in her Spring/Summer 2006 collection.
 Colour Theory

Light is part of an electromagnetic spectrum, which is a broad range

of vibrating energies. Only a small percentage of this spectrum is
visible to the naked eye – the components of natural white light. In
1666, physicist Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727) discovered that white
light was actually a composite of a range of colours – namely violet,
indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red. Newton observed that
when white light was directed at a solid prism, each of these colours
was refracted (bent) differently, resulting in the white light being split
into a spectrum, or rainbow.
Colours are detectable by humans when light makes contact with
the eye’s retina, which is formed of rods and cones. Rods are able to
distinguish black from white, and cones are able to detect red, blue-
violet and green. The acquired data is subsequently transmitted to the
brain and deciphered there, resulting in the colours we see.
A number of colour theorists have explored this subject over the last
few hundred years, and all are worth investigating:

- Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519)

- Moses Harris (1730–ca. 1788)
- Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832)
- Philipp Otto Runge (1777–1810)
- James Clark Maxwell (1831–79)
- Michel-Eugène Chevreul (1786–1889)
- Ogden Rood (1831–1902)
- Ewald Hering (1834–1918)
- Albert Munsell (1858–1918)
- Wilhelm Ostwald (1853–1932)
- Johannes Itten (1888–1967)
- Alfred Hickethier (1903–67)
- Josef Albers (1888–1976)
- Faber Birren (1900–1988)
- Frans Gerritsen (1953–2012)

Useful information can also be sourced from the CIE (Commission

Internationale de l’Eclairage/International Commission on Illumination),
which is the top authority on the subject today.
These theorists’ explorations have contributed to the creation of
three basic colour systems: subtractive colour, additive colour and
partitive colour.
Subtractive colour applies to the mixing of pigments, as undertaken
in painting. An object’s pigment allows for the absorption of some
wavelengths of light, and the reflection of others. The reflected light
waves then form the colours we see. When pigments are mixed, the
object absorbs more light and so less light is reflected. Additive colour
applies to the combination of coloured light, and is used in theatrical
lighting and television. The partitive colour system references a
viewer’s reaction to colours when they are situated next to each other.
The next section will look at colour wheels that represent each of these
three basic systems.
Preen, Spring/Summer 2005.
Issey Miyake, Autumn/Winter 2013
 Colour Wheels

A colour wheel offers a way of illustrating colour structures which

helps us make sense of how colour reacts and interacts. However, the
different practitioners within the creative industries use different colour
systems, so their various needs are not met by just one big colour
wheel – one size does not fit all.
Painters, for example, use the subtractive colour system to create
different colours of paint. They also refer to the partitive colour system
for colour placement. Photographers use the additive colour system to
explore the colours (hues), lightness and darkness (values) in a
photograph, and the partitive system to facilitate reactions and
interactions within an image.

The Pigment Wheel

The pigment wheel is an application of the subtractive colour system,
demonstrating colours produced as the result of mixing. Here, the
primary colours are red, yellow and blue; these cannot be made by
mixing other colours. Primary colours are then mixed to create the other
colours of the wheel.
Mixing two primary colours creates a secondary colour (green,
orange and violet, or purple). Green is the result of combining blue and
yellow, orange is created from mixing red and yellow, and violet results
from a mix of red and blue. The tertiary colours are the result of mixing
a primary colour with an adjacent secondary colour. The tertiary colour
achieved is midway between the primary and the secondary – for
example, when blue and green are mixed, the result is a bluey-green.
In the idealized model presented by the pigment wheel, mixing
together all the primary colours creates black, although in reality the
imperfections of real-life pigments make this impossible.
The Light Wheel
The light wheel demonstrates the additive colour system. It focuses on
how light rays and transparent colour react. The primary colours differ
from those on the pigment wheel – here they are red, green and blue.
White is created when all the primary colours are mixed together, and
black signifies a complete absence of colour. The secondary colours
(yellow, cyan and magenta) result from the pairings of red and green,
green and blue, and blue and red respectively. This colour system
applies to both video and computer graphics.

The Munsell Wheel

The Munsell wheel (created by Albert Munsell) follows the partitive
colour system. It is used by creatives and businesses working in areas
as diverse as interior design, cosmetics and computer hardware. The
wheel comprises five primary hues (yellow, red, green, blue and
violet). Within the wheel, these primary hues exist in conjunction with
after-image perceptions – a process whereby, after your eyes have
been fixated on a particular hue derived from nature, your brain reacts
by providing the opposite (or complementary) hue. The after-image is a
second hue resulting from the intense viewing of a primary hue, which
is then interrupted by a glance at a white surface.
Blue-green is the after-image when red is viewed intensely. Blue-
green also acts as a complementary hue to red, as does the afterimage
of blue-violet to yellow, red-violet to green, and yellow-green to violet.
These are positioned opposite each other on the Munsell wheel.
 Colour Terminology

Familiarizing yourself with the appropriate colour terminology will

further enhance your understanding of colour. As the previous section
showed, the definitions of primary, secondary, tertiary and
complementary colours will vary depending on the colour system used.
The pigment wheel (subtractive colour system) is of most use to
fashion designers and is consequently referred to (though not
exclusively) in the overview of colour terms below.

Primary Colours Red, blue and yellow. These cannot be created by

mixing any other colours.
Secondary Colours Green (yellow mixed with blue), orange (red mixed
with yellow) and violet (red mixed with blue). These are the result of
mixing two primary colours together.
Tertiary Colours Created by mixing a primary colour with an adjacent
secondary colour; the tertiary colour takes on an appearance
somewhere between the two.
Complementary Colours These colours are positioned opposite one
another on the colour wheel. They are very dynamic when placed next
to each other – for example, red next to green, orange next to blue, or
yellow next to violet.
Harmonious Colours These colours are situated close to each other on
the colour wheel; for example, reds and violets, or blues and greens.
Analogous Colours Analogous colours create harmony within a colour
palette. They are colours that are adjacent to each other on the colour
wheel.

Cool Colours Shades of blue and whites are good examples of cool
colours. Cool colours are often derived from natural phenomena such
as the sea, snow, water and sky, and associated with cold conditions.
Warm Colours Nature also provides a good reference point for warm
colours; reds and yellows are evocative of fire, sunlight and warm
weather.
Neutral Colours Colours such as beige, olive, khaki, grey and brown.
They are based on the tertiary colours.
Subdued Colours Colours made less vibrant with the addition of black,
grey, white or a complementary colour. The resultant colour is
subsequently either shaded up or down, appearing darker or lighter
than the original.
Ground Colours This is the hue, shade or tone that represents the
majority of the background of an object or image.
Accent Colours A hint of colour that makes an impact.
Pigment Coloured powder used for making paints, inks and dyes.
Hue The name attributed to a colour – for example green, purple and
yellow – independent of its brightness or intensity.
Intensity, Saturation or Chroma The level of intensity a hue has due to
its purity and saturation of colour. For example: red (high intensity)
versus pink (low intensity).
Value Relates to the brightness of a hue – how light or dark it is. For
example: orange (light) versus brown (dark).

Gamut A range of a colour that can be accurately reproduced by a

particular device or set of pigments – the gamut will vary depending on
this. This accounts for the discrepancy between the colour seen on a
computer screen and that of a printed-off copy.
Tint Mixing a colour with white creates a tint.
Shade Mixing a colour with black creates a shade.
Tone Mixing a colour with grey creates a tone.
Achromatic Greys The result of mixing black and white together.
Chromatic Greys Greys with low saturation of a hue.
Greyscale Within computer terminology, an image in greyscale is an
image composed of tonal variations of achromatic greys.
Monochromatic Featuring a tonal range of just one hue For example: a
sepia-effect photograph shaded with brown.
Contrasts Colours that are frequently in opposition on the colour wheel.
When paired together, the strong difference is evident.
Colour Palette Within fashion, the range of colours used within a
collection.
 Colour Perception

Prussian blue, chartreuse, eau de nil, pumpkin, blush, boat green,

mushroom, indigo, flamingo pink, sage, taupe, Persian red and fawn
are just a few colour names from an infinite list. Colour as an adjective
has a powerful impact, whether it is used to differentiate garments or
to describe the differences between hues of paint.
The perception of colour is highly subjective. Variables such as the
light under which colour is experienced – daylight, fluorescent, electric
– have a huge bearing on how it is perceived. Also, the environment
that a colour is situated in is important – any colour will be experienced
differently if, for example, it is paired with a dark as opposed to a light
colour, or placed next to a colour that is opposite rather than adjacent
to it on the colour wheel. The surface of a piece of coloured fabric will
have a huge bearing on how that colour is experienced too, since
different surfaces absorb and reflect light waves differently. Black
suede, for example, will appear darker than black patent leather; the
first material absorbs more light waves whereas the second reflects
more.
The burgundy colour in these outfits looks very different in the patent leather compared to the matt

wool fabric.
 Communicating Colour

Clearly the subjective perception of colour is a disadvantage in any

type of industry dependent on the accuracy of colour, and the fashion
industry is no exception. Different garments within a collection are
often manufactured in different factories – and often different countries
– and subjected to different conditions. What is there to guarantee that
the textile mills, the designer and the retailer are referencing exactly
the same colour when referring to ‘tobacco’ or ‘cobalt’, for example?
The margin for error is huge when such variables as colour perception,
subjective interpretation, light and fabric types have such a
considerable impact on how a colour is experienced, and colour names
alone are not enough.
Very good communication between the different levels of the
fashion supply chain is therefore of vital importance. A system of
standardized colour referencing is also crucial. There are several colour
classification systems used by the fashion and textiles industry, the
most popular being the PANTONE® Fashion + Home and the
SCOTDIC (Standard Color of Textile Dictionnaire Internationale de la
Couleur) systems. Both systems are derived from the emphasis placed
on hue, value and chroma by Albert Munsell, as indicated in the
Munsell wheel (see here), and they catalogue a vast array of individual
colours, coded for precise identification and colour matching.
PANTONE® Fashion + Home colour guide.

PANTONE® cool colour swatches.

PANTONE® warm colour swatches.
 How to Create a Colour Palette

A colour palette is a range of colours used exclusively within a fashion

collection, a painting, an interior or similar. Creating a palette can be a
lot of fun; time spent experimenting with colour through random play is
extremely good practice, and often results in fresh and exciting
combinations. Fashion is about ‘the new’, so the nuances of a colour –
shade, tone or intensity – when combined with those of other colours
must be constantly revisited, broken down, assessed and reconfigured
to keep everything contemporary.

The fabric swatches on this sketchbook page have replicated the tonal variations evident in both

images. At some point during the design development, this current colour selection will be edited

down.
 As mentioned earlier in this book, a good designer needs to remain
aware of their environment and constantly be on the lookout for
inspiration. Colours are rarely experienced in isolation, though; they are
normally seen adjacent to other colours. The colour combinations that
surround us every day are always informative, but they should also be
challenged in the search for new perspectives.
Your own colour library can also provide a good jumping-off point
when trying to devise a colour palette. This library can consist of
disparate objects of colour, as long as they are inspiring. You can
continually add to this library, and review its contents with fresh eyes
as you compile each new colour palette.

A decaying urban cityscape and interior with graffiti evident have inadvertently inspired a light and

breezy colour palette.

The colour palette of a collection is intrinsically linked to the mood

and feel of the collection. A collection inspired by the circus, for
example, might require a palette that exudes a sense of fun, energy
and excitement. On the other hand, a collection based on purity might
be based on the nuances of a single colour. Here, though, you would
need to experiment with these nuances to devise a palette that worked
effectively.

Start a colour library for future reference, and devise a storage or filing system that will

be easy to navigate. Content can be devised to suit your purposes, and may include

anything from tear sheets to fabric swatches, yarn, postcards and found objects.
 Step-by-step Guide to Creating a Colour
Palette

There are several different ways of creating a colour palette. The

following steps outline just one possible route.

- Can you identify any recurring colours in your gathered primary and
secondary research imagery? Make a note of these. Collate them
and put them to one side.

- Write down a list of words that best describe the concept, mood,
theme, narrative or inspiration for your collection.

- Write down a list of colours that you feel best sum up the concept,
mood, theme, narrative or inspiration (do not forget that this is your
own personal interpretation of events).

- Go on a hunt for materials such as fabrics, found objects, yarns,

scrap paper and paints (with which you can manually create colour)
that work as examples for the colours under consideration. Your
colour library will be a great place to start. Collate them and put
them to one side.

- Colours can also be created through a variety of dyeing techniques.

- Bring together the evident colour/colours from your primary and

secondary research investigation with the colours representative of
the concept, mood, theme, narrative or inspiration.
- Play.

- Reference the colour wheels for further ideas. Investigate how

applying harmonious, analogous or complementary colours (for
example) to your pre-existing colours might work.

- Decide on how many colours you want for your collection: too many
colours can lead to a disparate-looking collection, and yet too few
colours can result in a lacklustre one. A collection needs to be
cohesive.

- Continue to play. Photograph or document through hand-rendered

techniques the various colour-combination propositions.

- Separate the more successful propositions from the not so

successful.

- Sleep on it or review propositions after a coffee break – it is

imperative to create some distance so that you can revisit with fresh
eyes. Then make your decision.

- A colour palette has a tendency to evolve just as design does in the

research and development phase of a project. It is essential to
allow this process to happen; design is best when it evolves
organically.
 A final line-up showing the use of a colour across a collection. The fabric swatches and the

coloured accessory details indicate that this student has really worked at finding the right colours.
A colour palette can consist of subtle colours.
 Colour Distribution

It is essential that you pay particular attention to the balance of colour

across a collection. This will provide a sense of cohesion to a group of
garments that might otherwise seem disparate. Colour distribution can
also help to emphasize a collection’s concept, mood, theme or
narrative. Take the example of a colour palette that uses black and
white. There are an infinite number of possibilities as to how these
colours can be distributed and the concept conveyed. The balance of
this duo could on one hand evoke Bridget Riley’s 1960s Op Art, or it
could reference Goth subculture, with white used to accessorize.

These outfits from the Gareth Pugh Spring/Summer 2012 collection are in solid black and white.
 This practice should not be left to the end but explored constantly
throughout the design process. All the outfits should be
complementary, fitting together to form a whole – the collection – that
is greater than the sum of its parts.

Black and white are combined in this Sass & Bide Autumn/Winter 2010 outfit.

The creation of a colour palette and how colours are distributed

across a collection is affected by personal taste. The rules of yesterday
about which colours you cannot mix together – navy with black, or
white with cream, for example – are there to be broken in the rule-less
world of today. In capable hands any colour combination has the
potential to work.
 Once you have created a colour palette, the next step is to explore how best to use it in your

collection. For this collection of ten outfits, two different colour distributions are proposed.

It is important, though, to be mindful of the effect that colour can

have on skintone. Some colours can be unflattering, making their
wearers look pasty and unwell. This knowledge might influence where
you place certain colours within your collection – you may choose to
use them away from the face, for example on trousers or skirts, or as
an accent colour, whereby use will be minimal.
A sense of harmony and cohesion is achieved through the balancing of pastel colours in this

collection of clean lines.

 Colour Forecasting

There are many different types of designers and design companies.

Some prefer to create their own colour palettes in response to colours
that have developed through their own active research, whereas others
create palettes by referencing colour trends stipulated by colour
forecasters.

Team discussing the colour palettes for different collections in the forthcoming season.

The role of a colour forecaster involves making predictions about

consumer and market-sector ‘moods’ or palettes of colour preferences
up to two years in advance, based on a thorough examination and
interpretation of social and cultural events. Colour forecasters do not
dictate which colours the fashion industry must use; they simply gather
global data on sales figures and changes in attitude to colour in order
to predict what customers are likely to buy in two years’ time.
 Promostyl colour mood board.

A global perspective on trend forecasting is achieved through

biannual conferences held in the US and Europe, and attended by an
international mix of world-leading colour consultants. These
consultants – the Colour Group and the International Colour Authority
(ICA) of the UK, and the US-based Color Marketing Group (CMG) and
the Color Association of the United States (CAUS) – make their
forecasts based on years of experience, strong observational skills, a
tacit understanding and sales figures. As an example, colour
forecasters understand that colours can frequently be a response to
societal economic peaks and troughs. In times of austerity, traditional,
sombre colours are popular, whereas bright, energetic and interesting
colours sell more in times of greater prosperity.
 Student colour board.

Première Vision, the biannual Paris fabric fair, displays forecasted

trends in both colour and fabrics for upcoming seasons. Forecasted
colours are frequently ready for distribution by dye companies up to
two years in advance of the retail selling season. As with clothes, there
are also fashions in colour – some colours have more staying power,
while others are more of a fad. Autumnal colours have a tendency to
appear for the Autumn/Winter season, while pastel colours usually
appear for Spring/Summer.
Colour board being compiled in a forecasting studio.
 CASE STUDY

Erdem Moralioglu was born and raised on the outskirts of Montreal,

Canada, by his British mother and Turkish father. Memories of
designing and making tiny blue dresses for his twin sister’s dolls are
vivid recollections of his childhood years, and were the first seeds of
what has become a successful career in fashion design.
Moralioglu relocated to Toronto to study fashion design at Ryerson
University, then after graduation he decided to move again – to the UK,
a place full of history and extended family, and which held a certain
romanticism for him. Moralioglu secured an internship at Vivienne
Westwood in London, where he gained an insight into the day-today
realities of an iconic brand, then in 2001 he began studying for a
master’s degree in womenswear at the Royal College of Art, with a
scholarship from the British Council. ‘Completing my master’s at the
RCA was a hugely important experience since it was there that I really
figured out who I was as a designer.’
After graduating from the RCA, Moralioglu was snapped up by the
Diane von Furstenberg label and subsequently moved to New York.
However, after a year in New York, he decided to return to London in a
bid to crystallize ideas he had of running his own fashion label. In
2005 the Erdem label was launched at the prestigious Fashion Fringe
competition show, where he was awarded first prize, and secured two
accounts – at Harrods and Ashley’s Boutique.
The Erdem label is now sold worldwide at prestigious outlets, and
worn by high-profile customers such as Tilda Swinton, Sienna Miller,
Thandie Newton, Michelle Obama, Chloë Sevigny, Keira Knightley, the
Duchess of Cambridge and Claudia Schiffer. According to Moralioglu,
the Erdem woman ‘is someone strong yet still feminine. She’s
intelligent, independent and follows her own convictions. She marches
to the beat of her own drum.’
The use of colour within elaborate prints is an identifiable signature
of the label. Colours are juxtaposed with others as if by accident, while
still achieving a sense of harmony and balance. Moralioglu comments,
‘I believe one of the most important things as a designer is to create
your own language, something others recognize as yours. Colour and
textiles are part of that for me but so is adding a human hand to my
work, whether that means a touch of embroidery or delicate hand-
made lace.’
As a child Moralioglu apparently became fixated with the colour
blue, and refused to wear any other colour. Although his palette is now
more extensive, this passion for colour has not waned: ‘I love colour
and experimenting with it; it is a very important aspect of what I do as
a designer and something I’ve never been afraid of. I’ve always found
black to be more difficult than colour.’
RTW Autumn/Winter 2019.
RTW Spring/Summer 2019.
RTW Autumn/Winter 2019.
RTW Spring/Summer 2019.
Fabric Research

For some designers, it is fabrics that provide the

starting point for a collection; others source fabrics at a

later point, based on what will work with their design

ideas. Whichever way you work, an understanding of how

fabrics drape and the properties of the individual fibres

that they are made from is essential. This chapter looks at

natural, synthetic and mixed fabrics, and explains how to

choose and source them.

 The Importance of Fabrics

Fabrics underpin fashion design – without them, clothes and fashion

as we understand them would not exist. A fashion designer with a
thorough working knowledge of fabrics is like a sculptor who knows
how to mould clay to achieve the best results. Being able to make
design decisions based on the handling of a piece of fabric – its
weight, lustre, texture and durability – forms an invaluable and
essential part of the design process. However, knowledge of fabric
suitability is not automatic; it is gradually built up as you gain more
experience in pattern cutting and sewing.
Christian Lacroix’s reputation is based on his eclectic and bold use of fabrics and colour.
Issey Miyake has helped to give polyester a greater appeal through his various techniques of fabric

manipulation. The smocking technique used here has added another level of interest to the fabric.

Fabrics have a huge influence on how a garment is perceived.

Take, as an example, the classic mackintosh and a Levi’s jacket. The
former is traditionally made from a rubberized cloth and the latter is
made from denim, yet both are hardwearing, functional and fit for
purpose. If these garments were fashioned out of silk organza, your
perception of them would be significantly altered. Fabrics can also
dramatically change the outline of a silhouette. If both of these
garments were made out of silk chiffon, they might prove difficult to
construct or recognize in their traditional form.
The central image here has not only inspired a technicolour array of fabrics – it has also influenced

the choice of fabrics. The fabric swatches on the right range from shiny to fuzzy.
Fabric swatches are displayed on a page showing design development. At this point, the placement

of fabrics is being considered in terms of the outfits. Having fabrics close by in order to handle

them greatly informs this process.

 Fibres and Fabrics

Fabric consists of many individual fibres. These are spun together so

that they form a continuous strand, which is subsequently woven or
knitted together with other strands to create fabric. Fibre sources vary,
but fibres fall into two distinct categories: natural fibres – which come
from animal or plant sources – and synthetic (man-made) fibres.
Fabrics in turn can then be made from natural, synthetic or mixed
fibres (a blend of two or more different fibres). Time spent familiarizing
yourself with different fibres will greatly increase your understanding of
their different characteristics.
 Fabric retailers stock many rolls of fabric – always ask for assistance if you cannot find what you

are looking for. If you describe the sort of fabric you want, sales assistants can often make helpful

suggestions.

The use of three different fabrics – wool, cotton and acetate – for
three identical skirts highlights the importance of choosing the right
fabric for your designs. Each skirt looks completely different, with the
lustre, drape and density of the fabric having an impact on the
silhouette and aesthetic of each.
The flounces on the wool skirt are much stiffer and, although they
hold their shape, they will not flow well in movement. Those of the
cotton skirt hang well, but the whole skirt is quite flat in texture. The
flounces in the acetate fabric will hold their shape, and are not too
bulky. They will rustle in movement and the fabric’s sheen will create
shade and tone as the light catches the folds.
Your decision on which fabric to choose will depend on your
concept/theme/narrative, and the fabric juxtaposition of the final outfit.
Different fabrics have different properties, which will affect the look and feel of a garment. Felted

wool (top) cuts with a clean edge, does not unravel or fray and is rigid yet pliable. Cotton (centre)

has good durability and utility, is easy to dye and is washable. Acetate (bottom) has a luxurious

appearance, a crisp handle, a good drape and dyes and prints well.
 Fabric Facts – Natural Fabrics

A natural fabric is one derived solely from naturally occurring fibres –

for example, animal hair, animal hide, plants, seeds or silkworm
cocoons. With all of these apart from the animal hide, the natural
fibres are elongated and then spun together to create filaments, thread,
yarn or rope, depending on the fibre. These then go through one or a
combination of processes – for example, weaving, knitting, bonding or
matting – to create fabric.
Natural fabrics are rooted in antiquity. The flax plant, which
provides the fibre used to make linen, has been used for cloth for more
than 3,000 years. The mummies left in tombs by the ancient
Egyptians were wrapped in burial shrouds made of linen, to preserve
them after embalming.
Cotton shirting, depending on the weave, can be referred to as oxford, herringbone, broadcloth or

poplin.

Tweeds are often used for outerwear due to their moisture resistance and durability.
 Linen often appears in Spring/Summer collections due to its ability to keep people cool. It is

typically used in both menswear and womenswear separates – skirts, shorts, trousers, shirts and

jackets.

Cotton, silk, linen and leather are some of the most widely used
natural fabrics today. They vary in their individual properties, but they
all allow the skin to breathe, are good absorbers of perspiration, which
helps to reduce body odour, and cause fewer allergenic reactions. They
are also 100 per cent biodegradable and so are better for the
environment, particularly when they are also farmed organically (see
Chapter 7).
Yohji Yamamoto pleated creation from Autumn/Winter 2013. Wool gabardine appears regularly in

his collections.
The Duchess of Cambridge’s wedding dress, in ivory satin gazar with lace appliqué, designed by

Sarah Burton for Alexander McQueen.

 Fabric Facts – Man-made Fabrics

The first person to produce a man-made fabric was Georges

Audemars, a Swiss chemist. In 1855 he patented a fabric called
‘artificial silk’. However, the first commercial production of this did not
occur until almost 40 years later, using a process invented by the
Frenchman Hilaire de Chardonnet, while in England at the same time
scientists were developing the ‘viscose’ method of production. The
American Viscose Company began producing viscose in the United
States in 1910, and the fabric was renamed ‘rayon’ in 1924.
The use of acetate for producing cloth – first explored by the
American Arthur D. Little – began commercially in 1924 with the
Celanese Corporation. Nylon (called the ‘miracle’ fibre at the time) was
developed in the 1930s in the DuPont laboratories by an American
chemist, Wallace Carothers. By 1938 it was being used commercially.
The development of nylon was a direct result of World War II, when
the importation of silk and cotton from Asia into the US was made
virtually impossible and alternatives needed to be found.
 A woman hunts for flaws in nylon hosiery laid on a white inspection table, 1948.

Innovation in man-made fibres still continues to offer a level of

diversity that is greater than could ever be found in nature, and
garments made from silk-like polyester or elastane (spandex), for
example, account for a sizeable percentage of the market. Such are the
benefits of synthetic materials that they are now used to make high-
performance items ranging from super-absorbent nappies (diapers) and
surgical gowns, to artificial organs and even building materials for
space stations.
The original seven Mercury astronauts in spacesuits made from a neoprene-coated nylon fabric and

aluminized nylon.
 Issey Miyake is renowned for using fabrics that have undergone some process to alter their form.

Heat has been used in a pleating machine to create this pleated polyester fabric.

Smart fabrics (textiles that incorporate digital components and

electronics) also demonstrate the level of innovation in textile
technological advances. Shirts that charge phones, clothes that keep
the body warm, solar bikinis and much more could become familiar
everyday items. An ‘invisible cloak’, inspired by the Harry Potter books,
is being developed and realized by a variety of scientists from countries
as far-ranging as Singapore and the US.
 Fabric Facts – Mixed Fabrics

Mixed fabrics are created when two or more distinct yarns are spun,
woven, knitted together or combined in numerous other ways. Many
possibilities exist within this category, with ever more sophisticated
blends of fibres appearing on the market. Blends combine the benefits
of the individual component fibres. Elastane, for example, is
increasingly blended with a variety of fibres to enhance ease and
comfort, while the absorbency levels of polyester are increased when it
is blended with cotton. When viscose is blended with cotton, the result
is a fibre that has much improved softness and appearance.
There are many more examples of property-enhanced blends. By
referencing your garment labels, you will start to appreciate the full
extent of this field.
Gareth Pugh, Autumn/Winter 2011. The leather in this garment has been coated with metallic foil.
This jacquard swatch is made from a mix of 74% linen and 26% cupro crêpe linen yarn.
Partially felted herringbone swatch made from a mix of 54% linen and 46% wool inseta.
 Textile Terminology

The following glossary covers many of the terms that you will
encounter frequently when dealing with fibres and fabrics. Try
building upon this list yourself. Form the habit of always looking at
garment labels, jotting down any information relating to fabric content
as well as your own descriptions of the handle and other general
properties in a notebook. In this way you will gradually compile your
own comprehensive glossary.

Acetate A man-made fibre made from cellulose (derived from wood

pulp), mixed with acetic acid. It produces a crisp fabric with a fair
amount of lustre.
Acrylic A durable wool-like fabric developed by DuPont in the 1940s.
It is soft, inexpensive and does not shrink.
Alpaca A natural animal fibre sourced from the alpaca goat, a member
of the llama family. It is a luxuriously soft and warm fibre, with a lustre
bearing close resemblance to that of cashmere or mohair.
Angora A natural fibre from the Angora rabbit. It is extremely fine, light
and fluffy.
Bamboo A durable natural fibre that has good levels of absorbency and
breathability.
Blend A composite of two or more fibres, the combination often
offering enhanced characteristics, such as durability, comfort and stain
resistance; blends can also be more economically viable to produce.
Botany High-grade wool from the Australian merino sheep.
Camel Hair An extremely luxurious fibre resembling cashmere. It
comes from the undercoat of fur that is periodically shed by a camel. It
is soft, heavy and durable, and is typically used in smart jackets and
coats.
Cashmere Fibres from the undercoat of the Cashmere goat. These
produce a lightweight, luxurious fibre.
Cotton A natural fibre sourced from the seeds of the cotton plant.
Properties include breathability, comfort and ease of cleaning.
Crêpe Twisted fibres create the crinkled handle of crêpe. Constructed
from either natural or man-made fibres, crêpe is lacklustre, with a
dryness to the touch. It comes in a variety of weights and transparency
levels.
Crimp The natural or artificial waviness of a fibre.
Double Knit A fabric consisting of two layers of looped fabric knitted
together to form one heavy fabric.
Elastane (Spandex) A fabric made from elastic fibres that are able to
return to their original shape after being pulled up to five times longer.
Adds flexibility when blended with natural fibres.
Elastic Yarn or fabric with the ability to stretch.
Embossing A process that involves transferring a design on to a piece
of fabric through pressure applied by engraved rollers. The design
appears in relief.
Felt The result of layers of fibres compressed to create a compact, non-
woven material. Due to the lack of a grain, felt can be cut in any
direction without fraying.
Flax A plant fibre principally used in the production of linen.
Foil A pliable metallic layer frequently used in elastane (spandex) and
other stretch fabrics.
Geelong The ultrafine hair cuttings from a young merino lamb.
Gin A device that mechanically extracts cotton fibre from the seed.
Hemp Hemp fibres come from the hemp plant, which can grow up to
6 metres (20 feet) tall. These long and strong fibres are ideal for
creating woven fabric.
Interfacing and Interlining These provide an additional layer of material
to certain parts of a garment. They are used predominantly for
reinforcement, as well as added warmth, durability and shape.
Jersey The generic name given to a knitted garment or fabric. Jersey
comes in a variety of natural and man-made fibres, and properties
include stretch, robustness and crease resistance.
Jute Jute is a fibrous plant. Its fibres are used to make a plain-weave
fabric (also called jute) with a rough surface texture. The fabric is also
known as burlap.
Kapok A vegetable fibre derived from the seed pods of the kapok tree
indigenous to Central and South America. It is buoyant and water-
resistant, and used as a filler in mattresses, upholstery, pillows and life
jackets.
Knitting This technique interlocks warp and weft loops to construct a
piece of fabric. The warp loops are positioned horizontally and the weft
vertically.
Lace An open decorative fabric made by knitting or looping yarns
together.
Lambswool The first clippings from unweaned lambs, predominantly
used in creating high-grade fabrics. It is a soft, warm, supple and
durable wool.
Lamé A fabric made from metallic fibre and traditionally used to make
eveningwear.
Leather Tanned animal hide, which dyes easily and comes in a variety
of finishes from coarse to smooth.
Linen Fabric made from the fibres of the flax plant. As fabric it is
porous, breathable and cool to wear.
Loom A machine or frame used to produce woven cloth.
Lurex A branded metallic fibre made from polyester and vapourized
aluminium.
Lycra DuPont’s trademarked elastane (spandex) fibre.
Lyocell A man-made fibre derived from wood pulp cellulose, and
belonging to the rayon family. It has good drape, is light, breathable
and soft, with a slight sheen.
Mercerization A process first developed by John Mercer in 1844, to
give cotton fabric a smooth, shiny surface.
Merino Wool Said to be the best wool fibre in the world. Derived from
the Australian merino sheep.
Mesh A very porous and net-like fabric.
Microfibre A man-made blended fibre, the result of weaving very fine
polyester and nylon fibre together.
Modal A fabric created from spun beechwood cellulose. It is resistant
to shrinking, fading and pilling.
Mohair Fibres from the long hair of the Angora goat. They are strong
and durable.
Nylon An abrasion-resistant thermoplastic fibre developed by DuPont
since its discovery in the 1930s. It has stretch, is durable and strong,
and dries with ease.
Pashmina The fibres taken from the soft undercoat of the Changthangi
or Pashmina goat of Central Asia.
Pile The yarn that stands higher than the woven base cloth. To achieve
velvet or corduroy, the pile is trimmed, shaved and shaped.
Ply To increase the density and weight of a fibre, more than one
filament can be twisted prior to being woven. Two-ply indicates that
two filaments are twisted; three-ply indicates three filaments.
Polyester A synthetic fibre created from combined polymers. It retains
shape well, is strong and wrinkle-free.
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) A man-made waterproof fabric.
Ramie A fabric made from the fibres of the ramie plant. It bears a
resemblance to linen.
Rayon Refers to a range of man-made fabrics, all made from
regenerated cellulose. Rayon drapes well and is soft to handle. See
also ‘viscose’.
Silk The filament fibre a silkworm produces when creating a cocoon. It
is a strong and lustrous fibre that is predominantly used for high-
quality garments.
Suede A leather with a velvet-like surface.
Synthetic Man-made and, strictly, not from an animal or plant source.
Tencel A fabric made of cellulose derived from wood pulp. It has silk-
like qualities, is soft and drapes well.
Vinyl A fabric resembling leather but made from PVC.
Viscose A regenerated fibre. Although man-made, it is not strictly
synthetic, since it is derived from a plant source (cellulose derived from
wood pulp). It has great drape and softness and is smooth to the
touch. Also known as rayon, or viscose rayon.
Weaving A technique for creating fabric by passing the warp (vertical)
and weft (horizontal) threads over and under each other on a loom.
How a fabric is woven influences its strength, elasticity, lustre and
weight.
Wool Wool yarn is made from hair fibres from a variety of animals,
such as sheep, goats, camels and llamas. The nature of woollen
fabrics is weave-dependent and can vary greatly, from wool gabardine
to wool crêpe and beyond.
Yarn A term that is often interchangeable with ‘fibre’. It can be one
long natural or synthetic fibre, or the result of twisting several fibres
together.

This pleated fabric is a blend of linen and silk. Combining silk with linen reduces the tendency of

linen to wrinkle.
 Sourcing Fabrics

Fabrics can be obtained from a variety of sources. These include trade

fairs, textile mills, converters, agents, importers, stock houses, jobbers
and retailers. As a student, you will probably source the majority of
fabrics for your project work from a retailer. It is, however, possible to
build relations with textile mills and other sources too if you approach
them. You may also be able to secure fabric sponsorship for your final
collection, if not other projects as well. This may be supplied entirely
free, or you may be offered heavily discounted fabric from previous
season’s stock – and occasionally from current stock.
As a designer, developing good relations with fabric suppliers is
essential. There are numerous suppliers all competing for business, so
choose those that are reliable and competitive, provide consistent
quality and meet delivery deadlines.
 Market stall selling a variety of fabrics.

Textile Mills
Textile mills manufacture woven or knitted fabric. Mills are often
associated with a particular specialism, whether this is a specific fabric
or process. They offer the most competitively priced fabrics since there
is no need for a middleman, although they will require minimum
orders. Production minimums, however, are not a static figure and will
vary from mill to mill and from country to country, so it is always worth
investigating.
Textile mills are keen to show innovation in their fabric lines, so
designers past and present have collaborated with fabric designers and
mills to achieve exclusive fabrics for their collections.

Agents
Agents, or middlemen, have a very important intermediary role to play
in the seasonal cycle. They represent the textile mills on a national and
international level by showcasing their fabric collections to both
designers and buyers. They also oversee the local and international
ordering and delivery of stock. They do not hold stock themselves but
are able to showcase fabric collections through the use of large fabric
swatches and feelers on header cards. Header cards also provide a
comprehensive overview of all the different colour options that are
available for each fabric.

Importers
Importers buy in fabric from overseas mills in wholesale quantities,
which they then sell off in varying quantities. Importers provide a
useful service by smoothing out cross-cultural differences (such as
language barriers), and they have a good grasp of currency fluctuations.
They also assist in all relevant shipping and import-duty
documentation.

Wholesalers
Wholesalers sell stock acquired from textile mills and converters (see
below). It is important to bear in mind that they do not provide an
endless supply of any one fabric, and operate more on a first come,
first served basis. They often provide a student-friendly environment
where fabrics can be bought without minimum requirements.

Converters
Converters buy in large quantities of unbleached and undyed fabrics
(greige goods) from textile mills, and then have these finished (dyed or
printed, for example) by another company before selling them on.
Unlike textile mills, converters work on a basis of much smaller
minimums, making them more accessible. Collaborations with both
textile designers and manufacturers often allow for ‘converted’ fabrics
that are very on-trend.

Jobbers
Jobbers deal in excess stock – they offload mills and manufacturers of
unwanted stock. The fabric is then sold off competitively to a wide
variety of recipients, from stallholders to retail outlets.
Retailers
The stock provided by retailers can be purchased in any quantity,
making this a student-friendly option. This is at a cost, though – often
up to three times the wholesale price, if not more. Different retailers
have different mark-ups, which are reflected in their respective price
points.

Students discussing fabric at a wholesaler.

 Choosing Fabrics

Starting fabric research for a project can be quite overwhelming; this

can then be exacerbated when in a fabric store surrounded by endless
rolls of fabric. Where do you start? How do you know you are choosing
the right fabric? Do you ask for cuttings of all the fabrics that interest
you, or do you make a definitive selection there and then? How much
fabric will you need?
Choosing fabric is a subjective and organic process; designers can
have a visceral reaction to a length of fabric. However, this gut reaction
is generally based on experience – where learning from prior successes
and failures has led to an intuitive feel for fabric selection. In the
meantime, applying a methodology to fabric research will guide you
through the process.
 Design development sheet showing fabric swatches under consideration.

While in the shop, there are two main areas that you should focus
on – concept and colour palette. Always take your sketchbook with you
so that you have some initial research to hand, or some visuals that
sum up the intended spirit of your collection. Refer constantly to your
imagery and ask yourself the following questions to bring focus to your
research:

- What season am I designing for?

- Is this a menswear or womenswearcollection?

- What types of fabric would work well with my

concept/theme/narrative?

- What types of fabric would work well with my silhouette?

 How many fabrics will I need to add interest and bring cohesion to
- my collection?

- What colours am I thinking of using to create a colour palette?

- What would this textured fabric look like with this shiny fabric? (A
question you can apply to any selections of fabric.)

These images have been used to create an ambience – reflected in the choice of fabrics and

colours.

Exploring touch and feel is essential for gaining an understanding of fabric types. This

activity involves embracing your wardrobe. Set aside an hour a week to go through the

various items that you own. Look, touch and try them on. Describe how each fabric

feels and drapes in a notebook dedicated to fabric research. Study the fabric content

label for any relevant information and jot down your findings alongside your descriptive

notes. Repeat this until you have gone through all the contents of your wardrobe.
Collecting and Storing Fabric Samples
Have some fun when combining fabrics to make your selection. There
are no rules and, even if there were, rules are meant to be broken. It is
best not to have too many preconceived ideas. By making the space to
explore and experiment you will have a better chance of creating
something fresh and new.
Most fabric stores will provide you with about three fabric swatches
on a given day. So, several visits to several stores will probably be
needed. Collect as many swatches as possible – fabrics you think
might work, as well as those you are sure of. Some shops will sell a
length of 20 cm (8 in) as a minimum. This length will give you a
better idea of drape, weight and so on than a swatch, but you will
need to multiply the cost by the number of samples you need to figure
out if your budget will allow for this.
Swatches and purchased lengths of fabric bought from shops and
markets can also be used to start your own fabric library. The fabrics
should be separated into fibre types for the purpose of easy navigation.
Always note down the fabric content of your swatches; with advances
in technology it can sometimes be difficult to depend on touch alone
when identifying fibres.
 Fabric Fairs

Fabric fairs provide a central place where a wide range of fabrics can
be bought and sold for forthcoming seasons. They are a notable part of
the fashion calendar and the well-known ones always attract
international designers and buyers.
Interstoff Asia Essential, Ideacomo and Première Vision (PV) are
among the most prestigious fairs. Interstoff Asia Essential showcases
in Hong Kong in March and October. Ideacomo is held in Milan in
February and September. PV takes place biannually in February and
September. It follows directly after (though sometimes overlaps the
end of) the prêt-à-porter (ready-to-wear) catwalk collections in London,
and is probably the most important fair of all.
At a fabric fair professional designers and buyers are typically
shown headers by a sales representative of a mill, with the hope that
initial sample lengths will be ordered, followed by production lengths.
PV opens up to undergraduate and postgraduate students on the last
two days of the fair, when complimentary tickets are issued to student
groups accompanied by a tutor. Some mills might be willing to part
with fabric swatches and catalogues at this stage – it is always worth
asking.
Lately there has been a bit of a sea change, and the flexibility
inherent in smaller fairs is proving to be a more viable proposition for
manufacturers. Whether it is by allowing manufacturers to show off-
schedule or providing a more exclusive setting, such as a hotel suite,
these smaller fairs are gaining in popularity and attracting more and
more international interest.
At a stand at Pitti Immagine Filati, Florence, Italy.

Fabric mills stands at Première Vision, Paris.

 CASE STUDY

Simone Rocha was born into fashion: she is the daughter of the now
retired Hong Kong-born, Irish-based fashion designer John Rocha, and
his Irish business partner, Odette Rocha. However, a career in fashion
was not a foregone conclusion, despite her upbringing, which included
her attending her first fashion show when she was less than a month
old.
Rocha received a master’s degree from Central Saint Martins in
2010. In the same year she debuted her graduation collection at
Fashion East, the prestigious London showcase for emerging designers.
The following year she was picked up by New Generation, a Topshop
sponsorship scheme that has provided a springboard for many UK-
based young designers.
Rocha has forged an identifiable aesthetic that combines the
feminine with a tomboy edginess. Her style is clearly distinct from that
of her father’s – cleaner and more minimal, with an avid use of
eclectic, experimental fabrics. Rocha is often inspired by nature, and
she also cites the work of the artist Louise Bourgeois as a major
influence. Rocha’s ethos is based on ‘the idea of femininity and how
that’s integrated into women’s lives, how it makes them feel … with
every show you’re telling a story and you want to tell one that women
connect with’.
Simone Rocha’s designs are now found in notable stockists around
the world, including 10 Corso Como in Milan and Seoul, and Dover
Street Market in both London and Ginza, Tokyo. In 2015, she opened
her first store in London’s Mount Street. This was followed two years
later by the opening of her first US store, in New York’s SoHo district.
Rocha was appointed a creative director of Moncler through its Genius
initiative in 2018, and she has subsequently shown at Milan Fashion
Week.
Rocha became a finalist for the LVMH Young Fashion Designers
Prize in 2013. She then won the highly acclaimed Emerging Talent,
Ready-to-Wear award at the British Fashion Awards in 2013, followed
by the New Establishment award in 2014. In 2016, at the same
awards, she grabbed one of the top prizes: British Womenswear
Designer of the Year. She won the Harper’s Bazaar Designer of the
Year award in the same year. In 2019, her Autumn/Winter show
featured in Vogue.com’s top ten shows for the seventh successive
season. The Simone Rocha × H&M collection was released in March
2021.
RTW Spring/Summer 2020
RTW Autumn/Winter 2019
RTW Spring/Summer 2020
RTW Spring/Summer 2020
Market Research

Engaging in market research creates an awareness and

understanding of the different levels of the fashion market.

It is vital that you have a sense of the end user for your

designs – the consumer – to keep your work relevant. This

chapter explores the fashion market and shows how you

can visualize your customer, either by using a muse or by

looking at brand identity, advertising and trend forecasting

to gain an insight into who they might be.

 Researching the Market

To understand the different levels of the fashion market, close

inspection is needed. Whether you find yourself in a shopping mall or
department store, there are distinguishing features to note. The
question ‘Which market are you designing for?’ is a crucial one, and
frequently crops up during the stages of a project. In fact, the answer
to this question should be known at the start of any project. This will
allow you to take a closer look at the market and establish which areas
you find interesting. You might find you gravitate towards denim,
sportswear, eveningwear or conceptual design. You may find that you
are drawn particularly to the designer level of the fashion market, or
you may discover that the mass market sector engages you more.
Just as there are different types of designers, there are different
levels within the fashion market to accommodate them. Where will you
fit within this ever-expanding market? The following considerations are
largely influenced by the level of the fashion market you are designing
for: How much can you spend per metre or per foot for a chosen fabric?
How many seams can a garment have without increasing the cost price
significantly? How broad a range of sizes is necessary? How many
pieces do you need to have in your collection?
Y-3 store in Conduit Street, London. The Y-3 collection is a collaboration between Yohji Yamamoto

and Adidas.

On a wider scale, a closer inspection of the market will also enable

you to gain an understanding of competitors and their share of the
market, the market size, and the consumer and emergent trends. The
collection, analysis, reviewing and interpretation of data – data that has
been collated through research of primary or secondary resources, or a
combination of the two – best supports this understanding. In market
research, primary research typically involves collecting original data
using the following methods:

- Interviews
- Questionnaires
- Focus groups
- Surveys.

Secondary research frequently involves collecting data that already

exists, using sources such as:
- Books
- Trade journals
- The internet
- Magazines.

The collated primary and secondary data will fall into the category
of either quantitative or qualitative research, or both. Quantitative
research, as the name suggests, is focused on quantity: for example, a
survey conducted with a large sample of respondents will result in
quantitative data. It typically provides information on consumers and
on market share.
Qualitative research relates to quality – providing data that explains
the ‘how’ and ‘why’ of the market. It is a lot more organic in approach
and in the types of data collected; it is very useful in giving an insight
into how consumers think and feel about a wide variety of issues.
Face-to-face interviews, for example, will give qualitative data.
Fundamentally, fashion falls into two distinct groups, covered by
the French terms haute couture and prêt-à-porter. The first translates
as ‘high fashion’ – the most fashionable and influential dressmaking
and design. The second translates as ‘ready to wear’. Haute couture is
a thin slice of the market. The majority of fashion seen, bought and
worn by the average consumer is prêt-à-porter. The following
breakdown of the different market segments will help clarify the
differences between these, and the levels that exist in between.
H&M flagship store on New York’s 5th Avenue.
 Haute Couture

Haute couture is an extravagant and costly business to be in – no

expense is spared. The clothes are specific to an individual customer,
just like the principle of a tailor-made suit. The fabrics are the finest
and the garments employ the handcrafting skills of the most able
seamstresses. Making garments is frequently very time-consuming and
can take months of dedication and patience. The industry supports the
very finest specialist makers in fashion, from embroiderers to weavers
and beyond. Permission to use the ‘haute couture’ label (backed up by
French law) is restricted to just a handful of fashion houses, who meet
with the strict requirements of the Chambre Syndicale de la Haute
Couture.

Backstage at the Spring 2010 Givenchy haute couture show.

To qualify, a fashion house must:

1. Offer more than one fitting per order; each order is always for an
individual private client

2. Have a studio based in Paris with at least 15 full-time

employees

3. Employ 20 technicians in their studio

4. Show twice a year at the Paris couture shows.

Today, though, there are fewer haute couture houses in Paris than
in the heyday of the 1940s and 50s – and far fewer clients able to
afford this type of luxury.
Haute couture shows are biannual, taking place in January and
July, just ahead of the prêt-à-porter Fashion Weeks. They provide great
advertising for their brands, showcasing lavish lifestyles. They also
represent the pinnacle of unrestricted creativity.
 Prêt-à-porter

Fashion that does not satisfy the specifications of haute couture, or is

not made for an individual by other bespoke methods, is by default
prêt-à-porter, or ready-to-wear fashion. Prêt-à-porter is mass-produced
and, therefore, much cheaper to purchase. It comprises a range of
standardized sizes for the buying public, the fabrics used tend to be
more affordable, and the number of hand-worked techniques are
greatly reduced.
Ready-to-wear fashion covers a wide range of varying products,
from fairly exclusive super brands to cheap and cheerful supermarket
brands. Designer ready-to-wear collections are shown at least twice a
year in the fashion capitals of New York, London, Milan and Paris (and
some designers also create two cruisewear and pre-Autumn collections
a year). However, new fashion capitals are also emerging, which aim
to show their own country’s ready-to-wear collections, such as
Stockholm, Berlin, Rio de Janeiro, Amsterdam, Bangalore and Madrid.
Though designer ready to wear is more ubiquitous than haute
couture, it is still of very good quality, exhibiting great craftsmanship,
innovation and exclusivity; it is also pricey. Designers such as Erdem,
Anne Valérie Hash, Etro, Anna Sui and Antonio Berardi, and super
brands such as LVMH and Gucci, all create ready-to-wear collections.
 Louis Vuitton prêt-àporter menswear, Autumn/Winter 2012.

The lower end of the ready-to-wear market – the retail chains and
the supermarkets – are influenced by the designer catwalk collections
and consequently create watered-down versions for their own lines.
Mass market, chain retail labels such as H&M, Mango, Zara and
Whistles are very trend-orientated, and are very quick off the mark in
designing and producing lines that can appear on the shop floor within
weeks. Supermarkets are much slower to cover current trends.
Luxury Super Brands
LVMH and the Gucci Group are both prêt-àporter fashion
conglomerates and are positioned in the market as luxury super
brands. Under the ownership of the LVMH group are Louis Vuitton,
Loewe, Celine, Givenchy, Marc Jacobs, Fendi, Emilio Pucci, TAG Heuer
and many more. The Kering Group owns Alexander McQueen, Saint
Laurent, Bottega Veneta, Balenciaga, Gucci and Boucheron. Luxury
super brands have huge budgets to spend on advertising which
promotes a luxury lifestyle with all the trappings.

Ann Demeulemeester menswear, Spring/Summer 2011.

Mid-level Brands and Designers

Mid-level brands and designers are a lot smaller and consequently less
powerful than the super brands. Nevertheless, they are household
names in their respective countries and some are also recognized at an
international level. Mid-level designers show at the various Fashion
Weeks, where buyers seek out collections. Both mid-level designers
and brands are sold in department stores, independent boutiques,
franchises, and in their own stores, if they have them.
Collaborative ventures between mid-level designers and chain retail
stores are gaining in popularity. H&M has witnessed a flurry of
designer collaborations, with Maison Martin Margiela, Karl Lagerfeld,
Stella McCartney, Comme des Garçons, Viktor & Rolf, Roberto Cavalli,
Marimekko, Marni, Matthew Williamson, Sonia Rykiel and, most
recently, Simone Rocha (see here). Meanwhile, Uniqlo has
collaborated with Jil Sander and Marimekko in recent years. These
collaborations ensure exposure for the designer, and prestige for the
store – and make designer labels accessible to the average person on
the street.

Independent Designer Labels

Independent designer labels operate on a much smaller scale than the
mid-level designers. These designers – who work with a team to help
realize a collection – often own their own label. The team will normally
consist of a freelance pattern cutter (maker) and seamstress.
Independent designers will often wear several hats at the same time –
while trying to manage aspects of the business such as cash flow,
sales and press relations, they will also have to find the mental space
for designing a collection.
Trade fairs are a popular choice for independent designers, and
some might even manage to secure finance or sponsorship in order to
show at a Fashion Week, where there is the chance that their
collection may be bought wholesale to be sold at boutiques and
department stores.
 Independent designer Christopher Raeburn at work in his London design studio.

Casualwear and Sportswear Brands

Nike and Levi Strauss are two of several well-known super-brands in
casualwear and sportswear. They are very influential and make their
presence known using good advertising that helps keep their brands
within the public eye. The fact that both labels are so ubiquitous is
proof of their success – you are never too far from either brand.
There are also a few mid-level brands and designers within the
area of casualwear and sportswear: Evisu, Diesel, Hugo Boss, G-Star,
Stone Island, Armani Jeans, Dolce & Gabbana and Replay are a few
examples.
 Levi Strauss Levi’s store in Bucharest, Romania.

Mass Market Retail

Mass market retail fashion (also known as high street fashion in the
UK) is the category of the market offered by chain stores, which means
that a particular shop can be found in different cities all over the
country, and sometimes globally, too; H&M and Zara operate on an
international scale. Mass market brands create or buy in different
collections within a season to meet the majority of their consumers’
needs – suits, jeans, swimwear, accessories, etc. These collections
have been directly influenced by trends identified at the prêt-à-porter
Fashion Weeks.
 Zara shopfront in Beijing.

The time taken to produce a collection from drawing board to shop

floor (lead time) is a fraction of that required by a mid-level designer to
create a ready-to-wear collection – weeks instead of months. And
because production involves large quantities, manufacturing for the
mass market is given priority by factories.
The fabrics, cut and attention to detail can sometimes be
compromised in this area of the market. However, the ability to be on-
trend quickly, coupled with reasonable price points, broadens the
consumer demographic considerably – everyone is interested in what is
considered a comparative bargain.

Supermarkets
Clothing lines are rapidly gaining ground in an environment once
restricted to food and household goods – consumers have started to
buy into this level of the market due to its affordability and
improvements in design. Prices are kept low because of the large
quantities being manufactured quickly. In the UK, ‘George at Asda’,
‘TU’ by Sainsbury’s and ‘Florence & Fred’ by Tesco are all private-label
goods that have a strong position within this market. ‘George at Asda’
is stocked in around 500 stores in the UK. Asda itself is partly owned
by the American supermarket giant Walmart, and Walmart also sells
affordable fashionable clothing lines (including ‘George’) in its US
stores, while in France, hypermarket Carrefour stocks similarly priced
ranges.
 Competition

There is fierce competition in the market place – all retailers bid for
sales from the consumer, at times the very same consumer.
Identifying and analyzing the competition is invaluable for effective
market research. To assess the competition, four key factors have to be
considered:

- The positioning of the brand or product within the market place

- The type of product or brand and its purpose
- The psychology of the consumer
- The variety of shopping environments.

The interplay of these factors (some fixed and others variable)

creates the competition that is evident in the market place.
Analyzing the strengths and weakness of competitors is essential in
helping you assess how best to compete. This analysis will enable you
to evaluate a number of things, such as the performance and operation
of competitors – their resources, their share of the market (market
share), the size of their operation, the services on offer and much
more. Trade and industry published figures also provide an insight into
and data on these points.
Billboard advertising the David Beckham bodywear range at H&M. Celebrity endorsements and

collaborative ventures are great advertising tools that help in a competitive market place.
 The Muse

When designers put pencil to paper to sketch a design idea, in the

majority of cases they have someone in mind who will wear it, even if
it is initially themselves. This someone can be an individual – a muse
– or they can represent a particular group of consumers (a
demographic). Who is this person? This question provides a good
starting point, and as your research and development skills mature,
your answer to it will become more defined.
A working definition of a muse is a goddess, or the power, that
inspires a poet, artist, thinker, or anyone working in the creative
industries. The concept of a goddess muse might seem slightly
outdated, but it is all too evident that certain individuals – both
historical and contemporary – inspire designers to create collections.
Examples of muses include both men and women – Anna Piaggi,
Agyness Deyn, Jackie Onassis, David Bowie, Sienna Miller, Grace
Jones, James Dean, Katharine Hepburn, Charlize Theron, Catherine
Deneuve, the Duchess of Cambridge and Marlene Dietrich, to name a
few. What they have in common is a strong sense of style and the
ability to project a particular lifestyle. The overall package then provides
a benchmark for a designer’s ideas. A muse can also be real or
imagined. Frequently, an imagined muse is a concoction of
characteristics from several real people, and can be just as potent as a
real individual.
 Azzedine Alaïa famously designed this hooded pink dress for his friend Grace Jones in the 1985

James Bond film A View to a Kill.

However, the role of a muse is not necessarily a passive one.

Muses may often act as a sounding board for designers during the
design process. The late Isabella Blow was friend, muse and mentor to
the late Alexander McQueen. Lady Amanda Harlech, one-time muse to
John Galliano, went on to be muse and creative assistant to the late
Karl Lagerfeld; she worked as a pair of second eyes for him on the
Chanel, Fendi and Karl Lagerfeld labels, as well as appearing in
promotional material. A muse can generate a lot of PR for a designer
by helping to promote and establish brand identity on many levels.

I don’t really sit down at the beginning of each season and try and
figure out who this elusive muse is. But at some point in the creative
process I go through a series of questions in my head.
Is this for someone who exists today?
Is there someone I can think of who would wear something like this? I
think that process makes me believe that something is credible or
has a reason to be. I like to know that there is someone I can think of
who would like to wear whatever it is I am designing.
Marc Jacobs

I tried to throw myself into imaging that glamorous jet-set world of

the Gucci woman, though it was a long way from my own life.
Christopher Bailey
Alexander McQueen with his friend and mentor Isabella Blow.
 Brand identity

The fashion market is saturated by brands that range from haute

couture houses to the affordable clothing lines of supermarket chains.
It is therefore crucial for any brand to establish a clear identity to
distinguish itself from others – a brand identity. A brand can be a
name, design, symbol, a unique feature and so much more.
Consumers have a tendency to buy into brand names – a positive
perception of a brand can relate directly to an increase in sales figures
– so brand identity is something to be nurtured and protected. If a
brand is perceived positively, consumers will return time and time
again. A clear brand identity indicates that a business is effectively
answering the needs of their target market on a regular basis.
Viktor & Rolf menswear, Spring/Summer 2012. The design duo help to enforce their brand identity

through their quirky approach to design.

Brands are omnipresent – from Marks & Spencer to Ralph Lauren,

Etro, Celine and Louis Vuitton, you are never more than five minutes
away from one. Some brands, due to their presence in high-end
fashion magazines and exclusive shopping districts, frequent lavish
billboard campaigns, high price points and perceived exclusivity, are
desired by the masses but affordable only to a few. The Louis Vuitton
brand falls into this group. Other brands market themselves on their
affordability and accessibility by advertising in mid-range fashion
magazines and selling via their own chain store outlets – River Island
and the Gap are examples of these. Whatever the level, good
advertising and PR help to keep a brand in the public eye.
In a design project you might be asked to design for a brand – you
might even be asked to create a fashion brand of your own – so you
need to understand how brand identity works. You will need to identify
the consumer demographic you are targeting. Whom do you want to
buy your brand? What is their lifestyle? Do they have a disposable
income? Are they male or female? Ask yourself these and other similar
questions so that your brand is relevant to your chosen consumer. You
can learn how to answer many of these questions by looking at how
other brands position themselves in the market.

Humorous Uniqlo cashmere advertising campaign pitching to a demographic that enjoys luxury

fabrics at affordable prices.

 Advertising

Advertising has a huge impact on consumers’ perception of a brand.

By studying the advertising of an individual brand, you can identify not
only their particular style, but also their position in the market. For
example, brands that can afford to place substantial advertisements in
high-end magazines are normally at the higher end of the market.
Dissecting and analyzing advertising provides a sound area of research
when trying to make a better sense of the relationship between brands
and consumers.

Benetton advertising campaign, Spring/Summer 2011. The use of colour in this campaign portrays

the brand as fun and youthful.

 Within fashion, advertising can take place in many forms. Retailers,
such as H&M, Benetton and Harrods, often use billboards, having
reasonably sized budgets for large campaigns. Retailers also use their
shop fronts as an advertising tool. Mid-level designers, if they have the
budget, advertise in fashion magazines – magazine spreads provide
great advertising and publicity and are free, although a fee must be
paid to the PR agency that is overseeing the brand and loaning items
to fashion stylists and editors.
 Public Relations

In unpacking and researching brand identity it is good to be aware of

the presence and influence of good PR. As well as advertising, good
PR helps to give a brand a public platform. A PR agency is employed
by the designer or brand to represent them and to get publicity. The
level of representation varies depending on the fee paid. Essentially,
PR agencies build good relationships with stylists, editors, journalists
and writers so that the designers or brands they promote are
represented in the media.
 An assortment of fashion catwalk show tickets. These are distributed to key people within the

fashion industry by PR agencies.

PR agencies organize and oversee promotional events, including

catwalk shows. They send out gifts to revered editors and aspirational
celebrities. They also compile press releases, which are sent out to key
editors and others working in the media. Following up on releases is
an important part of the job. Feedback on the publicity generated is
then passed on to the designer or brand.
Screen shot of the Fashion Monitor – a comprehensive directory of contacts, news and events in the

fashion, lifestyle and beauty industries.

 Trend Forecasting Agencies

To understand the fashion market it is important to understand the

importance of trends. What makes an item of clothing fashionable one
minute and not the next? Why do hemlines change? Why is green the
new black? Where do trends emerge? What are macro and micro
trends? Who uses them? Who provides them? Imagining a trend as
something emerging from the bottom of a funnel is a neat way of
understanding how a trend has usually evolved from something much
larger. Trends emerge from the societal issues that penetrate all walks
of life, from the way we think to the way we live.
A trend forecasting agency joins up the dots. Information from
diverse sources is gathered and broken down, and the common ground
is investigated to assess how it relates to fashion. These diverse
sources include blogs, journals, theatre, film, books, newspapers and
the internet, among others. Trend forecasters must be constantly aware
of current thinking and culture (the zeitgeist), whether that is keeping
abreast of celebrity lifestyles or changing consumer attitudes.
Promostyl, Worth Global Style Network (WGSN) and the Future
Laboratory are prominent trend forecasting agencies. Promostyl create
trend books and trend boards that anticipate emergent trends, focusing
on aspects such as silhouette, colours and fabrics. WGSN provides
fashion intelligence to the industry through an online presence, by
following street fashion, looking for trends in arts and culture, keeping
up with pop culture, referencing vintage and other similar activities.
The Future Laboratory uses ethnographic research tools such as
interviews and surveys to provide its clients with fashion intelligence.
 Promostyl trend board.

Mass market fashion companies tend to use trend forecasting

agencies to assist with designing collections. Luxury super brands,
mid-level designers and brands, and independent designers, on the
other hand, tend to generate their own personal vision of a trend. As a
student you will also generally be required to rely on your own personal
analysis of emergent trends, rather than relying on the forecasts of a
trend agency. Engaging in the research methods that the trend
agencies themselves use – following street fashion and engaging in
arts and culture, then using a process of assimilation, dissection,
editing and analysis – is good practice. Being aware of the influence of
macro and micro trends will also increase your understanding of the
subject.

Macro Trends
A macro trend is the result of a large-scale societal change. For
example, the world’s population is ageing, and this change in
consumer demographics has huge implications for fashion and other
industries. What is becoming clear is that older people are becoming
more style conscious. Since they have cash at their disposal, new
markets might emerge as a result. A lack of awareness when it comes
to significant societal upheavals like this can be a very costly mistake
for any business.

Fashion and Textiles graduate collection, shown on older models.

Micro Trends
The term micro trend was coined by Mark Penn, a strategist and
adviser to such prominent individuals and companies as Bill Gates,
Microsoft and BP. Micro trends are smaller trends established by small
groups of passionate people who run counter to the mainstream – they
can affect societal change, shaping tomorrow. A group may consist of
just 1 per cent of the total population, yet in a country the size of the
US this will mean a group of about 3 million people, highly capable of
making a significant impact. Young knitters, social geeks, caffeine
crazies, surgery lovers, sun haters, vegan children and the uptown
tattooed are all examples.
 Hand knitting has gained popularity among a younger age group. More and more people are

knitting their own garments or accessories.

Young knitters, to take one of these examples, have been on the

increase in the US, inspired by A-list celebrity enthusiasts such as
Cameron Diaz, Julia Roberts and Sarah Jessica Parker. The interests of
these crafters run counter to the high-tech, technology-driven
environment they occupy. As this group is composed predominantly of
young women, it is highly probable that craft outlets will begin to stock
goods aimed at a younger clientele. Catwalk shows will also probably
include more handknits in the future. The young knitters are part of a
‘nesting’ trend, too – a ‘do it yourself’ wave, evidenced in the increase
of cookery, house-buying and house-renovation programmes on
television. This trend is also reflected in the customization options now
offered by some household names: Nike and Timberland have both
produced sneakers that come with a range of stickers, glitter glue,
stamps and graffiti markers.
 Ethical Concerns

Sustainable fashion, or ethical fashion, is an increasingly important

concern within the fashion market. Familiar stores such as H&M now
offer some items in organic cotton or wool, while People Tree, a fair-
trade pioneer, has concessions in department stores and shops around
the world. Sustainable fashion aims to adhere to environmental and
social responsibilities, and carbon footprinting, cotton production,
sweatshops and child labour are some of the key concerns.

Female workers gathering cotton in Hubei province, China.

A carbon footprint is the total amount of carbon dioxide produced

by the processes needed to produce an item, including its manufacture
and transportation. Carbon footprinting can therefore be used in
fashion to measure the environmental impact of producing a particular
garment. Sustainable fashion aims to reduce carbon footprints by, for
example, transporting materials and finished products over shorter
distances, thus cutting fuel emissions considerably.
Cotton production involves the use of heavy pesticides, which has
devastating effects on both cotton producers and the environment.
Several of the chemicals used are highly toxic, and World Health
Organization figures suggest that in excess of 20,000 farmers lose
their lives every year. It is argued that if cotton farmers were paid more
for their goods, they would be able to diversify their produce and use
more environmentally friendly farming methods.
Organic cotton is produced without synthetic pesticides and
fertilizers. As a consequence, both the cotton farmer and the
environment benefit greatly. Farming methods such as crop rotation
also greatly reduce pest numbers and increase numbers of natural
predators. Although garments made from organic cotton are usually
more expensive than those made from regular cotton, more and more
retailers are stocking organic cotton to meet growing demand for it.
 Designer Katharine Hamnett uses slogans on her T-shirts to generate exposure for political and

environmental issues.

Sweatshops are factories found in developing countries, where

working conditions are unsavoury, wages are poor and the rights and
wellbeing of the workers are overlooked. Mass market brands are often
accused of perpetuating their existence by insisting on short delivery
times and keeping prices low (low prices depend on low wages in
sweatshops). However, other levels of the fashion market have also
been known to use sweatshops.
Child labour is prevalent in most developing countries.
Impoverished large families send their children out to work to earn
money for the family. Children are employed in factories because they
are cheaper to employ, enabling factory owners to earn larger profits
and ensuring cheap prices for consumers. In many cases, however,
these children work in hazardous conditions for very long hours,
making this a key issue for brands wanting to offer a sustainable
product.

Fashion company People Tree make clothing that is both sustainably produced and fashionable.

Kering
Kering is a global luxury group, managing renowned fashion houses
such as Alexander McQueen, Bottega Veneta, Balenciaga, Gucci and
Saint Laurent. The company’s stated aim is to offer luxury that is
created responsibly and sustainably, and in 2017 it made a
commitment to reduce its ecological footprint by 40 per cent by 2025.
To quantify the environmental impact of its activities, Kering
developed an innovative tool called Environmental Profit & Loss
(EP&L). EP&L breaks down the supply chain (design, sourcing and
production) into its component parts, so that the impact of water
consumption, air and water pollution, carbon emissions, land use and
waste production become transparent. Kering then uses the data it
gathers by converting it into monetary values that are used to measure
its use of natural resources.
 Kering’s My EP&L app enables users to visualize the impact of their choices throughout the

production process.

Kering also developed the My EP&L app for students and the
fashion industry to promote a greater awareness of environmental
issues. The app addresses all aspects of sustainability throughout the
creative process, allowing users to visualize the impact of their choices
– starting with the way that their chosen raw materials are extracted,
right through to the arrival of the finished item on the shop floor. The
app is configured using four typical luxury items: a handbag, a pair of
shoes, a coat and a ring. As design and sourcing choices are made, the
environmental impact of the product is plotted graphically, and more
than 5,000 indicators produce a comprehensive assessment of the
impact of the final product. The app therefore highlights the user’s
options, enabling them to make comparisons and identify where
changes can be made to secure a reduced environmental impact.

What is slow fashion?

The concept of slow fashion is the exact opposite of fast fashion – it
focuses on the longevity and quality of a garment. The slow-fashion
business model subsequently produces less in terms of quantity,
which in turn reduces the pace of production. It also promotes fairer
wages and a reduced carbon footprint.

Four key elements define the Marfa Stance concept. These are adaptable, reversible, modular and

personalized. Each garment can be worn in a variety of ways and is multi-functional – advocating a

‘buy less and buy better’ perspective.

Seasonless collections
‘Above all, we understand we went way too far. Our reckless actions
have burned the house we live in. We conceived of ourselves as
separated from nature, we felt cunning and almighty,’ says Alessandro
Michele (creative director of Gucci)

Bite make and produce their collections at their East London factory. Bite only use certified natural

organic fabrics that are recorded as being socially and environmentally sound, across a collection

that consists of a maximum of 20 styles.

In 2020, the carousel of international fashion shows ground to a

halt due to COVID-19. Questions that had previously been raised in the
fashion industry around sustainability found a new context during the
pandemic and resurfaced with renewed vigour. We began to ask
ourselves if there was a way to ‘do’ fashion differently. As Gucci’s
Alessandro Michele stated passionately,

We usurped nature, we dominated and wounded it. We incited

Prometheus, and buried Pan. So much haughtiness made us lose our
sisterhood with the butterflies, the flowers, the trees and the roots.
So much outrageous greed made us lose the harmony and the care,
the connection and the belonging.

Gucci decided, as a result, to reduce their activities to just two

‘seasonless’ collections a year – a significant departure from the
standard conveyor belt of Spring/Summer, Autumn/Winter, pre-fall and
cruise shows.

‘Fashioned from Nature’

Concerns surrounding the effects of the fashion industry on the
environment are having a broader cultural impact, too. The V&A’s
2019 ‘Fashioned from Nature’ exhibition, for example, conveyed the
very clear message that fashion and nature are inextricably linked.
Visitors were encouraged to think about the sources of their clothes,
highlighting the fact that fashion is not just connected to the natural
world – it utterly depends on it.
The actor and activist Emma Watson appeared at the 2016 Met Gala wearing Calvin Klein’s Green

Carpet Challenge dress made from recycled plastic bottles.

Government initiatives
Sadly, governments have been slow to act in this field. In 2019, the
UK Environmental Audit Committee’s recommendation of a 1p levy on
each garment produced by the fast-fashion industry was rejected by
ministers. The recommendation had been drawn up to address the
enormous impact that fast fashion has on the environment. Current
figures estimate that in excess of 300,000 tonnes of clothes are either
burned or buried in the UK every year. The proposed 1p tax was to
raise £35 million a year to improve clothing collection and sorting. The
government has stated that the recommendation will be reconsidered
in 2025.

Donated clothes cover a building for the launch of Marks & Spencer and Oxfam’s ‘Schwopping’

campaign at the Old Truman Brewery, London, 2012.

 Many fashion labels have traditionally preferred to destroy their
unsold merchandise rather than tarnish their image by discounting
them for clearance. In 2019, in response to the widely reported
destruction of unsold goods by the likes of Louis Vuitton, Brune
Poirson – the French Secretary of State to the Ministry of Ecology –
advocated for a ban on such practices: ‘Too many companies feel okay
with just throwing away or destroying the shoes or clothing that haven’t
been sold. You can’t do this anymore.’ In their 2017/18 annual report,
Burberry disclosed the value of destroyed unsold goods as $37.8
million, an increase of $2.2 million on the previous year. H&M has
also attracted negative attention for having allegedly burned close to 60
tonnes of unsold merchandise in recent years.

Display from the V&A’s ‘Fashioned from Nature’ exhibition (2019).

And in the US, there has been a scarcity of initiatives designed to

tackle these issues. New York City requires companies that generate
more than 10 per cent of textile waste to recycle, but this has proved
difficult to measure and enforce.
 CASE STUDY

Dilys Williams, director of the Centre for Sustainable Fashion at the

London College of Fashion (LCF), merges her talents as a fashion
designer, innovator and leader effortlessly. Williams is a passionate
spokeswoman for sustainable design, and actively promotes it within
the academic sphere and beyond. She is also responsible for Fashion
and the Environment, a groundbreaking master’s degree designed to
affect change in the fashion industry at grassroots level, primarily
through external collaborative ventures.
Sustainability within fashion is slowly gaining momentum, but
redressing the balance requires a major shift in attitudes, as Williams
acknowledges. ‘So much is changing – I do feel that the huge increase
in our connections makes us more aware of our interdependencies,
more at ease with diversity, more active as citizens – but there is also a
huge dumbing down of realities due to the short termism of most
governments and businesses. But I remain optimistic – as long as we
never think that we’ve nailed it, as long as we keep on moving in the
right directions.’
Preconceived ideas about sustainable fashion mean that a
concerted effort must be made to ensure that it is marketed and
perceived positively. ‘The challenge is in moving from this current
business model to others that can continue to achieve that novelty,
engage people in meaningful employment and be able to adapt to the
changes in the ecosystem and the economic system, by imagining
better ways to achieve our human needs for identity, connection and
belonging.’
The Shared Talent initiative partners local craftspeople from
different parts of South and West Africa and India with LCF students in
research projects that draw on the wide-ranging experiences and
knowledge base of all involved. These collaborations centre on
considered design, and work as a catalyst, facilitating change within
communities.
Williams’ design background at both designer and mass market
level provided her with first-hand experience of the decisions that can
be made to address sustainability – for example, prioritizing organic
materials and sustainable production methods where possible.
Designing for Katharine Hamnett (also a pioneering ethical fashion
activist), in particular, brought a new level of awareness of ethical and
ecological issues and how to marry them with desirable, uncontrived
design. As Williams reflects, ‘I have always aimed to contribute
relevant design work and have always had a curiosity around what
fashion is, does and stands for – so to remain relevant, I seek out what
is happening in the world.
Today Williams uses a broad range of media – television, journals,
newspapers, radio and magazines – to bring attention to and promote
the ecological issues within fashion. Her philosophy hinges on the
belief that by engaging with the ingenuity of others as well as your
own, you can help to craft a world that we can all be proud of.

Led by the Centre for Sustainable Fashion, the All-Party Parliamentary Group (APPG) on Ethics

and Sustainability in Fashion hosted the I Stood Up event at the House of Lords in March, 2015.

The event was part of Dilys Williams’s Habit(AT) project, which invited first-time voters to stand up

for their concerns via fashion making and wearing.

 Tiger Girls show their LOVECOAT creations at Za’atari Refugee Camp, Jordan, 2019. The show

was part of the CSF’s Dress for Our Time project led by Professor Helen Storey.

Antarctica Village installation, 2007, by Lucy and Jorge Orta. The project highlighted our globally

shared future in the face of climate change. Lucy Orta is Chair of Art and the Environment at CSF.
Concept Development

As you gather together all your creative and

informational research, you need a strategy to make the

most of it all. This chapter explores how to draw out your

design ideas using triangulation, how to analyze them and

how to edit them down. We will also look at the creation

of mood boards, the design development process, and

producing finished presentation sheets for your portfolio.

 Triangulation

Triangulation, as we saw in Chapter 2, refers to utilizing two or more

sources to validate a piece of information. Within visual research,
triangulation is about collating primary and/or secondary imagery,
finding links that will lead to an initial design idea. Good triangulation
is evident when the initial design idea brings together several strands,
so two or more sources are vital, and your sketchbook should show
evidence of your development process. Relying on a single source can
create a painting-by-numbers approach, in which all the elements of
one research visual are literally copied, transferred and integrated into
an initial design idea with little evidence of transformation.

These two dress designs are the product of triangulation between the image of the caravan and the

red fabric swatch. The corrugated surface of the exterior of the caravan has inspired the suggestion

for a print design on the dress on the left.

The design ideas here have been heavily influenced by the geometric images, both in the proposed

silhouette in the suggested sleeve detail and also in the seams and darts that cleverly create a sense

of geometry in the main body of the shirt.

Triangulation of elements evident in the statue’s attire and the knot diagram are explored in the

initial designs on these sketchbook pages.

An Investigative Approach
An investigation is a thorough examination; it will reveal information
via a process of enquiry. An investigative approach will help you to
uncover layers within your research, enabling a deeper level of
engagement with your subject matter. Looking for areas of complexity
that can at first remain hidden under the surface can greatly benefit the
integrity of your final designs.
This sketchbook page shows an investigation into the different weights of fabric that might be the

most suitable for the frill feature at the back of a tailored jacket. Fabric plays an important part in

design, and investigating the properties and durability of any proposed fabrics will enable you to

make more informed choices.

Drawing garments from life is one of the best ways to investigate how a garment fits and how fabric

drapes. Drawing from life gives you a good understanding of three dimensions.

These sketchbook pages document an investigation into the use of stripes, exploring the changes

they can undergo when subjected to folding, tucking and gathering. When considering the use of

stripes in a design, width and direction are important factors, so a thorough investigation is key to

thoughtful application.

Interplay Between Images

Looking for links between research visuals is a useful and rewarding
activity. Links can be about establishing complementary elements
between different images as well as identifying opposing elements
(juxtapositioning). In both instances the result will be a widening of
design possibilities. During the early stages of collecting research
visuals, refrain from sticking them into your sketchbook. Take some
time to assess the imagery gathered first; by aligning similar and
opposing types of images, new fields of enquiry might unfold. The
more disparate your research imagery is, the greater the range of
possibilities it will present.

Here, two secondary images show two extremes of necklines. The initial design ideas then explore

what is possible by taking various aspects from these images and reconfiguring them.

Initial Design Response

There is always a reason behind choosing an image for research
purposes; a certain level of interest has drawn you to it. This interest
can be either positive or negative. You do not have to like all the
images that you choose; the main thing is that you are able to glean
something of use from them. This can range from a particular tone of a
colour to the intricate design of a brocade detail to a silhouette
suggestion. In theory, every chosen image should elicit a design
response.
When a selection of images are spread across the sheets of a
sketchbook, the links between the imagery create the space for an
initial design response. Even if this is just the idea for part of a
garment or a detail, make a note of this in the form of a sketch, ideally
supported by annotations.

A photo of a man with dreadlocks has influenced the design drawings on these sketchbook pages.

The dreadlocks have been reinvented and made relevant as a fringing detail in the designs.
 An architectural image, with its sweeping curves, has inspired a number of responses: a 3D

realization of a garment that, by integrating a sweeping curve, has become an asymmetric garment,

and some sketches that suggest the possible use of a curve within the design of a shirt.
 Analysis

Analysis involves breaking something down into its constituent parts

to make sense of it. To be able to carry out a logical, objective analysis
you will need to maintain an element of detachment and objectivity.
The process of asking the right questions is important if proper
investigation is to take place, and these will not become apparent if
you approach the task with an overly subjective viewpoint.

An analysis of volume and fit is being carried out on these sketchbook pages. Working with an

oversized garment on a fellow student, a variety of propositions are suggested, analyzed through

evaluative annotations and then acted upon in the initial design drawings.
Analytical Skills
Inherent to design is the ability to problem-solve, and this is greatly
aided by good analytical skills. To improve your skills you must
continually ask questions of yourself and your endeavours, such as:
- Why am I doing this?

- What do I hope to find?

- Are the findings relevant?

- Can I draw any conclusions from the findings?

 Editing

As with the notion of a trend (Chapter 7), a ‘funnel’ metaphor is very

useful for visualizing the breadth and depth of research and design
occurring at different stages of the design process.
The mouth of this funnel is broad, and represents the scope of all
the gathered primary and secondary research materials under
investigation during the initial stages. There is no editing at this stage –
‘more is more’. It is crucial to maximize all possibilities. Further along
the trail, when links between primary and secondary resources start to
become apparent, there is a narrowing of the funnel. Connections are
now being made, both mentally and visually, resulting in initial design
ideas. Finally, we reach the ‘less is more’ stage, represented by the
narrow stem of the funnel. At this point a particular facet of your
research has been established as the main focus. The latter stages of
the design process are both narrower and deeper.
There is an inherent process of elimination in making decisions
while researching, and this is known as editing.
Mood boards represent a fine edit of all your existing sketchbook research, and an overview of the

concept of your project, so that you can refresh your memory at a glance. This mood board has

been composed in Photoshop and will form part of a portfolio of work.

Editing Skills
Not all collected imagery will be relevant to the task at hand. Try to
remain objective and ask questions of your work so as to weed out the
red herrings. Why do you have this image? Is it relevant? Can it be
used as a reference for a colour palette, ambience, silhouette, form or
proportion ideas? What links are being made? Are you gathering some
momentum? Are you thinking of initial design ideas? Do you simply
have a sentimental attachment to a particular image – is that the only
reason it has made the edit?
It is important to note that images that are edited out during this
process of elimination can often be useful in future projects, so do not
discard them completely.
The shirts illustrated here have been edited in – they have been deemed successful in conveying

the design concept.

Hussein Chalayan, Spring/Summer 2003. An initial design idea that has made it to the catwalk.
 What to Do When You Are Stuck

Encountering a creative block, when the flow of relevant ideas seems

to stall abruptly, whether momentarily or for longer periods of time,
can be very disconcerting and give rise to self-doubt. However, it is
important to remember that blocks can occur at any time, and to any
creative. Design is rarely a smooth trajectory to an intended outcome; a
rollercoaster ride, full of peaks and troughs, is a better metaphor. In
fact, these periods of self-doubt are not even always negative. They
can often provide the opportunity to reevaluate, re-energize, reconnect
and refocus.
However, the following is a list of strategies that you may want to
try the next time you are faced with a creative block. Some of them
may seem more like methods of procrastination, but it is important at
these times to allow yourself to indulge in something that is guilt-free
and enjoyable and which brings about a relaxed state of mind.

- Persevere. Continue working. It is preferable to carry on, rather than

go through the pain, discomfort or angst that you will experience if
you give up. Perseverance might help to unlock the potential in
your ideas.

- Utilize your time efficiently by transferring your attention to another

aspect of the research and design process

- Sleep on it. You may view things differently tomorrow.

- Stimulate your mind. Listen to music.

- Get some fresh air. Go for a walk.

- Do some relaxing sketches in the park

- Catch up on some reading

- Go away for a weekend

- Sit outside a café and do some people-watching

- Go back to the library

- Go to the gym

- Take a long shower

- Create some order in your workspace

- Go for a bike ride

- Look through past work

- Talk. Engage in a conversation.

- Practise some yoga

- Go vintage shopping

- Go window shopping

- Go to an exhibition

- Go to the cinema

- Go to the theatre

- Go out dancing.

Repeat visits to the library can kick-start you into action again when you are feeling unmotivated.
 A student’s desk has been personalized with current research imagery.

Spider diagrams can be referred to at all the different stages of research and development.

I can have a problem with having too many ideas and not knowing
when to stop feeding off my research. When that happens I stop and
 edit before I get too ahead of myself; I work on the ideas I already
have and take them into development.
Tami Soji-Akinyemi

If I’m stuck I’ll go and find some fresh imagery, do some detailed
observational drawings from the research, and hope a new direction
and design ideas come.
Bradley Snowden

I always go back to making samples of fabric techniques or details.

The possibilities with materials are endless and this somehow always
manages to kick-start something new and open up the process again.
April Schmitz

I get some fabric and work it out on the stand until I get the
inspiration to move forward.
Alice Fern

I usually review my ideas (usually by creating a second and/or third

mind map) just to emphasize the whole concept to myself again.
Because I sometimes lose track of the initial concept during the
development process, the review acts as a reminder. From the mind
maps, I sometimes find different perspectives on how to view the
concept, too. Working on the stand is also very useful, seeing how
the fabric could relate to and support the concept.
Danya Sjadzali

I start to collage a few images together, and from there I find

interesting ideas.
Tracey Sampson
 The Design Development Process

Design development is a crucial phase in the design process. The

links made in the triangulation process between primary and secondary
research resources will have elicited a design response, and your
sketchbook should contain a good selection of initial design ideas.
Initial design ideas are often a quick and spontaneous response to
gathered research. The design development process takes place when
more consideration is then given to these ideas. This is when you will
focus on the development of design details, fabrics, colours, silhouette
and proportion.

The development of a layered silhouette is evident on these sketchbook pages. These sketches were

initially drawn in pencil and have been penned over for more clarity. The croquis on the far left has

provided the inspiration for all of the other development design drawings.

This phase can take place in a sketchbook or on a layout pad. The

translucent pages of a pad make it easy to trace and adapt drawings,
which speeds up the process. The pages of a sketchbook do not allow
this, but a book lets you house all your research and drawings in one
place. Experiment with both options to see which works best for you.
 The design development process can also take place in 3D. Whether you are establishing the

hemline on a pair of trousers, or figuring out how the proportion of one garment relates to another,

there is sometimes nothing better than seeing a physical version of an initial design in front of you.

To start the design development process, select the initial ideas

that you think are the strongest in terms of design content. Create
several variations – anything from 10 to 20 per initial design idea.
Experiment by changing various elements such as proportion, fabric,
colour distribution, print ideas, hemlines, necklines, sleeves, collars or
pockets. It is imperative to remain true to the core concept from one
variation to the next and not go off on a tangent.
 This page shows how a design idea for a pinafore has been developed further through making

changes to design details and fit.

These rough figure sketches are known as croquis drawings (from

the French croquer, ‘to sketch’). Fashion designs are best drawn on a
figure, as this helps to gauge the balance and proportion of an outfit.
Create a template (a pre-drawn figure that designs are added to) for
your croquis; this will save you time and allow you to concentrate on
the designs.
An initial experiment in calico on a tailor’s dummy has provided a starting point for the subsequent

drawn design developments.

After this stage, individual garments can be explored further by

drawing flats (technical/working drawings), which are more explicit and
provide more detail.
 The Portfolio

Your portfolio is a graphic history of your accomplishments; it should

demonstrate your design acumen, and drawing, illustration,
presentation and technical skills. It is not just a collection of your work,
though – it should also reflect your personality.
A design portfolio is usually a ring-bound folder containing plastic
display sheets. It can be either A4 or A3 (in the US: 8½ × 11 in or 11
× 17 in) in size – it is best to try both sizes initially to discover which
works for you. Decide on a suitable orientation (either portrait or
landscape), and try to be consistent in using only one format or the
other when displaying your work. Using a template for each design
project will help to make each body of work cohesive and distinct.
Double-page spreads make an impact, so try to introduce this element
where possible.
A portfolio should be presented in a professional manner, both
inside and out. Wipe down the plastic sleeves and the folder itself
each time you present your work. Mounted work should be cut and
presented straight. The portfolio should express an attention to detail
that is evident in the smallest of things.
 These are finished presentation sheets in a menswear portfolio. This student has considered the

layout of the sheets and has dedicated specific areas on the page for the illustration, front- and

back-view flats, fabric swatches and outfit details.

Portfolios will vary throughout your fashion design career. A student

portfolio differs, for example, from a graduate portfolio – the latter
being a finer edit of work undertaken during the final year of a degree
course or similar programme of study (and sometimes including
projects from the penultimate year). It will aim to demonstrate a wide
range of skills and a broad knowledge.
Portfolios will also vary depending on the sector of the fashion
industry you are working in. An independent designer’s portfolio, for
example, is a record of collections undertaken as an independent,
whereas an industry portfolio is employer-specific, and showcases
work undertaken on behalf of a fashion house.

Finished Sheets
A portfolio is used to present a fine edit of your research and your
finished sheets. The finished sheets are the final outcome of a design
project, where the edited outfits chosen from the design development
stage are illustrated in colour. Each illustrated outfit should be
accompanied by flats of front and back views and fabric swatches. It is
also useful to provide an illustrated line-up of all the outfits on one
page.
These illustrations, as with a mood board, should convey the
aesthetic of the collection. So pay special attention to your choice of
muse and the position and energy of the pose. If inspiration is needed
for creating a contemporary pose, refer to current magazines to develop
a template. Try and be consistent with your layout per design project to
create a cohesive feel.
As well as finished sheets, a portfolio should also include an edit of your sketchbook and design

development work. By doing this, you help to provide an overview of the project at hand – from

research to final product.

 The spirit of the collection has been carried through into the aesthetic of these final sheets.

Graphically pure and simple, these pages have been created using Photoshop and Illustrator.

The Electronic Portfolio

In creating an electronic portfolio, take the same care as you would in
putting together a physical portfolio. It is good practice to have both
types of portfolio – it will increase the accessibility of your work.
The contents of an electronic portfolio are digitized. An electronic
file can be created by using a scanner or by photographing work.
Ensure that the work is scanned or photographed at a resolution of at
least 300 dpi or ppi (dots per inch or pixels per inch – standard units
of measurement for digital image resolution), so that you create
imagery of a professional standard. You can also create digital artwork
using software from the Adobe Creative Suite – Illustrator, Photoshop
and InDesign (as well as others). To ensure that these files are truly
accessible to all, save them in a standard electronic format such as
PDF or JPEG.
 Many websites showcase graduate work to a wider audience. Arts
Thread (www.artsthread.com) provides an interface through which
portfolios can be viewed anywhere in the world. Issuu (issuu.com) is
another digital publishing platform widely used to showcase work.
From a PDF of your work, you can create interactive web documents
with links and embedded video. Access to images and downloads on
Issuu can be specified by you. Create a fine edit for your online
presence – leave the viewer wanting to know more about your work.
 CASE STUDY

Thom Browne’s theatrical catwalk shows have earned him a

worldwide reputation as one of New York’s most cutting-edge
designers.
Browne had a classic American upbringing, born and raised in a
strict Roman Catholic family in Pennsylvania, the middle child of
seven. Tradition was the benchmark in his household, leaving little
space for forms of explorative expression such as fashion; there were
no copies of Vogue magazine lying around, and his father never wore
anything other than a suit.
 Browne graduated from the University of Notre Dame, Indiana, in
1988 with a degree in economics. He was also a competitive
swimmer. His interest in fashion was not ignited until a few years
later, when he was living in Los Angeles, attempting to become an
actor and attending auditions for commercials. He began to buy vintage
men’s suits and discovered an enthusiasm for altering them. This
would prove to be the beginning of an entirely new career path. By
1997, Browne had moved to New York and found work as a salesman
at Giorgio Armani. This was followed by a job in the design and
merchandising department of Club Monaco, a label owned by Polo
Ralph Lauren, despite the fact that Browne had no formal training as a
designer.
Browne was working in a fashion market that was over-saturated
with casualwear, and he began to sense that there might be an
opportunity for an offering that ran counter to this. Having identified a
gap in the market, he launched his own label in 2001. As he
explained to New York magazine, ‘I feel like jeans and a T-shirt have
become Establishment. Everyone’s dressed down. So actually putting
on a jacket is the anti-Establishment stance’.
Due to limited funds, the label began with just five grey suits,
fashioned for himself and echoing silhouettes from the 1950s and
’60s. Using guerrilla-style techniques of self-promotion, Browne wore
his suits to social engagements about town, literally selling the clothes
off his back.
By 2003, his label had evolved into a made-to-measure store in
New York. This was followed in 2004 by Browne’s debut at New York
Fashion Week. More exposure was gained from the Council of Fashion
Designers of America (CFDA)/Vogue Fashion Fund competition, where
the label came in at second place, and the momentum continued with
a collaborative venture with Brooks Brothers in 2006, and a Designer
of the Year award from GQ magazine in 2008. Then in 2013, Browne
secured the CFDA Menswear Designer of the Year award.
In 2018, 85 per cent of the Thom Browne brand was bought by
the Italian fashion house Ermenegildo Zegna. Browne retains the other
15 per cent, along with the role of chief creative officer.
Spring/Summer 2015.
Spring/Summer 2015.
Autumn/Winter 2016.
Autumn/Winter 2018.
 Concept Development Project

In this final section of the book we follow one student project to see
the entire concept development process from beginning to end.
The student explains the inspiration behind ‘La Singularité’, her
final major project (FMP)
‘The project began with artist Alexandra Levasseur who is inspired
by string theory, about the possibility of there being alternate
dimensions that are each unique and overlap in complex ways. This is
so she can decipher the deep relationship individuals can have with
the universe, and the art of finding one’s identity and purpose through
natural surroundings. She portrays this through eclectic lines, loops,
layers and nature as well as through visuals of disorientated bodies
that melt into the universe, to signify the connection between the
universe and humankind. I also looked at artist Paul Klee, who uses
cubism to articulate alternate realities. I took inspiration from his colour
palette and the harsh and soft lines in his shapes. This was part of the
influence for the silhouettes in my collection in which I transformed a
typical tailored coat/blazer silhouette by softening it with drape and
disorientating the body shape.’

Stage 1
An edit of emotive and inspirational images form the basis for a
concept board that is fit for purpose. The images are the visual
contextualization of the keywords derived from the mind-map.
Stage 2
Initial design ideas are a response to your primary and secondary
research. These ideas can be two-dimensional in the form of sketches,
or three-dimensional when working on a stand or live model. This is an
explorative stage, when you put your raw unrefined ideas down on
paper.
Stage 3
In the research and development stage you are exploring fabrics,
silhouettes, details, finishes, aesthetic, balance and much more. You
are developing your ideas by casting the net as far as you can, leaving
no stone unturned.
Stage 4
So you have developed your colour palette, but how will it work across
your collection? The only way to find out is by exploring the colour
balance by experimenting with different colour options.
Stage 5
Toile fittings are an essential part of the design process. You have
drawn your design, but how does it fit on a real person? Is the fit
correct? Do the style lines, proportion and silhouette correspond to your
design? Is it better than the original two-dimensional design? What
needs to change? These are the questions you need to ask of your
work at every toile fitting. Make notes and act on them to arrive at the
desired look.
Stage 6
The line-up gives you an overview of your collection. The technical
drawings and fabric swatches provide important information.
Stage 7
The garment specification sheet provides the technical information
about a garment needed to remake the garment. It includes a front and
back sketch of the garment with measurements as well information on
trims and finishes.
A length of right panel

B length of left panel

C length of sleeve

D width of chest

E width of waist

F width of hips

G width of sleeve

H width of bottom sleeve

I width of back collar

J length of lapel from top to break point

K width of lapel from corner to CF

L full width of collar

Stage 8
It is important to photograph your work. Photo shoots give you the
opportunity to explore your aesthetic to the fullest. You will cast a
model, decide on a hair and make-up look, find the location and also
style the looks.
Stage 9
AND breathe…you have made it! You have worked towards creating a
cohesive collection to display your skills and abilities as an emergent
designer on the catwalk. Congratulations!
 Glossary

additive colour Produced by mixing two or more primary colours of light (red, green and blue).

brainstorm Generating ideas in a group or individually and noting them down on a piece of paper

for further exploration. See also spider diagram

brand identity Recognizable elements of a brand that distinguish it from others.

brief An outline of a task or project designed to inspire you to engage with the project and setting

out aims and objectives and a timetable. Student briefs will also contain assessment requirements

and criteria.

carbon footprint The quantity of carbon dioxide emitted when an item is produced.

collage A mixture of diverse materials pasted over a surface to create a composition.

colour forecasters Those who make predictions based on research about upcoming colour trends

for fashion and related consumer products.

colour palette A selection of colours used by a designer in a collection.

complementary colours In the subtractive colour system, colours positioned opposite each other on

the colour wheel: red and green, yellow and violet, blue and orange.

copyright A form of legal protection that applies to any medium, typically any original creative idea

– artistic, musical and literary works, for example.

croquis A fashion sketch.

cruisewear Also referred to as resort wear; an inter-season, pre-season line of ready-to-wear fashion

created by a designer, fashion house or brand in addition to seasonal Spring/Summer and

Autumn/Winter collections.

cultural appreciation An interest in learning about and understanding different cultures. When this

new knowledge is shared, it is imperative that the cultural sources are credited.

cultural appropriation When an idea, custom or practice of one group of people or society is taken

inappropriately by another, typically more dominant group of people or society without

acknowledgment.

deconstruction The process of taking something apart, whether a garment or a set of pre-

established ideas.

demographic A portion of a population. In fashion, a particular group of consumers within the

marketplace for whom a designer creates garments.

draping see modelling on the stand

eco fashion see sustainable fashion

ethnographic research The observation of the interaction of groups of people or individuals in their

own environment over a long period of time.

fabric story A group of selected fabrics that best supports your area of research.

fibre A thread of natural or synthetic material that is woven or fused to create a fabric.

finished sheets Presentation sheets, typically composed of coloured fashion illustrations, flats and

fabric swatches.

flats Diagrammatic drawings of designs showing all relevant details.

greige goods Undyed and unbleached fabric.

haute couture French for ‘high fashion’; bespoke, made-to-measure expensive fashion from a

handful of Parisian houses that meet the strict requirements of the Chambre Syndicale de la Haute

Couture.

header card A card displaying a fabric sample.

intellectual property Anything that is an intellectual creation – a design, a song, a brand, an

invention and so much more.

juxtaposition The placing together of things (images, fabrics, colours, etc.) that contrast.

lead times In magazines, the time needed before the publication date to create an edition/issue. In

fashion, the time needed to produce garments from when an order is placed to delivery at various

fashion outlets.

light wheel Shows the reaction of light rays and transparent colour in the additive colour system.

macro trend A trend based on a big change in society.

man-made fabric Fabric made from synthetic fibres.

mass market fashion Affordable fashion sold at chain stores, both nationally and internationally.

Also known as ‘high street fashion’ in the UK).

micro trend A trend based on a change in society that is gaining in popularity and building

momentum, though having started out as a significantly small movement.

mind map see spider diagram

mixed fabric Fabric made when two or more distinct fibres are spun, knitted or woven together.

modelling on the stand Working with fabric on a tailor’s dummy.

mood board A board that gives a summary of the inspiration for a collection.

Munsell wheel Shows the interaction of colours created from mixing hues in the partitive colour

system.

muse An individual, real or imagined, who inspires a designer, or anyone working in a creative

industry, to create. A muse may also represent an ideal consumer, or group of consumers, that the
designer is creating garments for.

muslin see toile

natural fabric Fabric made from fibres produced by plants, animals or natural processes.

observational drawing Drawing from something that you are directly observing.

partitive colour The mixing of adjacent colours as perceived by a viewer.

pigment wheel Shows the relationship of colours created by mixing primary colours.

prêt-à-porter French for ‘ready-to-wear’; fashion that is mass-produced, as opposed to haute

couture or bespoke, made-to-measure fashion.

primary colour In the subtractive colour system, a colour that can not be made by mixing other

colours. The primary colours are red, yellow and blue.

primary research Original material that you have collected or created. In fashion design, this might

include photographs you have taken, sketches you have made and experiments with fabrics and

design details.

ready to wear see prêt-à-porter

 Further Reading

secondary colour In the subtractive colour system, a colour made by mixing different primary

colours. The secondary colours are orange (made by mixing red and yellow), green (yellow and

blue) and violet (blue and red).

secondary research The collection, review and interpretation of research that already exists, as

opposed to primary research. In fashion, you might conduct secondary research by gathering

information and images from books, magazines, videos or the internet.

slow fashion The opposite of fast fashion. The focus is not on the rapid production of clothes to

meet current trends, but on advocating slower production methods resulting in well-made clothes

that last – quality over quantity.

spider diagram A visual system for generating numerous ideas from one main idea. Also called a

mind map.

subtractive colour Produced from mixing pigments, dyes, paints, inks and natural colourants.

super brand A brand that has gained worldwide recognition through its market dominance,

customer loyalty and longevity.

sustainable fashion Fashion that is produced with the aim of having as little impact on the

environment as possible.

technical drawings see flats

tertiary colour In the subtractive colour system, a colour midway between a primary and

secondary colour. Tertiary colours are produced by mixing a primary colour with a secondary

colour that is adjacent to it on the pigment wheel.

toile A sample of a garment made from inexpensive fabric, typically calico (muslin).

trend The general direction of change or developments. Social, cultural, political and economic

influences combine to produce trends.

trend book Books that demonstrate proposed forthcoming trends.

trend forecasting agency An organization that uses fashion intelligence to anticipate forthcoming

trends.

triangulation The bringing together of various elements of primary and secondary research to

generate design ideas.

Ang, Tom. Fundamentals of Modern Photography. London: Mitchell Beazley, 2008.

Antoine, Denis. Fashion Design: A Guide to the Industry and the Creative Process. London:
Laurence King Publishing, 2020.

Armstrong, Tim. Colour Perception: A Practical Approach to Colour Theory. Norfolk, UK: Tarquin
Publications, 1996.

Atkinson, Jennifer L., Holly Harrison and Paula Grasdal. Collage Sourcebook: Exploring the Art and
q
Techni ues of Collage. Hove, East Sussex: Apple Press, 2004/Gloucester, MA: Quarry Books,
2005.

Atkinson, Mark. How To Create Your Final Collection. London: Laurence King Publishing, 2012.
Black, Sandy. The Sustainable Fashion Handbook . London: Thames and Hudson, 2012/New York:
Thames and Hudson, 2013.

Brown, Sass. Eco Fashion. London: Laurence King Publishing, 2010.

Burke, Sandra. Fashion Designer: Concept to Collection. UK: Burke Publishing, 2011.
Carroll, Henry. Read This if You Want to Tak e Great Photographs. London: Laurence King
Publishing, 2014.

Craig, Blanche. Collage: Assembling Contemporary Art. London: Black Dog Publishing, 2008.
Faerm, Steven. Fashion Design Course: Principles, Practice and Techniq ues; The Ultimate Guide
for Aspiring Fashion Designers. London: Thames and Hudson, 2010.
Feisner, Edith Anderson. Colour. 2nd edition. London: Laurence King Publishing, 2006.
Fletcher, Kate, and Lynda Grose. Fashion and Sustainability: Design for Change. London: Laurence
King Publishing, 2012.

Frankel, Susannah. Visionaries : Interviews with Fashion Designers. London: V&A Publications,
2005.

Gaimster, Julia. Visual Research Methods in Fashion. Oxford and New York: Berg, 2011.
Jennings, Tracy. Creativity in Fashion Design: An Inspiration Work book . New York: Fairchild
Books, 2011.

Jones, Sue Jenkyn. Fashion Design. 3rd edition. London: Laurence King Publishing, 2011.
Kirke, Betty. Madeleine Vionnet. San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1998.

Leach, R. The Fashion Resource Book: Research for Design. London and New York: Thames and
Hudson, 2011.

Miglietti, Francesca Alfano. Fashion Statements: Interviews with Fashion Designers. Milan: Skira
Editore, 2006.

Minney, Safia. By Hand: The Fair Trade Fashion Agenda. London: People Tree, 2008/San
Francisco: Chronicle Books, 2009.

:
Penn, Mark J., and E. Kinney Zalesne. Microtrends Surprising Tales of the Way We Live Today.
London: Penguin Books, 2008.
Raymond, Martin. The Trend Forecaster’s Handbook . London: Laurence King Publishing, 2010.
Scully, Kate, and Debra Johnston Cobb. Colour Forecasting for Fashion. London: Laurence King
Publishing, 2012.

Seivewright, Simon. Basics Fashion Design 01: Research and Design. 4th edition. Lausanne: AVA
Publishing, 2021.

Sorger, Richard, and Jenny Udale. The Fundamentals of Fashion Design. Lausanne: AVA
Publishing, 2006.

Webb, Jeremy. Creative Vision: Traditional and Digital Methods for Inspiring Innovative
Photography. Lausanne: AVA Publishing, 2005.
 Resources

Art Full Text

www.ebsco.com/products/research-databases/art-full-text

A searchable database of articles on fine, decorative and commercial art, as well as photography,

folk art, film, architecture and other art-related subjects. Your university library may have a

subscription to this database; a free trial is also available.

Fashion Museum, Bath, UK

www.museumofcostume.co.uk

Historic and fashionable dress from the seventeenth century to the present.

Berg Fashion Central

www.bergfashioncentral.com

An extensive reference source containing texts and images on world dress and fashion throughout

history. If your campus library does not have a subscription, there is a 30-day free trial available to

institutions, so inform your librarian. There is also a downloadable PDF library recommendation

form on the website. If you don’t have access through your library, you will need to subscribe as an

individual and pay an annual fee.

The Centre for Sustainable Fashion

https://www.sustainable-fashion.com/

A research centre based at the London College of Fashion which challenges the status quo in

fashion and promotes Fashion Design for Sustainability as a field of study.

The Costume Institute, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

www.metmuseum.org/about-themuseum/museum-departments/curatorial-departments/the-

costumeinstitute

Fashionable dress, regional costumes and accessories from around the world, from the fifteenth

century to the present.

La Couturière Parisienne

www.marquise.de
Online database of period costume from the Middle Ages to the early twentieth century.

Common Objective (C0)

www.commonobjective.co

The industry body for sustainable fashion. Formerly known as Ethical Fashion Forum.

Fashion-Era

www.fashion-era.com

Website exploring fashion, costume and social history.

Fashion Monitor

www.fashionmonitor.com

Current contacts, news and events in the fashion and beauty industries.

Fashion Net

www.fashion.net

Global fashion portal.

The Future Laboratory

thefuturelaboratory.com

An agency focusing on trend forecasting, consumer-insight research and brand-innovation

strategies. The website provides access to the future laboratory blog, and you can also sign up for

the newsletter.

Kering

www.kering.com

This global luxury group aims to offer luxury goods created responsibly and sustainably, and

developed the Environmental Profit & Loss (EP&L) app.

Lifestyle News Global

www.lsnglobal.com

Analysis of trends, insights into markets, case studies of products, brands and people, and

examination of the inspiration behind design directions in lifestyle industries.

Mintel

www.mintel.com

Mintel is a recognized authority on global market research. Your library will probably have a

subscription to this database, due to the importance of understanding the markets. There is also

access to a blog on the site that will keep you abreast of relevant issues.
The Museum at FIT, Fashion Institute of Technology, New York

fashionmuseum.fitnyc.edu/

The Museum at FIT has a broad and diverse collection of fashion garments and accessories from

the eighteenth century to the present.

Promostyl

www.promostyl.com

A leading trend forecaster. Free access to the Promostyl blog is available on the site. The subjects

covered give an insight to the social and environmental happenings that influence trends.

VADS (Visual Arts Data Service)

www.vads.ac.uk/digital/custom/collections/

The VADS catalogue provides access to many visual-arts image collections around the UK. All

images are freely available and copyright cleared for use in learning, teaching and research in the

UK.

The Vogue Archive

archive.vogue.com

Archive of Vogue magazine from 1892 to today, with full search capability and full-colour images.

Your university library may have a subscription to this database; limited access is available to

Vogue magazine subscribers.

WGSN

www.wgsn.com

Fashion trend forecasting and analysis. You can sign up for the monthly newsletter for free.
 Index

Numbers to Links.

Abloh, Virgil

activities

collage

colour library

fabrics

films

mood boards

photography

spider diagrams

additive colour 1, 2, 3

advertising 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10

agents

Aksu, Bora

Alaia, Azzedine

Alexander McQueen 1, 2, 3, 4

analytical skills

art materials

Audemars, Georges

Bailey, Christopher 1, 2

Basquiat, Jean-Michel

Benetton 1, 2

bias cutting

Bite

Bless

blogs 1, 2

Blow, Isabella

books 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9

reading around your subject

trend books

brainstorming 1, 2
brands 1, 2, 3

brand identity

ready-to-wear

briefings 1, 2

British Fashion Awards

Brooke, Chris (Basso & Brooke)

Brown, Willa

Browne, Thom

Burberry 1, 2

Burton, Sarah

Callot

Cambridge, Duchess of 1, 2, 3

cameras 1, 2, 3

carbon footprints 1, 2, 3

Carothers, Wallace

Carrefour

casualwear 1, 2

Centre for Sustainable

Fashion, London College of

Fashion

Chalayan, Hussein

Chardonnet, Hilaire de

Charles Gallay, Los Angeles

Clerkenwell Vintage Fashion

Fair, London 1, 2

collaborations 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6

collaborative briefs

collage 1, 2, 3

collections 1, 2

seasonless collections

colour research

colour

colour and fashion

colour distribution

colour forecasting

colour perception

colour terminology

colour theory

colour wheels

communicating colour

how to create a colour

palette

Comme des Gar ons ç

competition

competition briefs

complementary colours

concept development

analysis

concept development project

design development process

editing

portfolios

triangulation

what to do when you are

stuck

converters

Cook, Emma

Coppola, Sofia

copyright 1, 2

cotton production

Council of Fashion Designers of America (CFDA) 1, 2

creative research

art materials

collage

deconstruction

draping on the stand

drawing effectively

photocopying

photography

sampling and customization

croquis drawings

cross-referencing

cruisewear 1, 2

cultural appropriation

cultural references 1, 2, 3

customization 1, 2

databases

Dazed Digital (Dazed & Confused)

deconstruction

Demeulemeester, Ann 1, 2

demographics 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7

design briefs 1, 2

different types of briefs

design development process

Diane von Furstenberg

Dior
documenting research 1, 2

drawing 1, 2, 3

observational drawing

DuPont 1, 2, 3, 4

editing skills

efficiency

erasers

ethical concerns

ethnographic research

Etro 1, 2

exhibitions 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

‘Fashioned from Nature’

V&A exhibition 1, 2

‘Tommy Nutter: Rebel on the

Row’ exhibition 1, 2

‘Yohji Yamamoto’ exhibition 1, 2

experience 1, 2

fabrics 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

choosing fabrics

collecting and storing fabric samples

fabric fairs 1, 2

fabric story

fibres and fabrics

garment labels 1, 2, 3

importance of fabrics

man-made fabrics

mixed fabrics

natural fabrics

sourcing fabrics

textile terminology

Fashion East, London

fashion industry 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9

fashion year cycles 1, 2, 3

Fashion Monitor

Fashion Weeks 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7

Fern, Alice

finished sheets

five Ws

found objects 1, 2, 3, 4

Frock Me Chelsea vintage fair,

 London

Future Laboratory

galleries 1, 2, 3, 4

Galliano, John 1, 2

Gap

garment specification sheets

Gaultier, Jean Paul

Gigli, Romeo

Givenchy 1, 2

glue

greige goods

Grès, Madame 1, 2

Gucci 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7

H&M 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9

Hammersmith Vintage Fair,

London

Hamnett, Katharine 1, 2

Harrods 1, 2

Hash, Anne Valérie

haute couture 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6

header cards

high street fashion

historical references 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

Ideacomo

Illustrator 1, 2

importers 1, 2

independent designers 1, 2

InDesign

individual briefs

informational research

books

copyright

films

internet

libraries

magazines

museums

online sources
 organizing your research

shopping

vintage fairs

inks

inspiration 1, 2 3, 4, 5, 6, 7

Instagram

intellectual property rights

internet 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6

checking accuracy of search

results

finding images on the internet

using keywords

Interstoff Asia Essential

Issuu

Jacobs, Marc 1, 2, 3

Jensen, Peter

jobbers

Jongstra, Claudy

journals 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6

juxtaposition 1 2, 3, 4, 5

Kahlo, Frida

Kering Group 1, 2

Kokosalaki, Sofia

KT Z
Kusama, Yayoi

Lacroix, Christian

Lagerfeld, Karl 1, 2

layout pads 1, 2, 3

LeGaspi, Larry

Levi Strauss (Levi’s) 1, 2, 3

libraries 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10

colour libraries 1, 2

fabric libraries

light

light wheel

line 1, 2, 3

Little, Arthur D.

Louis Vuitton 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
 LVMH 1, 2, 3

Love, Courtney

magazines 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11

online magazines

Mango

Marfa Stance

Margiela, Martin 1, 2, 3

market research

advertising

brand identity

competition

ethical concerns

haute couture 1, 2

muses

prêt-à-porter 1, 2

public relations

trend forecasting agencies

Marks & Spencer 1, 2

Marras, Antonio (Kenzo)

masking tape

mass market retail

Massey, Carolyn

McQueen, Alexander 1, 2, 3

Michael Kors, New York

mid-level brands and designers 1, 2

Miyake, Issey 1, 2, 3, 4

modelling on the stand 1, 2

mood boards 1, 2, 3

Moraliogliu, Erdem 1, 2

Moss, Kate

Munsell wheel 1, 2

muses

museums 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8

specialist museums

Nike 1, 2

Nordstrom

notes 1, 2, 3

Off-White
Okada, Sachiko (Blaak)

Overington, Alice

Owens, Rick

paints and paintbrushes 1, 2

palettes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7

step-by-step guide to

creating a colour palette

Pantone® 1, 2, 3

partitive colour

pencils, graphite and watercolour 1, 2

sharpening

pens, technical drawing

photocopying 1, 2, 3

Photographic Youth Music

Culture Archive (PYMCA) 1, 2

photography 1, 2, 3, 4

phones

Photoshop 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

pigment wheel 1, 2, 3

Pitti Immagine Filati, Florence 1, 2

portfolios

electronic portfolios

finished sheets

PPQ

Preen

Première Vision (PV), Paris 1, 2, 3

presentations 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7

prêt-à-porter 1, 2, 3, 4

primary colours

primary research 1, 2

why undertake primary research? 1, 2

printing, 3D

projects 1, 2

Promostyl 1, 2

proportion 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13

public relations (PR) 1, 2

Pugh, Gareth 1, 2

Raeburn, Christopher

research 1, 2

documenting
 expanding your research

keeping research relevant

primary research 1, 2

research is an ongoing process

secondary research 1, 2

starting research

time management 1, 2

your research is unique to you

retailers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6

Revillon, Paris

Riley, Bridget

River Island

Rocha, Simone

sampling 1, 2

Sampson, Tracey

Sass & Bide

Schmitz, April 1, 2

scrapbooks

Seacole, Mary

secondary colours

secondary research 1, 2

why undertake secondary research?

Sedgwick, Edie

shopping

silhouettes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22,

23, 24, 25

Sitwell, Edith

Six and Seven Eighths Design Studio

Sjadzali, Danya 1, 2

sketchbooks 1, 2, 3, 4

starting a sketchbook

slow fashion

Snowden, Bradley

Soji-Akinyemi, Tami

Sperling, Jody
spider diagrams 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7

sponsorship 1, 2, 3

sponsored briefs

sportswear 1, 2, 3

street style 1, 2, 3

subtractive colour 1, 2, 3

Sui, Anna

super brands 1, 2
 luxury super brands 1, 2

supermarket fashion 1, 2, 3

sustainable fashion 1, 2

government initiatives 1, 2

sweatshops

tailor’s dummies 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

team-led briefs

textile mills 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

textile terminology

Timberland 1, 2

toiles 1, 2, 3

Topshop

trade fairs 1, 2

trends 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

colour forecasting

macro and micro trends

trend forecasting agencies

triangulation 1, 2

initial design response

interplay between images

investigative approach

Turing, Alan

Uniqlo 1, 2

Van Herpen, Iris 1, 2

Van Noten, Dries

Viktor & Rolf 1, 2

vintage fairs

Vionnet, Madeleine 1, 2

visual research 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

Vogue 1, 2, 3, 4

Watson, Emma

West, Kanye

Westwood, Vivienne 1, 2

Whistles

wholesalers
Williams, Dilys

Williams, Hefina

Wintour, Anna

Worth Global Style Network (WGSN)

Y-3 store, Conduit Street, London

Yamamoto, Yohji 1, 2, 3, 4

Zara 1, 2
 Picture Credits

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11:© Laurence King Publishing (LKP), photo by Hayley Bradshaw;

1, 2, 3, 4: © LKP, photo by Hayley Bradshaw, courtesy Neesan Gurung; 1: © LKP, photo courtesy

Ruth Green; 1, 2: © Ezinma Mbeledogu, permission to reproduce the photo of the Tommy Nutter

Exhibition courtesy of the Fashion and Textile Museum; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7: © LKP, photo by

Hayley Bradshaw, courtesy Meagan S. E. Wellman; 1, 2, 319b, 4: © LKP, photo courtesy Jessica

Wilson; 1: © LKP, photo courtesy Mark Glasgow; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7: © LKP, photo by Hayley

Bradshaw, courtesy Lucy Beckett; 1, 2, 3: © LKP, photo courtesy April Schmitz; 1: © LKP, photo

by Ezinma Mbeledogu, courtesy Tilly Osbourne-Barker; 1: Photoeventshd/Shutterstock; 1:

Shutterstock; 1: © LKP, photo courtesy Ezinma Mbeledogu; 1: Gracious Tiger/Shutterstock; 1:

Renata Sedmakova/Shutterstock; 1: Nagib/Shutterstock; 1: Thirteen/Shutterstock; 1: Girish

Menon/Shutterstock; 1: Courtesy of the Library of Congress (LC-USZC2-1393); 1: Ieva

Geneviciene/Shutterstock.com; 1: Courtesy of NASA; 1: © iStock.com/Ratstuben; 1: ©

iStock.com/Hadynyah; 1: © iStock.com/Denis Larkin; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5: © LKP, photo courtesy Zoë

Wells; 1: Courtesy of the Library of Congress (LC-DIG-ppmsca-01589); 1, 2, 3, 4, 5: © LKP,

photo courtesy Kirstie Marshall; 1: Courtesy of the Library of Congress (LC-DIG-stereo-1s01865);

1: Zzvet/Shutterstock.com; 1: Anne-Christine Poujoulat/AFP/Getty Images; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,

10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15: Catwalking; 1: Pascal Le Segretain/Getty Images for Dior; 1: Photo by

Bless; 1: Ungor/Shutterstock.com; 1: Neilson Barnard/Getty Images; 1, 2, 3, 4: © LKP, photo

courtesy Jessica Hoareau Tabaka; 1: © Jean Paul Gaultier La Perla Collection Crèateur (2012); 2:
Artur Bogacki/Shutterstock.com; 1: psv/Shutterstock.com; 1: Muellek Josef/Shutterstock.com; 1: Dr

Ajay Kumar Singh/Shutterstock.com; 1: Steve Estvanik/Shutterstock.com; 1:

Baloncici/Shutterstock.com; 1: Science History Images/Alamy Stock Photo; 1: Hulton Archive/Getty

Images; 1: Amoret Tanner/Alamy Stock Photo; 1: Court Prods/Kobal/Shutterstock; 1: Baron/Hulton

Archive/Getty Images; 1: Album/Alamy Stock Photo; 1: Patrick McMullan/Getty Images; 1:

Perig/Shutterstock.com; 1: Botond Horvath/Shutterstock.com; 1: Paul Prescott/Shutterstock.com; 1:

Scaramushe/Shutterstock.com; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5:© LKP, photo by Hayley Bradshaw, courtesy Tami

Soji-Akinyemi; 1: © LKP, photo by Hayley Bradshaw, courtesy Kate Mckeown; 1, 2, 3, 4: © LKP,

photo by Hayley Bradshaw, courtesy Megan Waring; 1: © LKP, photo by Ezinma Mbeledogu,

courtesy Ada Puscinska; 1: © LKP, photo by Hayley Bradshaw, courtesy Tracey M. Sampson

(artwork used in collage courtesy Arnold McBay, photographs of the Western Wall courtesy Izzet

© LKP, photo by Hayley Bradshaw, courtesy Lucy

Kerribar and Assi Dvilanski, Israel); 1, 2:

Beckett (photos of men on Venice Beach, CA, courtesy Steven Perilloux); 1: © LKP, photo by

Hayley Bradshaw, courtesy Megan Waring (Iris van Herpen photography by Michel Zoeter); 1: ©
Bjarki Reyr MR/Alamy; 1: © LKP, photo by Hayley Bradshaw, courtesy Junaid Nasar; 1:
SAVIKO/Gamma-Rapho/Getty Images; 1, 2, 3: Courtesy Pitti Filati, photo: F. Guazzelli; 1:

wavebreakmedia/Shutterstock.com; 1, 2, 3: © LKP, photo by Hayley Bradshaw, courtesy Danya

Adhalia Sjadzali; 1: Google and the Google logo are registered trademarks of Google Inc., used with

permission; 1: Courtesy PYMCA; 1: Courtesy of Dazed Digital www.dazeddigital.com; 1:

catwalker/Shutterstock.com; 1: TCD/Prod.DB/Alamy Stock Photo; 1: Moviestore/Shutterstock; 1:

Everett Collection, Inc./Alamy Stock Photo; 1: Daniel Kirkegaard Mouritsen/Shutterstock.com; 1:

Victoria and Albert Museum, London; 1: Archimage/Alamy Stock Photo; 1:

_
Anton Ivanov/Shutterstock; 1, 2: © Ezinma Mbeledogu; 1: Courtesy Clerkenwell Vintage Fashion
Fair; 1: Foc Kan/WireImage/Getty Images; 1: © High Museum of Art, photo by Mike Jensen; 1, 2,
3: Victor VIRGILE/Gamma-Rapho/Getty Images; 1: Kaveh Kazemi/Getty Images; 1, 2: © LKP, photo

by Ezinma Mbeledogu; 1: © LKP, photo by Hayley Bradshaw, courtesy Emily Fluen; 1: © LKP,

photo by Hayley Bradshaw, courtesy Hefina Hedd Williams; 1, 2: © LKP, photo courtesy Shreyaa

Mavani; 1: © LKP, photo by Hayley Bradshaw, courtesy Emily Street; 1: © LKP, photo courtesy

Siwen Jian; 1: Lipnitzki/Roger Viollet Collection/Getty Images; 1: © Roger-Viollet/TopFoto; 1: ©

Wolfgang Zajc, styling: Susanne Bisovsky, makeup/hair: Anita Obi; 1: Max

Topchii/Shutterstock.com; 1: © Campbell Johnson; 1: Pierre Andrieu/AFP/Getty Images; 1: Tim

Whitby/WireImage/Getty Images; 1: Pixel Formula/SIPA/Rex Features; 1:

iamnong27/Shutterstock.com; 1: © BA (Hons) Fashion Design at University of the Creative Arts,

Epsom, courtesy Mariapia Mineo; 1: PANTONE® and other Pantone trademarks are the property

of, and are used with the written permission of Pantone LLC. PANTONE Color identification is

solely for artistic purposes and not intended to be used for specification. © Pantone LLC, 2013 All
rights reserved; 1, 2: Rex Features; 1, 2: Courtesy of Promostyl www.promostyl.com; 1: A mood

and colour board in progress at The Future Laboratory, London, reproduced with permission; 1, 2:

David M. Benett/Dave Benett/Getty Images; 1: © BA (Hons) Fashion Design, University for the
Creative Arts, Epsom, courtesy Cecilia Lake; 1: Rafael Yaghobzadeh/SIPA/Rex Features; 1: Ragne

Kabanova/Shutterstock.com; 1: dotshock/Shutterstock.com; 1: photoloni/Shutterstock.com; 1: Acorn

Fabrics (Cumbria) Ltd, 1 Kenyon Road, Lomeshaye Estate, Nelson BB9 1, www.acornfabrics.com;

1: Dashing Tweeds Archive; 1, 2, 3: Courtesy CELC; 1: © J. Baylor Roberts/National Geographic

Society/Corbis; 1: Courtesy of NASA; 1: Bukajlo Frederic/SIPA/Rex Features; 1: © Alan

Gignoux/Alamy; 1: © Yuri Arcurs/Dreamstime.com; 1: © Première Vision SA – Stéphane Kossmann

– Charles Siaux; 1: Darren Gerrish/Getty Images; 1: © Simon Walsh; 1: © Nick Harvey; 1:

INTREEGUE Photography/Shutterstock; 1, 2: © Fairchild Photo Service/Condé Nast/Corbis; 1:

Courtesy Christopher Raeburn (photo © Neil Gavin); 1: Radu Bercan/Shutterstock.com; 1: Courtesy

Zara; 1: © Richard Levine/Alamy; 1: Sharok Hatami/Shutterstock; 1: Richard Young/Shutterstock;

1, 2, 3: SIPA Press/Rex Features; 1: Advertising Agency: MP Creative, CD Markus Kiersztan,

Client: UNIQLO, Japan, Photographer: William Selden, reproduced with permission; 1: Courtesy of

United Colors of Benetton; 1, 2, 3, 4: © LKP; 1: Courtesy of Fashion Monitor; 1: Courtesy

Promostyl www.promostyl.com; 1: Middlesex University; 2: oliveromg/shutterstock.com; 1: © Bert
de Ruiter/Alamy; 2: Courtesy Project Ocean at Selfridges; 1: Fair Trade Fashion Company, People

Tree, photo: Safia Minney/People Tree; 1: Courtesy Marfa Stance (photo: Sam Copeland); 1:

Images courtesy of BITE Studios, photography by Suzanne Elvi; 1: Dimitrios Kambouris/Getty

Images; 1, 2: David M. Benett/Dave Benett/Getty Images; 1: Nils Jorgensen/Shutterstock; 1: Dvora.

Photography; 1: Centre for Sustainable Fashion, photo by Katy Davies; 1: Centre for Sustainable

Fashion; 1: Centre for Sustainable Fashion, photo by Thierry Bal; 1: © LKP, photo by Hayley
Bradshaw, courtesy Brad Snowden; 1: Drawing reproduced courtesy of Chalayan, photo: Rizzoli

International Publications, New York; 1: © LKP, photo by Ezinma Mbeledogu, courtesy Robert
Sanders (photo of Yuri Osawa’s Performance in Jogja International Performing Art Festival 2010 in
Jogjakarta, Indonesia, reproduced courtesy of Agoeng Bhimasta; photo of Kazuo Ohno courtesy of

Marco Tambara); 1: © LKP, photo by Hayley Bradshaw, courtesy Tracey M. Sampson; 1: Courtesy
Kazi Begum with Artworks by Alexandra Levasseur, Galerie C.O.A.; 1: Courtesy Kazi Begum; 1:

Birmingham City University (photo by Godfrey Pitt)

 Acknowledgements

To the late beloved Ms Amazilo Monica Nneka Mbeledogu; and

Theodore Obiora Ezra Mbeledogu, the apple of my eye …

To the many contributors, ‘In diversity there is beauty and there is

strength.’
- Maya Angelou

To Laurence King Publishing: Davina Cheung, Sophie Drysdale, Liz

Faber, Jodi Simpson and Anne Townley. To Sophie Hartley for picture
research and to Jane Chipchase for the design of the first edition, and
to Jon Allan for the design of this edition.

Thank You

‘Research is formalized curiosity. It is poking and prying with a

purpose.’
- Zora Neale Hurston