I.

Introduction to Systematics and Evolution Key Terms:

o​ Systematics: The branch of biology that deals with the classification and
evolutionary relationships of organisms.
o​ Evolution: The process by which species undergo genetic changes over time,
leading to the diversification of life on Earth.
o​ Taxonomy: The science of naming, describing, and classifying organisms into
groups.
o​ Phylogeny: The evolutionary history of a group of organisms, depicting how they
are related to each other.
o​ Species Concept: A way of defining what constitutes a species. Different species
concepts are used in classification depending on the focus (e.g., biological,
morphological, ecological).

II. Systems of Classification and the Species Concept:

Key Terms:

o​ Binomial Nomenclature: A system of naming species by their genus and species

(e.g., Homo sapiens), developed by Carl Linnaeus.
o​ Linnaean System: The hierarchical system of classification developed by
Linnaeus that categorizes life into domains, kingdoms, phyla, classes, orders,
families, genera, and species.
o​ Biological Species Concept: Defines species as groups of organisms that can
interbreed and produce fertile offspring, with a focus on reproductive isolation.
o​ Morphological Species Concept: A species concept based on physical traits and
morphology for identification.
o​ Phylogenetic Species Concept: Defines species based on evolutionary
relationships and genetic similarities.
o​ Ecological Species Concept: Classifies species based on ecological niches and
environmental interactions.
o​ Sympatric Species: Species that occur in the same geographic area but are
reproductively isolated.
o​ Allopatric Species: Species that are geographically separated and evolve
independently, leading to speciation.

III. Basis of Classification

Key Terms:

o​ Taxonomic Hierarchy: The classification system that organizes species into

broader groups, from domain to species.
 o​ Morphological Features: Physical traits such as shape, size, and structure used
in classifying organisms.
o​ Genetic Features: DNA sequence similarities or differences used to classify
organisms and determine their evolutionary relationships.
o​ Molecular Phylogenetics: The use of molecular data (like DNA, RNA, and
protein sequences) to infer evolutionary relationships and construct phylogenetic
trees.
o​ Homologous Structures: Similar structures in different species that result from
common ancestry and help in classification.
o​ Analogous Structures: Structures that perform similar functions in different
species but are not derived from a common ancestor.
o​ Vestigial Structures: Reduced or non-functional structures that were functional
in an organism’s evolutionary ancestor (e.g., human appendix).
o​ Cladistics: A method of classification based on shared derived characteristics,
emphasizing evolutionary history.

IV. Evolutionary Relations of Organisms

Key Terms:

o​ Phylogenetic Tree: A diagram that depicts the evolutionary relationships among

species, showing common ancestors and how species have diverged.
o​ Cladogram: A branching diagram that represents the evolutionary relationships
between organisms based on shared derived traits. Cladograms focus on defining
clades, groups of organisms that share a common ancestor.
o​ Common Ancestor: An organism from which two or more species have evolved.
o​ Clade: A group of organisms that includes a common ancestor and all its
descendants.
o​ Monophyletic Group: A group of organisms that includes a common ancestor
and all its descendants, representing a true clade.
o​ Paraphyletic Group: A group of organisms that includes a common ancestor but
not all of its descendants.
o​ Polyphyletic Group: A group that includes organisms from different
evolutionary lineages, without a recent common ancestor.
o​ Homoplasy: Similar traits that arise independently in different species due to
convergent evolution or evolutionary reversals, not from a common ancestor.
o​ Molecular Clock: A tool used to estimate the time of divergence between species
by comparing molecular data, such as DNA sequence similarities.
V. Phylogenetic Trees

●​ Key Terms:
o​ Branches: Represent the evolutionary lineages leading from the root to the
various species depicted in the tree.
o​ Node: A point where two branches diverge, representing a common ancestor of
the descendant species.
o​ Ingroup: consists of the group of organisms (species or taxa) that are being
studied in the tree.
o​ Outgroup: A species or group of organisms that is used to root the phylogenetic
tree, providing a reference point for determining evolutionary relationships.
o​ Cladogenesis: The process of evolution through branching, where a species
diverges into two or more species.
o​ Anagenesis: Evolutionary changes within a single species over time, without
branching into new species.
o​ Synapomorphy: A derived characteristic shared by a group of organisms, used to
define a clade in a phylogenetic tree.

VI. Cladograms:

●​ Key Terms:
o​ Clade: A group of species that includes a common ancestor and all of its
descendants.
o​ Shared Derived Characteristics (Synapomorphies): Traits that are shared by a
group of organisms and are used to define a clade in a cladogram.
o​ Outgroup Comparison: Using an outgroup species to help determine the
evolutionary characteristics of the ingroup (the group of species being studied).
o​ Parsimony Principle: The idea that the simplest explanation, requiring the
fewest evolutionary changes, is the most likely and used in constructing
cladograms.
o​ Branching Patterns: The way species are arranged in a cladogram, showing their
evolutionary relationships based on shared traits.

VII. Evolutionary Evidence

●​ Key Terms:
o​ Fossil Record: The preserved remains or traces of organisms that provide
evidence of evolutionary changes over time.
o​ Homology: Similarity in characteristics resulting from shared ancestry, often used
in both morphology and molecular genetics to determine evolutionary
relationships.
o​ Molecular Evidence: Data from genetic material (e.g., DNA sequences) that help
construct phylogenetic trees and reveal evolutionary links between species.
 o​ Vestigial Structures: Anatomical features that have lost their original function
but are retained in an organism (e.g., human tailbone).
o​ Biogeography: The study of the geographic distribution of species and how they
have evolved in specific regions.

VIII. Evolutionary Patterns and Speciation

●​ Key Terms:
o​ Allopatric Speciation: The formation of new species due to geographical
isolation, which prevents gene flow.
o​ Sympatric Speciation: The emergence of new species within the same
geographic area due to reproductive isolation, behavioral changes, or ecological
differences.
o​ Adaptive Radiation: The rapid diversification of a single species into a variety of
forms adapted to different ecological niches.
o​ Reproductive Isolation: Mechanisms that prevent different species from
interbreeding and producing fertile offspring (e.g., temporal, behavioral,
mechanical isolation).
o​ Hybridization: The interbreeding of two different species that can result in the
creation of hybrid species.

IX. Human Impact on Evolution

●​ Key Terms:
o​ Artificial Selection: The intentional breeding of organisms with desirable traits
by humans.
o​ Genetic Drift: Changes in the frequency of alleles in a population due to random
chance rather than natural selection.
o​ Gene Flow (Migration): The movement of genes between populations, often as a
result of migration, which can influence evolutionary outcomes.
o​ Extinction: The permanent loss of a species, often due to human activity such as
habitat destruction or overhunting.
o​ Conservation Biology: The scientific study of preserving biodiversity, often in
the context of evolutionary processes.
Suggested Lab Activities

1. Comparative Morphological Analysis of Local Plants (e.g., Rattan vs. Bamboo)

Objective: Students will compare the morphological features of two distinct plant species,
Rattan (Calamus spp.) and Bamboo (Bambusoideae), in terms of leaf structure, stem
morphology, and branching patterns to understand taxonomic differences.

●​ Activity Steps:
o​ Collect samples of Rattan and Bamboo from a local forest or research site.
o​ Measure and document key features (leaf shape, stem size, branching patterns, etc.).
o​ Discuss the similarities and differences in plant classification and evolutionary
adaptation.
o​ Students will categorize the plants using Linnaean classification and discuss the
morphological traits that define each genus.
●​ Key Terms: Morphological features, Linnaean classification, taxonomic hierarchy.

2. DNA Barcoding of Philippine Trees

Objective: Students will use DNA barcoding to identify tree species from local Philippine
forests (e.g., Narra (Pterocarpus indicus) or Mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla)), understanding
molecular evidence in systematics.

●​ Activity Steps:
o​ Extract DNA from leaves of two or more species of Philippine trees.
o​ Use PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) to amplify a common barcode region (e.g., rbcL or
matK genes).
o​ Sequence the amplified DNA and compare the sequences with an online database (e.g.,
GenBank) to identify the species.
o​ Discuss the role of molecular data in classifying plants and understanding evolutionary
relationships.
●​ Key Terms: DNA barcoding, PCR, molecular systematics, rbcL, matK, sequence comparison.

3. Constructing Phylogenetic Trees Using Local Animals (e.g., Philippine Tarsier vs. Philippine Eagle)
Objective: Students will construct a phylogenetic tree based on morphological and genetic
characteristics of the Philippine Tarsier (Carlito syrichta) and the Philippine Eagle
(Pithecophaga jefferyi).

●​ Activity Steps:
o​ Collect images, anatomical features, and DNA sequences of the two species.
o​ Identify homologous structures (e.g., limb structure, skull shape) and genetic data (e.g.,
mitochondrial DNA).
o​ Use software (e.g., MEGA or online phylogenetic tools) to generate a phylogenetic tree.
 o​ Discuss evolutionary relationships and the significance of different traits in determining
common ancestry.
●​ Key Terms: Phylogenetic tree, homologous structures, genetic data, evolutionary relationships,
common ancestor.

4. Construction of a Cladogram Using Local Birds (e.g., Philippine Eagle vs. Philippine Cockatoo)
Objective: Students will use shared derived characteristics to build a cladogram of Philippine
bird species (Philippine Eagle vs. Philippine Cockatoo).

●​ Activity Steps:
o​ Study the key morphological traits of both species (e.g., beak shape, feather type, size).
o​ Identify the presence or absence of shared derived traits and build a cladogram based
on those traits.
o​ Discuss the process of cladistic analysis and its role in understanding evolutionary
relationships.
●​ Key Terms: Cladogram, derived characteristics, cladistics, shared traits, evolutionary divergence.

5. Observation and Classification of Local Insects (e.g., Tarantula vs. Mantis)

Objective: Students will classify and observe local insects such as the Tarantula (Phlogius sp.)
and Mantis (Tenodera aridifolia), comparing their evolutionary adaptations.

●​ Activity Steps:
o​ Collect samples of Tarantula and Mantis or use preserved specimens.
o​ Classify each specimen based on its anatomical features (e.g., legs, body segmentation,
and appendages).
o​ Use dichotomous keys to identify the species.
o​ Discuss the evolutionary significance of the observed traits (e.g., camouflage, predation
behavior).
●​ Key Terms: Dichotomous key, classification, anatomical features, evolutionary adaptations.
Lecture Activities for Systematics and Evolution
(Contextualized for Filipino Senior High School and College Biology 1 Students)

1. Interactive Lecture on the Species Concept Using Local Species (e.g., Philippine Cobra vs. King Cobra)
Objective: Students will explore the different species concepts (biological, morphological,
phylogenetic) using local species like the Philippine Cobra (Naja philippinensis) and King
Cobra (Ophiophagus hannah).

●​ Activity Steps:
o​ Present an introduction to the different species concepts (biological, morphological,
ecological).
o​ Facilitate a discussion on the differences between Philippine Cobra and King Cobra,
highlighting their geographical distribution, morphological features, and reproductive
isolation.
o​ Allow students to analyze the species concepts and how they can be applied to local
Filipino species.
●​ Key Terms: Species concept, biological species concept, morphological species concept,
reproductive isolation.

2. Group Activity on Phylogenetic Trees with Filipino Mammals (e.g., Carabao vs. Philippine Deer)
Objective: Students will work in groups to create a phylogenetic tree of local mammals based on
shared traits and genetic data.

●​ Activity Steps:
o​ Present examples of local Philippine mammals (e.g., Carabao (Bubalus bubalis),
Philippine Deer (Rusa marianna)).
o​ Guide students to identify key morphological features such as body size, horn structure,
and habitat.
o​ Assign each group to build a phylogenetic tree based on the available data.
o​ Discuss how phylogenetic trees reflect evolutionary relationships.
●​ Key Terms: Phylogenetic tree, shared traits, evolutionary divergence, mammalian taxonomy.

3. Evolutionary Case Study Presentation on Philippine Islands Endemism

Objective: Students will research and present case studies on the evolution of endemic species in
the Philippines (e.g., Tamaraw vs. Philippine Tarsier).

●​ Activity Steps:
o​ Assign each student or group a specific endemic species from the Philippines (e.g.,
Tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis), Philippine Tarsier (Carlito syrichta)).
o​ Have students research the evolutionary history and ecological significance of their
assigned species.
 o​ Students will present their findings, discussing the role of island geography in speciation
and adaptation.
●​ Key Terms: Endemism, speciation, adaptation, evolutionary history, ecological niche.

4. Lecture and Interactive Discussion on Cladistics Using Local Fish (e.g., Tilapia vs. Bangus)
Objective: Students will understand the concept of cladistics and its application to local fish
species such as Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and Bangus (Chanos chanos).

●​ Activity Steps:
o​ Explain cladistics and how shared derived traits are used to classify organisms.
o​ Facilitate an interactive discussion using local fish as examples, focusing on features such
as body shape, fin structures, and habitat preferences.
o​ Students will engage in a group discussion and present their findings on how these fish
are related evolutionary.
●​ Key Terms: Cladistics, derived traits, shared characteristics, evolutionary classification.

5. Debate on the Role of Natural Selection and Adaptation in Evolution Using Philippine Flora (e.g.,
Balete Tree vs. Pine Tree)
Objective: Students will debate the role of natural selection and adaptation in the evolution of
Philippine flora, using examples such as the Balete tree (Ficus balete) and Pine tree (Pinus spp.).

●​ Activity Steps:
o​ Present an overview of natural selection and how it drives adaptation in species.
o​ Assign students into two groups, one advocating for the Balete tree's evolutionary
advantage and the other for the Pine tree's adaptations.
o​ Facilitate a debate on how environmental factors (e.g., climate, soil) drive evolutionary
changes in plant species.
●​ Key Terms: Natural selection, adaptation, evolutionary advantage, environmental pressures.