CSA GEN-ED STUDY GUIDE

•Hypertonic solution concentration is outside the cell

SCIENCE causing the water to leak out leaving the cell to shrink
•Taxonomic Ranks Mnemonic (DKPCOFGS) •Hypotonic solution concentration is inside the cell
causing the water to enter making the cell swell
Dumb King Philip Came Over For Good Spaghetti
•Facilitated diffusion – the movement of molecules with
D-domain, K-kingdom, P-phylum, C-class, O-order, F- the help of tube-like proteins
family, G-genus, S-species
•Filtration – a process of separating solid particles from a
•Heterotrophic (can’t produce own food), Autotrophic (can liquid mixture
produce own food like plants)
•Osmosis – is the movement of water through a semi-
•Multicellular (made up of cells, big enough to be seen by permeable membrane
eyes), Unicellular (made with 1 cell, microscopic)
•Diffusion – is the movement of particles through a fluid
•Cell Walls can only be seen on 1. Plants, 2. Fungi, 3. Protists medium (liquid or gas)
(some of them like the algae), and Bacteria
•In the ecosystem the bottommost trophic level is occupied
•Smaller mammals like mice are not known to be carriers by the producers these are plants and other organisms that
of rabies can make their own food.
•Homeostasis refers to balance or equilibrium • Next is the primary consumers who are herbivores.
•Metabolism is all the chemical reactions in the living The secondary consumers are the carnivores. Each
body/cell trophic level can only transfer about 10% of original
energy to the next trophic level.
Catabolism breaking down of chemicals to release
energy •Symbiotic relationship or symbiosis – the relationship of
Anabolism building of bigger molecules to store organisms in ecosystem
energy Mutualism – both organisms benefit from their
•Cellular Respiration is the breaking of carbohydrate interaction
molecules with the help of oxygen to produce carbon Commensalism – Only one organism benefits from
dioxide and water. This process also releases energy for the the interaction while the other is neither harmed
cell. nor benefited
Parasitism – one organism benefit from the
•Some of the Vestigial (no purpose) Organs or Parts of the interaction while the other is harmed gradually
human body are wisdom teeth, Coccyx, Appendix, and Amensalism – an interaction when an organism
Tonsil harms the other but not for no apparent reason
•Survival adaptations are actions and/or characteristics of Competition – a relationship between organisms
organisms to use for defense or survival who require the same sustenance or need
Predation – a relationship wherein one organism
Camouflage – blending own body color with the kills and eats the other
surrounding
Mimicry – copying bigger or more dangerous •Ecological Niche - is the match of a species to a specific
organisms to intimidate predators environmental condition. It is an inclusive term that
Play dead – used by animals to deter predators involves not only the physical space occupied by an
from eating or killing them organism but also its functional role in the community.
Venom – deadly substance on the fangs of animals •Ecological Succession - the process by which the mix of
to kill their prey or defend their life species and habitat in an area changes over time.
•The human body maintains the following electrolytes: •Deciduous forest - characterized by trees that lose their
Sodium (+) leaves at the end of each growing season
Magnesium (+) •Tropical rainforest - dense and warm rainforests with high
Potassium (+) rainfall typically found between 10° north and south of the
Calcium (+) Equator
Chloride (-)
Phosphate (-) •Temperate coniferous forest - common in the coastal areas
Bicarbonate (-) of regions that have mild winters and heavy rainfall, or
inland in drier climates or montane areas
•Atomic mass is the combined number of protons and
neutrons •Temperate grassland - cold winters and warm summers
with some rain
•The number of protons or electrons is reflected in the
atomic number •Taiga - thick forests of coniferous trees, such as spruce,
pine, and fir.
•Non-metals are on the right side of the periodic table.
Other parts are mostly metallic •Tundra - the coldest of all the biomes
•Prokaryotic cells are a type of cells with no nucleus and •Desert - the driest of all the biomes. In fact, the most
membrane-bounded organelle. Found on bacteria. important characteristic of a desert is that it receives very
little rainfall.
•Eukaryotic cells are a type of cells with nuclei and
membrane-bounded organelles. •Ecesis - the process by which a plant or animal becomes
established in a new habitat.
•Cell walls, plastids, and chloroplasts are cell structures
found in plant cells but not in animal cells •Nudation - the formation of a bare area by several reasons,
such as volcanic eruption, flooding, landslide, erosion, etc.
•Centrosomes/centrioles and lysosomes are common in
animal cells but not found in plant cells •Eutrophication - excessive plant and algal growth due to
the increased availability of one or more limiting growth
•Due to the presence of cell walls, a plant cell has a more factors needed for photosynthesis
rectangular shape than the irregular appearance of animal
cells •Saponification – soap-making process

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 CSA GEN-ED STUDY GUIDE
•Endospores - highly retractile and thick-walled structures •The rhythmic beating of the heart is produced by the
formed inside the bacterial cells used for the organism to sinoatrial node
survive for a long time
•The white blood cells that secrete antibodies to combat
•Cholera is caused by Vibrio cholerae (Bacteria) pathogens are the lymphocytes
•Rabies is caused by Rabies virus (Rabies lyssavirus) • Phases of the Moon
- Solar Eclipse happens during the new moon phase
•Tetanus is caused by Clostridium tetani (Bacteria)
- Lunar Eclipse happens during the full moon phase
•Tuberculosis is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis
(bacteria)
•Common sign of infection includes fever, chills and sweat,
and cough
•Law of Dominance - When parents with pure, contrasting
traits are crossed together, only one form of trait appears in
the next generation
•Law of Independent Assortment - the inheritance of one
pair of genes is independent of inheritance of another pair • The umbra (Latin for "shadow") is the innermost and
darkest part of a shadow, where the light source is
•Law of Segregation - every individual possesses two alleles
completely blocked by the occluding body. An observer
and only one allele is passed on to the offspring
within the umbra experiences a total occultation.
•Allosomes or sex chromosomes are the 23 pair in human
• The penumbra (from the Latin paene "almost, nearly" and
genome. X chromosome carries the female characteristics
umbra "shadow") is the region in which only a portion of the
and Y chromosomes carries the male.
light source is obscured by the occluding body. An observer
•Genotype refers to the alleles or genes that are passed to in the penumbra experiences a partial eclipse.
the offspring; Phenotype refers to the observable traits that
• The antumbra (from the Latin ante "before" and umbra
the organism has.
"shadow") is the region from which the occluding body
•Trisomy 21 or the additional chromosome at the 21st pair appears entirely within the disc of the light source. An
of chromosome is also known as Down Syndrome observer in this region experiences an annular eclipse, in
which a bright ring is visible around the eclipsing body
•Gene flow - also called migration; is any movement of
individuals, and/or the genetic material they carry, from • Layers of the Atmosphere
one population to another.
- Troposphere - the lowest layer of our atmosphere. Starting
•Genetic Drift - is the change in frequency of an existing at ground level, it extends upward to about 10 km (6.2 miles
gene variant in the population due to random chance. or about 33,000 feet) above sea level. Air pressure drops,
and temperatures get colder, as you climb higher in the
•Mutation - Any change in the DNA sequence of a cell. troposphere.
•Sexual Dimorphism - is the systematic difference in form - Stratosphere (ozonosphre) - The stratosphere extends
between individuals of different sex in the same species. from the top of the troposphere to about 50 km (31 miles)
•Major Biomolecules in the human body above the ground. The infamous ozone layer is found within
the stratosphere. Commercial passenger jets fly in the lower
Carbohydrates – sugars which is the main source of stratosphere, partly because this less-turbulent layer
energy in a living body provides a smoother ride.
• Building blocks are monosaccharides like glucose and
fructose which form disaccharides like maltose - Mesosphere - It extends upward to a height of about 85 km
(brewing sugar) and sucrose (table sugar) (53 miles) above our planet. Most meteors burn up in the
Protein - structural support, biochemical catalysts, mesosphere. Unlike the stratosphere, temperatures once
hormones, enzymes, building blocks, and initiators of again grow colder as you rise up through the mesosphere.
cellular death. (made from amino acids) - Thermosphere (ionosphere) - High-energy X-rays and UV
Lipids - fatty compounds that perform a variety of radiation from the Sun are absorbed in the thermosphere,
functions in your body. They're part of your cell raising its temperature to hundreds or at times thousands
membranes and help control what goes in and out of of degrees. However, the air in this layer is so thin that it
your cells. They help with moving and storing energy, would feel freezing cold. The approximate boundary
absorbing vitamins and making hormones. (made between our atmosphere and outer space, known as the
from fatty acids) Karman Line, is in the thermosphere, at an altitude of about
Nucleic acids - large biomolecules that play essential 100 km. Many satellites actually orbit Earth within the
roles in all cells and viruses. A major function of thermosphere. Variations in the amount of energy coming
nucleic acids involves the storage and expression of from the Sun exert a powerful influence on both the height
genomic information. of the top of this layer and the temperature within it.
•Small Intestine is responsible for the majority and Because of this, the top of the thermosphere can be found
completion of the chemical digestion anywhere between 500 and 1,000 km (311 to 621 miles)
above the ground. Aurora borealis and aurora australis is
•Alveoli are tiny sacs within the lungs that allow oxygen and formed and observed in this layer
carbon dioxide to move between the lungs and bloodstream
- Exosphere - Although some experts consider the
•Clusters of nerve cells are called ganglia thermosphere to be the uppermost layer of our atmosphere,
•Melatonin that controls the circadian rhythm is released by others consider the exosphere to be the actual "final
pineal gland frontier" of Earth's gaseous envelope. Different definitions
place the top of the exosphere somewhere between 100,000
•Vasopressin is the hormone that controls the retention of km 62,000 miles) and 190,000 km (120,000 miles) above
water in the kidney the surface of Earth.
•Capillaries are the blood vessels that handles the exchange • Water Cycle Processes
of materials between blood and surrounding tissues
- Evaporation - the change of state in a substance from a
liquid to a gas
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 CSA GEN-ED STUDY GUIDE
- Condensation - the change of state in a substance from a • Magnetic field moves from its north pole to south pole
gas to liquid also the process of forming clouds
• Electric current moves from positive to negative in a
- Precipitation - when tiny condensation particles, through circuit
collision and coalescence, grow too large for the rising air to
• Electron flows from negative to positive in a circuit
support, and thus fall to the Earth. Precipitation can be in
the form of rain, hail, snow, or sleet. • Iron can turn into temporary magnet through the process
of Induction
- Transpiration - the evaporation of water from plants
through stomata. Stomata are small openings found on the • Coulomb’s Law - the electrical force between two charged
underside of leaves that are connected to vascular plant objects is directly proportional to the product of the
tissues. quantity of charge on the objects.
- Runoff - occurs when there is excessive precipitation and • Kirchoff’s Law - the sum of all potential rises and
the ground is saturated (cannot absorb any more water). potential drops in any loop (closed circuit) is zero
Rivers and lakes are results of runoff.
• Law of Electrolysis - the mass of a substance deposited at
• Hurricane is also known as typhoon any electrode is directly proportional to the amount of
charge passed.
• Twister or tornado is the smallest revolving weather
phenomenon • Ohm’s Law - that the electric current through a conductor
between two points is directly proportional to the voltage
• Denitrification is the process of converting nitrate to
across the two points.
nitrogen gas and nitrous oxide
• Charge - is the physical property of matter that causes it
• Desalination is the process of developing fresh water
to experience a force when placed in an electromagnetic
from salt water
field.
• A diverging lens can form an upright, reduced, and virtual
• Circuit - a closed, continuous path through which
image
electrons can flow
• Blue light wave travel and scatter more than red light
• Resistor - an electrical component that limits or regulates
because this has higher wavelengths. The scattering of light
the flow of electrical current in an electronic circuit.
is best explained by Rayleigh scattering or the dispersion of
electromagnetic radiation by particles that have a radius • Voltage - the pressure from an electrical circuit's power
less than approximately 1/10 the wavelength of the source that pushes charged electrons (current) through a
radiation. conducting loop.
• Light interference is the phenomena of multiple light • Law of Inertia – object at rest tends to be at rest, object in
waves interacting with one another under certain motion tends to be in motion unless an external force is
circumstances, causing the combined amplitudes of the acting on it
waves to either increase or decrease. This is responsible for
• Law of Acceleration - that the acceleration of an object is
alternating light and dark bonds when light passes through
directly related to the net force and inversely related to its
two or more narrow slits.
mass. Acceleration of an object depends on two things, force
• Reflection is the bouncing of light when it hits a surface. and mass.
• Refraction is the bending of light as it passes through a • Law of Interaction – in every action there is an equal yet
different region/medium. opposite reaction
• In a system when a part changes from higher energy to • Simple Machines:
lower energy state the energy is released/emitted. If it
- Inclined plane: simple machine consisting of a sloping
changes from lower to higher state the energy is stored.
surface, used for raising heavy bodies.
• In quantum theory, energy of light is carried in units
- Pulley: a wheel on an axle or shaft enabling a taut cable or
called photons
belt passing over the wheel to move and change direction,
• The particle nature of light is best explained by the or transfer power between itself and a shaft.
photoelectric effect. The photoelectric effect is the
- Wheel and axle: the assembly formed by two disks, or
emission of electrons from a material caused by
cylinders, of different diameters mounted so they rotate
electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet light.
together around the same axis.
Electrons emitted in this manner are called
photoelectrons. - Lever: a rigid bar resting on a pivot, used to help move a
heavy or firmly fixed load with one end when pressure is
• Isochoric process is also known as a constant-volume
applied to the other.
process. It is a thermodynamic process where the total
volume of the system remains constant. • Displacement: the shift in location when an object in
motion changes from one position to another.
• Isobaric process refers to constant pressure, when other
factors like temperature or volume can change in a system. • Final velocity: is equal to its initial velocity plus
acceleration multiplied by the time it travelled and can be
• Isothermal process is one where work and energy are
given as: v = u + at. where, v = final velocity.
expended to maintain an equal temperature (called thermal
equilibrium) at all times. • Initial velocity: the velocity of an object at the beginning
of a sequence or motion.
• Adiabatic refers to a process in which no heat is
transferred into or out of a system, and the change in • Formula for work:
internal energy is only done by work.
- W (Joules) = P (power in Watt) x s (time in sec)
• Heat Transfer
- Power (kg J/s or kg m2/s3) = Joules (kg m2/ s2) x Seconds
- Conduction: when molecules of matter are in direct (s)
contact with each other
• Net force: the sum of all the forces acting on an object.
- Convection: when heat is transferred through the
• Kinetic energy is an energy in motion while potential
movement of gas or liquid
energy is a stored energy in stationary position
- Radiation: when heat is transferred through space
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 CSA GEN-ED STUDY GUIDE
• Scalar quantity only has magnitude but no direction • Common Types of Chemical Reaction:
example is temperature while vector quantity has
both magnitude and direction like weight.
• DNA Nitrogenous Base Pairing:
- Adenine (A) is to Thymine (T)
- Guanine (G) is to Cytosine (C)
• The Biomolecules in the body are:
- Carbohydrates – energy source of the body
- Proteins – structural components of the body
- Lipids – thermal insulator of the body
- Nucleic Acids – responsible for genetic information
• Organic compound are molecules with carbon or carbon
chain in its structure like glucose molecules
• Emulsification is the process of combining liquids which
don’t usually mix through substances that acts as agents like
the egg yolk in making mayonnaise.
• Study the scale of pH below:
• The atomic number is always equal to the number of
protons and electrons
• The atomic mass is equal to the total number of protons
and neutrons
• Properties of Metals:
o State: Metals are solids at room temperature with the
exception of mercury, which is liquid at room temperature
• Acids react with carbonates (a mineral with carbonate ion) (Gallium is liquid on hot days).
which form carbon dioxide o Luster: Metals have the quality of reflecting light from
• Temperature also refers to the kinetic energy in particles their surface and can be polished e.g., gold, silver and
of matter copper.
• In every chemical reaction, the number of atoms of o Malleability: Metals have the ability to withstand
reactants (left side of arrow) will always be equal hammering and can be made into thin sheets known as foils.
For example, a sugar cube sized chunk of gold can be
to the amount of atoms in every element of the products pounded into a thin sheet that will cover a football field.
(right side of arrow)
o Ductility: Metals can be drawn into wires. For example,
• Different types of Chemical Bonds: 100 g of silver can be drawn into a thin wire about 200
o Covalent Bond - a chemical bond that involves the sharing meters long.
of electrons to form electron pairs between atoms. These
bonds are common in organic molecules o Hardness: All metals are hard except sodium and
potassium, which are soft and can be cut with a knife. Metal
o Ionic Bond - type of linkage formed from the electrostatic are strong materials and have high tensile strength.
attraction between oppositely charged ions in a chemical
compound. These bonds form salt substances which when o Valency: Metals typically have 1 to 3 electrons in the
dissolved in water, could conduct electricity. outermost shell of their atoms.
o Conduction: Metals are good conductors because they
o Metallic Bond - force that holds atoms together in a
have free electrons. Silver and copper are the two best
metallic substance. Such a solid consists of closely packed
conductors of heat and electricity. Lead is the poorest
atoms. In most cases, the outermost electron shell of each of
conductor of heat. Bismuth, mercury and iron are also poor
the metal atoms overlaps with many neighboring atoms.
conductors
o Density: Metals have high density and are very heavy.
Iridium and osmium have the highest densities whereas
lithium has the lowest density.
o Melting and Boiling Points: Metals have high melting
and boiling points. Tungsten has the highest melting and
boiling points whereas mercury has the lowest. Sodium and
potassium also have low melting points.
• A graduated cylinder with water can measure the volume
of irregular shaped solids

MATH
• Order of Operations: PEMDAS:
P – parenthesis
E – exponents
MD – multiply and divide from LEFT TO RIGHT
AS – add and subtract from LEFT TO RIGHT Example 5
+𝟑×𝟏𝟐+4–5

• Prime Factorization
can be thru LCM or GCF

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 CSA GEN-ED STUDY GUIDE
• Least Common Multiple- is the smallest number Formula---
divisible by all the numbers in a set; technique- find the Selling Price= cost + markup
smallest number in the options that is divisible by all • Discount: when an item is on sale, the amount decreases
the numbers in the question. Formula---
It can answer questions like this: Discount= percent of discount x regular price
1. Camryn practices the trumpet every 11th day and flute • Sales Price: the price of a good or service being offered at
every 3rd day. Camryn practiced both the trumpet and the a discount.
flute today. How many DAYS until Camryn practices the Formula---
trumpet and flute again in the same day. ANSWER: 33 sale price= regular price-discount
• Greatest Common Factor- is the highest number that • Commission: fee paid for services, usually percentage of
divides exactly two or more numbers; technique- divide the total cost
the numbers in the question with the biggest number in the Formula---
option, if divisible siya, goess. commission= amount sold x percentage rate
What is the GCF of 36 and 18? ANSWER: 18 = total sale x percentage rate
• Ratio and Proportion; Ratio- is a comparison of two =BxR
quantities by division, which can be written into: A is to B, • Algebra ----- Absolute value: the number of units a
A:B, A/B. number is away from 0 in a number line; [-7] = 7;
• Proportion: is an equality of two ratios: 6/9=/12 [-7+3] = [-4] = 4
• Direct proportion: each quantity increases or both • Number Properties-----
decrease; x1/y1= x2/y2; example • Closure property: when we add or multiply any element
It two pencils cost 3 dollars, how many pencils can you buy in a set of numbers, the sum or the product is a unique real
with 9 dollars. number which belongs to the same set. Example 125 + 34
2/3 = 𝑥/ 9 Cross Multiply 3𝑥 = 18 = 159
Divide both sides by 3; x=6 • Commutative Property: states that changing the position
• Inverse proportion: one quantity increases, the other of the addends or the factors does not affect the sum or the
decreases and vice versa; x𝟏𝒚𝟏 = 𝒙𝟐𝒚2 product.
It takes 4 men 6 hours to repair a road. How long will it Example 12 + 2 = 2 + 12 𝐴𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛; 13 × 3 = 3 × 13
take 8 men to do the job if they work at the same rate? (𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝒙𝟏𝒚𝟏 = 𝒙𝟐𝒚𝟐 • Associative Property: states that changing the grouping of
(4) 6 = (8) (𝑥) the addends in a sum or the grouping of the factors in a
24 = 8𝑥; x=3 product does not change the resulting sum or product.
• Partitive Proportion: one quantity is being portioned into Example 2 + 3 + 4 = 2 + 3 + 4 (𝑨𝒅𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏)
different proportions. 5 × 3 × 2 = 5 × 2 × 3 (𝑴𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏)
In a class of 40, the ratio of boys to girls is 3: 5. How many • Identity Property of Addition: the sum of any number
are girls? How many are boys? and zero is the same number; 0 is the identity Example 34
3𝑥 + 5𝑥 = 40 + 0 = 34
8𝑥 = 40; x = 5 • Identity Property of Multiplication - the product of any
Remember that we have 3𝑥 for boys number and 1 is the same number; 1 is the identity
= 3𝑥 Example 32 × 1 = 32
= 3 (5) = 15. So, we have 15 boys. • Distributive Property: says that when a number is
Remember that we have 5𝑥 for girls multiplies by the SUM of two numbers, the first number
= 5𝑥 can be handed out or distributed to both of those two
= 5 (5), = 25 So, we have 25 girls. numbers and multiplied by each of them separately.
• Percent: meaning per hundred Example 3 (8 + 5) = 3 (8) + 3(5)
• Percent to Decimal: remove the percent symbol and move
the decimal point two place to the left: 55%=55=0.55 • Algebraic Expression: contains numbers, variables, and
• Decimal to Percent: move the decimal point two places to operations to state a relationship.
the right and affix the percent symbol: 0.345= 34.5= 34.5%
• Percentage, Rate, and Base
Percentage (P) – a part of a whole
Base (B) – the whole
Rate (R) – the number usually in percent
of usually means to multiply; is usually means equals
• • Addition: Verbal Expression: a number increased by 10;
Numerical Expression: 𝑥 + 10
• Subtraction: Verbal Expression: a number decreased by
five; Numerical Expression: 𝑥 − 5
• Multiplication: Verbal Expression: twice a number;
Numerical Expression: 2x
• Division: Verbal Expression: a number divided by 3;
Numerical Expression: 𝑥 ÷ 3
• Combination of Operations: Verbal Expression: seven
times a number increased by 5; Numerical Expression: 7𝑥
• Business Mathematics +5
• Simple Interest: interest paid only on the principal • Algebraic Equation: two algebraic expressions set equal
amount: I=Prt : I – is the simple interest, P – is the
to each other
principal amount, r – is the interest or the rate, t – is the
time in years. • 𝐱 + 𝐱 = 𝟓𝟎
How much interest would be paid on a bank loan of 2𝑥 = 50
P30,000 for 6 months at 10% annual interest? 𝑥 = 25
𝐼 = 𝑃𝑟𝑡 = (30,000) (0.10) (6/12) = 𝟏, 𝟓00 • 𝒙 + 𝒙 + 𝟐 = 𝟒𝟐
• Mark-up: to make a profit, store charges more 2𝑥 + 2 = 42
merchandise that they pay for it. 2𝑥 = 42 − 2
Formula --- 2𝑥 = 40 ; 𝑥 = 20
𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑢𝑝 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑢𝑝 ∗ 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒’𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠t • Polynomials
• Selling Price: the cost price of an item
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 CSA GEN-ED STUDY GUIDE
- is an expression consisting of variables and coefficients • Probability- simply means chances
that involve only the operations of addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and non-negative integer exponents of
variables
• A. Types of Polynomials • Rules of Probability
▪ Monomial – a constant, or the product of a constant, and (1) The probability of any event will always be a number
one or more variables raised to a whole number. Example: from zero to one
−6𝑥 2𝑦 3 𝑧 (2) When an event cannot occur, the probability will be
▪ Binomial – a polynomial consisting of exactly two terms. zero.
Example: 2𝑥 – 7 (3) When an event is certain to occur, the probability is 1
▪ Trinomial – a polynomial consisting of exactly three (4) The sum of the probabilities of all the outcomes in the
terms. Example: 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 + 4 sample space is 1
▪ Polynomial – any finite sum (or difference) of terms. (5) The probability that an event will not occur is equal to
Example: 4𝑥 3𝑦 2 − 3𝑧 + 9𝑥2𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑧 3 1 minus the probability that the event will occur
• B. Operations on Polynomials
a. Adding and Subtracting Polynomials. When adding • Angle- formed by two rays sharing a common endpoint
and subtracting polynomials, only like terms can be A. Classification of angles
combined. Examples: 5𝑧 + 6𝑧 = 11𝑧 18𝑥^2 − 8𝑥^2 = (1) Acute angle-measure is between 0 to 90 degrees
10𝑥 2 (2) Right angle- measures exactly 90 degrees
b. Multiplying Polynomials (3) Obtuse angle- measure is between 90 degrees and
1. Monomial by a monomial - Multiply the coefficients 180 degrees
and then follow the rules for multiplying the exponents (4) Straight angle- measures exactly 180 degrees
for like bases. Example: 2𝑥 3 × 4𝑥 4 = 8𝑥 7
2. Monomial by a Polynomial - Use the distributive B. Special Angle Pairs
property. (1) Complementary angles- any two angles whose
Example: 3𝑎^2 (2𝑎 + 4) = 3𝑎^2 (2𝑎 + 4) = (3𝑎^2) (2𝑎) combined measures equals 90 degrees
+ (3𝑎^2) (4) = 𝟔𝒂3 + 𝟏𝟐𝒂2 (2) Supplementary angles- any two angles whose
3. Binomial by a Binomial - Use FOIL (First, Outer, combined measures equal to 180 degrees
Inner, Last) (3) Vertical angles- two angles formed by
Example: (𝑥 – 3) (𝑥 + 4) = 𝑥^2 + 4𝑥 – 3𝑥 – 12 intersecting lines. They cannot be adjacent, and
= 𝒙^𝟐 + 𝒙 – 𝟏𝟐 they are always in equal measure. They are
4. Any polynomial by a polynomial - use distributive across from one another.
property (4) Adjacent angles- two angles share a vertex,
Example (2𝑥 – 1) (3𝑥 2 – 5𝑥 + 2) share a side but do not overlap
= 6𝑥^3 – 10𝑥^2 + 4𝑥 − 3𝑥^2 + 5𝑥 – 2
C. Substitution Method • Polygons- closed figures, straight sides, no curves, no
1. Multiplying Polynomials overlapping
A. Types of Polygons According to sides

2. Dividing Polynomials

B. Sum of Interior Angles of a Polygon

3. Factoring Polynomials
C. Measure of Each Interior Angle of a Polygon

D. Diagonals of a Polygon

4. Rationalizing Equations

• Triangles- can be classified by sides and by angles

Triangles by Sides
(1) Scalene Triangle- has no equal sides; all sides are
different angles
(2) Isosceles Triangle- has two equal sides; the angles
opposite the equal sides are also equal
(3) Equilateral Triangle- all three sides of an equilateral
• Pythagorean Theorem- in a right triangle, the sum of the triangle are equal, each angle of an equilateral
squares of the lengths of the two leg is equal to the square triangle is equal, each angle must be 60 degrees
of the length of the hypotenuse.
Triangles by Angles
(1) Right Triangle- has one 90 degree or right angle
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 CSA GEN-ED STUDY GUIDE
(2) Acute Triangle- has three angles with a measure of (5) Feedback- the receiver’s response or reaction to the
less than 90 degrees each sender’s message; facial expression, body gestures,
(3) Obtuse Triangle- has one obtuse angle words or even silence.
(6) Context- common and shared understanding of the
• Quadrilaterals- has four sides and four interior angles situation; environment, topic, culture, relationship
(7) Environment- physical and physiological space
where the communication happens; location, time,
temperature, event.
(8) Interference- a hindrance that prevents effective
communication; noise, barrier, block

Kinds of Barriers- Psychological (in the head), Physiological

(in the body; health), Linguistic (difference in word usage
meaning), Cultural (misunderstanding of meaning due to
cultural differences, Physical (environmental factors that limit
sending and receiving of messages), Mechanical (machineries,
etc.)

• Types of communication according to mode

(1) Verbal- most common form where words are used
(2) Non-verbal- expressed through body signals
(3) Visual- uses images, signs, and symbols to convey
meaning
(4) Written- through printed or composed texts
• Types of communication according to context
(1) Intrapersonal- within an individual
(2) Interpersonal- among people (dyadic- between two
people; small group- 3 or more (15 people))
(3) Extended- with the use of technological tools
(4) Organizational- business environments
(5) Intercultural- among people of diverse culture
Intracultural, Interethnic, Interracial, International
(6) Mass- to large audience through different modes
• Principles of Interpersonal Communication
(1) Inevitable – all actions communicate
(2) Irreversible- can’t take back what was said
(3) Complex- Interpret meanings from symbols
*for sample problems, revisit the original pdf given by sir (4) Contextual- there are diverse meanings
• Types of communication (purpose and style)
(1) Formal- carefully thoughts of to selected channel and
audience to inform, persuade, and entertain
PURPOSIVE COMM. (English) (2) Informal- casual and takes place in ordinary
conversations to socialize
• Purposive Communication in English is about writing, • Structure of Communication (organizational)
speaking, and presenting to different audiences and for (1) Downward- superior to subordinate
various purposes. (2) Upward- subordinate to superior
• Etymology and meaning of communication (3) Horizonal- among others
- Latin - “communicare”; “to share” or “to make • Principles of Effective Written Communication
common” - The 7C’s
- “the process of understanding and sharing (1) Clarity- clear; easy to understand
meaning” (Pearson & Nelson, 2000). (2) Conciseness- compressed information to the most
- “relational process of creating and interpreting important parts-
messages that elicit a response" (Griffin, 2012) (3) Concreteness- specific and vivid with the
• Communication is the exchange of information, ideas, description
thoughts, and feelings by one individual to another. (4) Correctness- being factual
• Nature of communication: (it is much more than words, (5) Coherence- logical arrangement of information
it is a process, and it is between two or more people) (6) Completeness- no more, no less infos provided
- It is a process: with the following components (7) Courteousness- being polite in the use of language
(1) Sender- one who crafts a message, idea, or • Models of Communication
information; encoding- process of converting idea - Linear/One-way models of communication
or thoughts of the information into symbols. Communication will end once the receiver
(2) Message- the information, idea, thought, etc. that receives the message.
the speaker wants to convey; could be written,
verbal, or nonverbal (verbal and written kind of the
same thing since they make use of words, contrary
to nonverbal which are commonly signs, etc.)
(3) Channel- means of transmission or distribution of
the message; Medium: Written, Verbal, or Non-
Verbal
(4) Receiver- For whom the message was created and
one who receives it; decoding- receiver’s mental
processing of interpreting message into meaning

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 CSA GEN-ED STUDY GUIDE
• Concentric Circle of English

Shannon-Weaver’s Model
of Communication

(1) Inner Circle – Speaks English as its main language

(2) Outer Circle – English as a second language
(3) Expanding Language – English as a Foreign Language
• Communication for Various Purposes
- Interactive Models of Communication (1) Informative Communication- focuses on talking about
;wherein communication has feedback. people, events, processes, places, or things; clear,
accurate, meaningful, and interesting
(2) Persuasive communication- message given to an
audience with the intention of influencing your
listeners to agree with a particular point of view;
attention grabbing intros, authority to speak, logical
presentation, smart pacing, stirring conclusions
(3) Argumentative- the art of persuading based on reason,
facts, and not emotions. Its
components/characteristics: Claims/thesis statement,
Reasons, Support/evidences, Warrants/Conclusion
(4) Public Speaking- process of speaking in a structured,
deliberate manner to inform, influence or entertain an
audience
(5) Speech- term used to refer to the spoken expressions
of information and ideas (verbal form)
• Types of Speech Delivery
(1) Manuscript Reading- word-for-word iteration of a
written message
(2) Memorized Speech- reciting a message that the
speaker has committed to memory
(3) Extemporaneous Speech- a well-prepared speech and
- Transactional Models of Communication
Still looks at communication as two-way, but the process gets is practiced but neither read nor memorized
more complex as the communication event progresses. It also (4) Impromptu speech- this is a speech that has no
views communication as a continuous process. advanced planning or practice
• Acquiring knowledge- basically pagka acquire sa
language
• Language change- language is dynamic; it changes
throughout the course of time
• Language contact- is a phenomenon when 2 different
language speakers interact with each other that may result
in the development of new linguistic features
• Language is primarily vocal means that language is
mainly transmitted through speech sounds. These speech
sounds fall under the linguistic branch of phonology.
• Language is a system of systems means that language
follows a set of rules. A synonym of the word “system” is
• Varieties and Registers of Spoken and Written “rules”.
Language • Arbitrariness of language means that language doesn’t
(1) Written Language- is carefully organized and actually make sense.
explanatory; word choice is deliberate; follows a • Language is a means of communication doesn’t answer
particular structure; formal and informal; structures,
the question
steady
(2) Spoken Language- is spontaneous, momentary, • Cicero is a great Roman orator, but not considered the
maintained in the form of dialogue; pauses, less father of Classical Communication
particular with structure, mostly informal • Protagoras is considered as the Father of Debate.
• When in doubt, Aristotle is the father of many things
• Language Registers considering the fact that he pioneered multiple bodies of
(1) Frozen- language that never changes: the Lord’s knowledge
prayer • Sophocles is a famous Greek playwright, focusing more on
(2) Formal- standard English: “Please accept our sincerest Tragedies.
gratitude” • At this point, communication is not only limited to two
(3) Consultative- communicating with someone more people. Communication can also happen when a person
knowledgeable
is talking to themselves.
(4) Casual- communicating with friends
(5) Intimate- language among lovers & family • Intrapersonal Communication - talking to yourself
• Interpersonal Communication - talking to other people

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 CSA GEN-ED STUDY GUIDE
Other types of communication based on the number of ● Emblems - have specific meanings in a particular
people: culture
• Small Group Communication - more than 2 people
(generally up to 15 people) Types of Proxemics
• Public Communication - Talking to an audience of large ● Intimate distance - reserved for the closest of friends
amounts and family members. 0-1.5ft
• Mediated or Extended Communication - using ● Personal distance - reserved for friends and
technology acquaintances. 1.5-4ft
• Generally, the most basic function of communication is to ● Social distance - typical in professional settings. 4-
interact with other people. That is the foremost function of 12ft
communication itself. ● Public distance - typical in public speaking and formal
events. 12+ft.
Functions of Oral Communication:
• Regulation/Control - control one’s behavior Dimensions of Touch:
• Social Interaction - used to produce relationships • Intensity - strength
• Information - convey information • Location - which part of the body that made contact
• Emotional expression - express your feelings • Frequency - repeated
• Motivation - motivate or encourage people to live better • Instrument of Touch - using an outside medium to
touch
Communication Mode - the manner in which you
communicate
● Verbal FILIPINO
● Non-verbal WIKA - Ayon kay Henry Gleason (1988), ang wika ay isang
masistemang balangkas na sinasalitang tunog na pinipili at
Communication Context - the amount of people in the isinasaayos sa paraang arbitraryo upang magamit ng mga taong
communication setting kabilang sa isang kultura.
● Intrapersonal - communicating with yourself
KATANGIAN NG WIKA
● Interpersonal - communicating with others
● Organizational - communicating in business settings O MASISTEMANG BALANGKAS - Ang bawat wika ay
● Intercultural - communication among different may tuntunin o sistemang sinusunod sa paggamit ng wika.
cultures
● Mass - large number of people through different means
● Extended - using technology

Communication Style - the way you deliver a message

● Formal
● Informal

Types of Grapevine Communication

● Single Chain - single person to single person and so
on.
O ARBITRARYO - Sinasabing ang wika ay
● Gossip Chain - single person to many
napagkasunduan at sinang-ayunan ng lahat.
● Probability Chain - learn the information at random
● Cluster Chain - group of people to other group of Halimbawa:
people Langgam (Mindanao) vs Langgam (Luzon)

Paralanguage - the non-verbal elements of communication. O NAKABATAY SA KULTURA - Ang kultura ay kaugnay
Otherwise known as the prosodic features of speech. o kakambal ang wika sapagkat ibinibigay ng wika ang
Ex. Rate, Juncture, Pitch, Intonation pangangailangan ng tao batay sa kultura, pamumuhay o
kaisipan ng mga taong gumagamit ng wikang ito.
Prosodic features of Speech
O BUHAY AT DINAMIKO - Dahil pagbabago lamang ang
● Volume - loudness or softness of voice
permanenteng bagay sa daigdig, maging ang wika ay
● Projection - strength in speaking nakararanas ng pagbabago. Sa paglipas ng panahon at mga
● Pitch - highness or lowness of voice henerasyon, nabibigyang daan nito ang pag-unlad at
● Stress - degree of force pagbabago ng wika. Isang patunay nito ang konsepto ng
● Intonation - variation of pitch makaluma at makabagong pag-uusap.
● Juncture - pauses in speech
TEORYA NG WIKA
Some types of non-verbal communication O TEORYANG BOW-WOW – Ang wika ay maaaring
• Haptics - touch nagmula sa panggagaya ng tao sa mga tunog ng kalikasan.
• Kinesics - Movement
• Proxemics - Space O TEORYANG DINGDONG - Ang wika ay nagmula sa
panggagaya ng mga tao sa mga tunog na nalilikha ng mga
• Chronemics – Time
bagay-bagay sa paligid, hindi lamang sa paligid kundi
maging sa mga bagay na likha ng tao.
Types of gestures:
● Regulators - controls the flow of conversation. O TEORYANG TA-RA-RA-BOOM-DE-AY - Ang wika
● Illustrators - accompany speech to clarify or ay nag-ugat sa mga tunog na nililikha ng mga tao sa
emphasize points kanilang mga ritwal.
● Adaptors - Unconscious gestures to adapt to a
situation; to manage emotions
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 CSA GEN-ED STUDY GUIDE
O TEORYANG TA-TA - Ang wika ay nagmula sa O ABAKADA - Binalangkas ito ni Lope K. Santos, ang
panggagaya ng dila sa kumpas o galaw ng kamay ng tao na Ama ng Balarilang Pilipino. Binubuo ito ng
kanyang ginagawa sa bawat partikular na okasyon. dalawampung titik: labinlimang katinig at limang
patinig.
O TEORYANG POOH-POOH - Ang wika ay nalilikha
bunga ng mga masidhing damdamin ng tao gaya ng sakit, O ALPABETONG FILIPINO - Kautusang
tuwa, sarap, kalungkutan, takot, pagkabigla at iba pa. Pangkagawaran Blg. 81. Mula noon hanggang ngayon,
HUHUHU. ang ating alpabeto natin ay may 28 na titik na binibasa
O TEORYANG YO-HE-HO - Ang wika ay bunga diumano sa paraang pa-Ingles maliban sa ñ.
sa pwersang pisikal ng tao. HAYHO – HAYHO.
MGA SANGAY NG LINGGWISTIKA
ANTAS NG WIKA
PONOLOHIYA - Tinatawag ding Palatunugan. Ito ay pag-
PORMAL - mga salitang estandard dahil kinikilala, aaral ng ponema. Ponema – makabuluhang tunog ng wika.
tinatanggap, at ginagamit ng higit na nakararami Dalawang uri ng Ponema: Ponemang Segmental at Ponemang
• PAMBANSA - Wikang ginagamit sa pamahalaan, Suprasegmental.
aklat pangwika at paaralan.
Hal. ina; ama PONEMANG SEGMENTAL
• PAMPANITIKAN/PANRETORIKA - Ito ang mga
salitang matatayog, malalim, masining, makulay at DIPTONGGO - Ang diptonggo ay magkasamang tunog ng
ginagamit sa kanilang akdang pampanitikan. isang ponemang patinig at isang ponemang malapatinig sa isang
Hal. Haligi ng tahanan pantig ( /aw/, /ew/, /iw/, /ow/, /uw/, /ay/, /ey/, /iy/, /oy/, at /uy/).
Ilaw ng tahanan Hal. ka-hoy, gi-liw, ba-hay

IMPORMAL - Ito ang mga salitang karaniwan, pang-araw- KLASTER - Ang kambal katinig o klaster ay mga salitang may
araw, palasak, at kadalasang ginagamit sa pakikipag-usap at magkadikit na dalawang magkaibang katinig na matatagpuan
pakikipagtalastasan sa mga kakilala at kaibigan. lamang sa iisang pantig. HAL. BRA-SO
• LALAWIGANIN - Ito ang mga salitang karaniwang PARES MINIMAL - Pares na salita na magkaiba ang
salitain ng mga katutubo sa lalawigan. Isang
kahulugan ngunit magkatulad na magkatulad sa bigkas maliban
palatandaan ng lalawiganing tatak ay ang punto o
accent. sa isang titik sa magkatulad na posisyon.
• KOLOKYAL - Ito ang ginagamit sa pang-araw-araw
na hinalaw sa pormal na mga salita. Nagtataglay ng Hal. Hal. uso-oso; mesa-misa
kagaspangan ang mga salitang ito subalit maaari rin
namang maging repinado batay sa kung sino ang PONEMANG MALAYANG NAGPAPALITAN - Ito ang
nagsasalita gayon din sa kanyang kinakausap. tawag sa pares ng salita na magkapareho ang kahulugan ngunit
HAL. GAANO – GANO nagkakaiba lamang sa isang titik ang baybay.
• BALBAL - Itinuturing na pinakamababa at
pinakadinamikong antas ng wika. Singaw ng panahon Hal. Hal. marami – madami; dito – rito
sapagkat bawat panahon ay may nabubuong salita.
HAL. erpat; tisoy PONEMANG SUPRASEGMENTAL

BARAYTI NG WIKA DIIN - Tumutukoy sa lakas ng bigkas sa pantig ng salita.

Tinatawag na stress sa Ingles Hal. /HA:pon/ - afternoon;
• DAYALEKTO - Ang barayti ng wikang nalilikha ng /ha:PON – Japanese
dimensyong heograpiko. Tinatawag din itong wikain
sa ibang aklat. Ito ang wikang ginagamit sa isang TONO o INTONASYON - Ito ang taas-baba na iniuukol sa
partikular na rehiyon, lalawigan o pook, malaki man o pagkabigkas ng pantig ng isang salita upang higit na maging
maliit.
mabisa ang pakikipag-usap natin sa ating kapwa.
• SOSYOLEK - Ito tawag sa barayting nabubuo batay
sa dimensyong sosyal. Tinatawag din itong sosyal
ANTALA o HINTO - Ito ay ang saglit na pagtigil sa ating
(pamantayan) na barayti ng wika dahil nakabatay ito
sa mga pangkat panlipunan. pagsasalita upang higit na maging malinaw ang mensaheng ibig
Halimbawa: Gay lingo nating ipabatid sa ating kausap.
• JARGON - Ang jargon ang mga tanging bokabularyo
ng isang partikular na pangkat ng gawain. MORPOLOHIYA
Hal. Titser – tsok, lesson plan, class record
Abogado – appeal, justice, court Tinatawag ding Palabuuan; Pag-aaral ng Morpema;
• IDYOLEK - Indibidwal na paraan/estilo ng paggamit Morpema– pinakamaliit na yunit ng salita na may kahulugan.
ng wika.
Hal. Go, go, go! – Rufa Mae Quinto PAGBABAGONG MORPOPONEMIKO

ANG ALPABETONG FILIPINO: PAHAPYAW ASIMILASYONG DI GANAP - Ang ponemang /ŋ/ ay

NA KASAYSAYAN nagiging /n/ o /m/ o nananatiling /ŋ/ dahil sa kasunod na
tunog. Kapag ikinakabit sa isangsalitang-ugat na nagsisimula
O BAYBAYIN - Ito ang pinakaunang alpabeto na sa /p/ o /b/, ang /ŋ/ ay nagiging /m/
ginagamit ng sinaunang Pilipino. Ito ay binubuo ng pang- + paaralan= pampaaralan
labimpitong titik: tatlong patinig at labing-apat na pang- + bayan= pambayan
katinig. Nagiging /n/ naman ang huling ponemang /ŋ/ kung ang
kasunod ay alin man sa mga sumusunod na ponema: /d, l, r, s,
O ABECEDARIO - Kasabay ng pagdating ng Kastila ay t/.
ang pagpalit ng lumang alibata ng alpabetong Halimbawa:
Romano. Ito ay binubuo ng tatlumpong titik at tinawag pang- + dikdik = pandikdik
nang pa-kastila. pang- + taksi= pantaksi
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 CSA GEN-ED STUDY GUIDE
TAMBALAN - Ito ay pangungusap na binubuo ng dalawang
ASIMILASYONG GANAP - Bukod sa pagbabagong payak na pangungusap na pinag-uugnay ng pangatnig tulad ng
nagaganap sa ponemang /ŋ/, nawawala na rin ang unang "at", "o", "ngunit", "habang", "samantala", o "pero”.
ponemang nilalapiang salita dahil ito ay inaasimila o
napapaloob na sa sinusundang ponema. Halimbawa: Nagbabasa ng nobela si Denise habang tumutugtog
HALIMBAWA: ng piano si Magiting.
pang- + palo= pampalo – pamalo HUGNAYAN - Ito ay pangungusap na binubuo ng isang
pang- + tali = pantali – panali sugnay na nakapag-iisa at isa o higit pang sugnay na hindi
nakapag-iisa na pinakikilala ng mga pangatnig na "kapag",
PAGPAPALIT NG PONEMA (D – R) Sa posisyong inisyal "pag", "nang", "dahil sa", "upang", "sapagkat", at iba pa.
ng salitang nilalapian ay karaniwang napapalitan ng ponemang
/r/ kapag patinig ang huling ponemang unlapi o hulapi Halimbawa: Mataas ang pagtingin ng magulang ko sa kanya
Halimbawa: ma- + dapat = marapat (sugnay na nakapag-iisa) dahil sa magandang ugaling pinakita
tawid + -an = tawiran niya. ( sugnay na di-nakapag-iisa)
H-N
ang /h/ bagamat hindi binabaybay o tinutumbasan ng titik sa LANGKAPAN - Ang pangungusap na langkapan ay binubuo
pagsulat ng panlaping /-han/ ay nagiging /n/. ng dalawa o higit pang sugnay na makapag-iisa at isa pang
Halimbawa: tawa + -han = tawahan – tawanan sugnay na di makapag-iisa.
O-U Halimbawa: Tataas ang grado mo at magkakaroon ka ng
Ang ponemang /o/ sa huling pantig ng salitang-ugat na karangalan kung mag-aaral ka ng mabuti.
hinuhulapian o salitang inuulit ay nagiging /u/.
Halimbawa: dugo + an = duguan MGA BAHAGI NG PANGUNGUSAP

PANGNGALAN - Salitang nagsasaad ng pangalan ng tao,

METATESIS - Kapag ang salitang-ugat na nagsisimula sa /l/
bagay, pook, hayop, pangyayari, damdamin, kaisipan o ideya.
o /y/ ay nilalagyan ng gitlaping -in- , ang /i/ at /n/ ay
nagkakapalitan ng posisyon. O PAMBALANA – pangkalahatan o pangkaraniwang
Halimbawa: -in- + lipad = nilipad (linipad) ngalan ng tao, bagay, hayop, atbp. (bansa, libro, aso)
-in- + yaya = niyaya (yinaya)
May mga salitang nagkakaroon pa ng pagkakaltas ng ponema O PANTANGI – nagsasaad ng tanging ngalan ng tao,
bukod sa pagkakapalit ng posisyon ng dalawang morpema bagay, hayop, atbp. (Corazon, Rizal)
Halimbawa: tanim + -an = taniman – tamnan
PANGHALIP - mga salitang panghalili sa mga pangngalan.
PAGKAKALTAS NG PONEMA - Nagaganap ang
Halimbawa: ako, ikaw, siya; heto, hayon, hayan; ilan, marami
pagbabagong ito kung ang huling ponemang patinig ng
salitang-ugat ay nawawala sa paghuhulapi nito. PANDIWA - mga salitang nagsasaad ng kilos o galaw.
Halimbawa:
takip + -an = takipan – takpan Halimbawa: Tumatakbo ang bata.
kitil + -in = kitilin – kitlin Nag-alay ng bulaklak si Jose sa kanyang irog.

MGA POKUS NG PANDIWA (PANDIWA AT SIMUNO)

PAGLILIPAT NG DIIN - May mga salitang nagbabago ng
diin kapag nilalapian. Maaaring malipat ng isa o dalawang POKUS SA TAGAGANAP/AKTOR - Kapag ang simuno o
pantig ang diin patungong huling pantig o maaaring malipat ng paksa ang gumaganap ng kilos sa pangungusap. SINO?
pantig patungong unahan ng salita. Halimbawa: Kumain si Lorena.
Halimbawa: Nagsaing ng kanin si Tatay Emilio para sa hapunan.
bAsa + -hin – basAhin
ka- + sAma + han – kasamahAn POKUS SA LAYON O GOL - Kung ang layon ay ang paksa
larO + -an – laruAn o ang binibigyang diin sa pangungusap. ANO?
Halimbawa: Iniuwi namin ang pagkaing natira.
Kainin mo ang gulay.
REDUPLIKASYON - Pag-uulit ito ng pantig ng salita. Ang
pag-uulit na ito ay maaaring magpahiwatig ng kilos na
POKUS SA TAGATANGGAP (BENEPAKTIB) - Kung
ginagawa o gagawin pa lamang, tagagawang kilos o
ang pinaglaanan ng kilos ang siyang pokus ng
pagpaparami.
pangungusap. PARA KANINO?
Halimbawa: aalis, matataas, magtataho, pupunta, masasaya,
Halimbawa: Ibinili ni Josephine ang kanyang nanay ng
naglalakad
pasalubong.
SINTAKS Kami ay ipinagluto ni Ate ng adobo.

DALAWANG AYOS NG PANGUNGUSAP POKUS SA GANAPAN O LUGAR (LOKATIB) - Kung

ang paksa o pokus ng pangungusap ay ang lugar o
KARANIWANG AYOS - Ang karaniwang ayos ng
pinangyarihan ng kilos. SAAN?
pangungusap at binubuo ng panaguri sa unahan at simuno sa
hulihang bahagi. Halimbawa: Maganda siya. Halimbawa: Ang ilog ay pinaglabanan ni Handiong at ng mga
halimaw.
DI KARANIWANG AYOS - Ang mga pangungusap sa di-
Pinagdausan ng kasal ang lumang simbahan.
karaniwang ayos ay binubuo ng simuno sa unahan at panaguri
sa hulihang bahagi. Halimbawa: Siya ay maganda.
POKUS SA GAMIT O INSTRUMENTAL - Kung ang
URI NG PANGUNGUSAP AYON SA KAYARIAN pokus ay ang kagamitang ginamit sa kilos.

PAYAK - Ito ay may isang diwa lamang o kaisipan. Ito ay Halimbawa: Ipinanungkit nila ng bayabas ang patpat.
binubuo ng isang sugnay na makapag-iisa. Halimbawa: Ipinahid niya sa mukha ang lumang panyo.
Napakainit ng temperatura ngayon.

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 CSA GEN-ED STUDY GUIDE
POKUS SA SANHI O KAWSATIB - Kung ang pokus ay ang DIN/DAW
sanhi o dahilan ng kilos. O Ginagamit ang din/daw kung ang salitang sinusundan
ay nagtapos sa katinig maliban sa w at y.
Halimbawa: Ikinasakit ng tiyan niya ang bayabas. HAL. Kakain daw siya ng mangga.
Ikinalungkot ni Rose ang pagpanaw ng kanyang aso. RIN/RAW
O Ginagamit ang din/daw kung ang salitang sinusundan
PANG-URI - Mga salitang naglalarawan ng pangngalan o ay nagtapos sa patinig at sa malapatinig na w at y.
panghalip. HAL. Tinago raw ni Ding ang bato.
Halimbawa: Masaya si Ana.
Ang puno ay matayog. O PAHIRAN – lagyan
O PAHIRIN – alisin
PANG-ABAY - Mga salitang naglalarawan ng pandiwa, O OPERAHIN - specific
pang-uri o kapwa pang-abay. O OPERAHAN - general
O PUNASIN - specific
Halimbawa: Nagdasal nang mataimtim si Honesto. O PUNASAN - general
Tunay na mas maganda si Nena kaysa kay Ada.
Talagang masarap manirahan sa Pilipinas. TAYUTAY

PAMAHANONG PAPEL PAGTUTULAD (SIMILE) - Paghahambing sa dalawang

O Mga Pahinang Preliminari o Front Matters magkaibang tao, bagay, pangyayari atbp. Ginagamitan ng mga
O Kabanata I: Ang Suliranin At Kaligiran Nito salitang tulad ng, katulad ng, parang, kawangis ng, animo,
O Kabanata II: Mga Kaugnay Na Pag-aaral At Literatura kagaya ng atbp. Halimbawa : Siya ay katulad ng kandilang
O Kabanata III: Disenyo At Paraan Ng Pananaliksik unti-unting nauupos.
O Kabanata IV: Presentasyon at Interpretasyon ng mga Datos
O Kabanata V: Lagom, Kongklusyon At Rekomendasyon
O Mga Panghuling Pahina PAGWAWANGIS (METAPHOR) - Isang tuwirang
paghahambing na hindi ginagamitan ng mga salitang tulad ng,
WASTONG GAMIT NG SALITA para ng, kawangis ng, animo atbp.
NANG AT NG Halimbawa: Ang ina ni Joshua ay bituing tanglaw niya sa
NANG landas ng buhay.
O Katumbas ng “when” sa Ingles.
O Ginagamit sa pagitan ng dalawang salitang inuulit. PAGSASATAO (PERSONIFICATION) - Nagsasalin ng
O Ginagamit sa pagitan ng pandiwa at pang-abay. talino, gawi at katangian ng tao sa bagay na walang talino.
Halimbawa: Pandiwa ang ginagamit dito.
• Kami ay natuwa nang siya’y dumating.
• Ang aking barkada ay tawa nang tawa sa matandang Halimbawa: Ang buwan ay nahiya at nagtago sa ulap.
nadapa.
• Ako ay namalengke nang maaga. EKSAHERASYON (HYPERBOLE) - Lubhang pinalalabis o
pinakukulang ang katunayan at kalagayan ng tao, bagay,
NG pangyayari atbp.
O Sumasagot sa tanong na ano.
Halimbawa:Nabiyak ang kanyang dibdib sa tindi ng dalamhati.
O Sumasagot sa tanong na sino.
O Sumasagot sa tanong na kanino.
PAGTAWAG (APOSTROPE) - Ito ay pakikipag-usap sa
Halimbawa:
karaniwang bagay na para bang nakikipag- usap sa isang buhay
• Nagbabasa ng dyaryo si lolo Juan. na tao.
• Inalagaan ng manggagamot ang mga may sakit. Halimbawa: O, tukso layuan mo ako.
• Ang pugad ng ibon ay kinuha ni Adan.
TANONG RETORIKAL - Isang pahayag na anyong patanong
MAY AT MAYROON na hindi naman nangangailangan ng sagot.
MAY
O Kapag ito ay sinusundan ng pangngalan, pandiwa, pang-uri Halimbawa: Hahayaan ba nating malugmok sa kumunoy ng
at panghalip. kahirapan ang ating bayan?
Halimbawa
May tanong ako. PANITIKAN

MAYROON DALAWANG URI NG PANITIKAN

O Gamit bilang panagot ng tanong.
O Kapag may siningit na kataga. 1. KATHANG-ISIP (FICTION) -ang mga manunulat ay
Halimbawa gumagawa ng akda mula sa kanilang imahanisyon. Ang mga
May pera ka ba? Mayroon. kuwento ay hindi totoo kagaya ng maikling kuwento, nobela at
Mayroon po akong ipagtatapat. iba pa.
2. HINDI KATHANG -ISIP- ang mga panulat na batay sa
KUNG AT KONG tunay na pangyayari katulad ng talambuhay, awtobiyograpiya,
KUNG talaarawan, sanaysay ang mga akdang pangkasaysayan.
O Katumbas ng “if” sa Ingles.
Halimbawa: Kung may problema ka, puntahan mo lang ANYO NG PANITIKAN
ako.
KONG 1. Tuluyan o prosa – maluwang na pagsasama-sama ng mga
O Ito ay panghalip na “ko” na sinusundan ng “ng”. Ito ay salita sa loob ng pangungusap. Ito ay nasusulat sa karaniwang
ukol sa sarili. takbo ng pangungusap o pagpapahayag.
Halimbawa:
Ang tangi kong hangad ay makapagtapos. 2. Patula o panulaan – pagbubuo ng pangungusap sa
pamamagitan ng salitang binibilang na pantig sa taludtod na
-to live for the hope of it all-
 CSA GEN-ED STUDY GUIDE
pinagtugma-tugma, at nagpapahayag din ng mga salitang ang kabiguan sa pag-ibig, ang mga suliranin at painganib sa
binibilang ang mga pantig at pagtutugma-tugma ng mga dulo pakikidigma, o kagitingan ng mga bayan
ng mga taludtod sa isang saknong.
MGA URI NG TULANG PASALAYSAY
TULUYAN O Epiko – ang mga epiko ay nagsasalaysay ng mga
kabayanihang halos hindi mapaniwalaan pagkat
ALAMAT - isang uri ng panitikan na nagkukuwento tungkol sa nauukol sa mga kababalaghan.
mga pinagmulan ng mga bagay-bagay sa daigdig. Karaniwang
nagsasalaysay ang mga ito ng mga pangyayari hinggil sa tunay O Awit at Korido - ang mga ito’y may mga paksang
na mga tao at pook, at mayroong pinagbatayan sa kasaysayan. hango sa pangyayaring tungkol sa pagkamaginoo at
Kaugnay ang alamat ng mga mito at kuwentong-bayan. pakikipagsapalaran.

ANEKDOTA - isang uri ng panitikan na nagkukuwento tungkol O Balad – Ito ay may himig na awit dahilang ito ay
sa mga pinagmulan ng mga bagay-bagay sa daigdig. inaawit habang may nagsasayaw.
Karaniwang nagsasalaysay ang mga ito ng mga pangyayari
TULANG DAMDAMIN/TULANG LIRIKO - Ang
hinggil sa tunay na mga tao at pook, at mayroong pinagbatayan
uring ito ay nagpapahayag ng damdaming maaaring sarili
sa kasaysayan. Kaugnay ang alamat ng mga mito at kuwentong-
ng sumulat o ng ibang tao, o kaya’y likha ng maharaya o
bayan.
mapangaraping guni-guni ng makata na batay sa isang
NOBELA - isang mahabang kuwentong piksyon na binubuo karanasan. Karaniwang maikli, likas at madaling
ng iba’t ibang kabanata. Mayroon itong 60,000-200,000 salita maunawaan ang mga ito.
o 300-1,300 pahina. Noong ika-18 siglo, naging istilo nito ang
MGA URI NG TULANG DAMDAMIN/TULANG
lumang pag-ibig at naging bahagi ng mga pangunahing literary
LIRIKO
genre. Ngayon, ito ay kadalasan may istilong artistiko at isang
tiyak na istilo o maraming tiyak na istilo. O Awiting Bayan – ang karaniwang paksa ng uring ito
ay pag-ibig, kawalang pag-asa o pamimighati,
PARABULA - maikling salaysay na maaaring nasa anyong
pangamba, kaligayahan, pag-asa, at kalungkutan.
patula o prosa na malimit nangangaral o nagpapayo hinggil sa
isang pangyayari, na kadalasang isinasalarawan ang isang O Soneto – ito’y tulang may labing-apat na taludtod
moral o relihiyosong aral. Taliwas sa pabula, ang parabula ay hinggil sa damdamin at kaisipan, may malinaw na
walang inilalahok na tauhang hayop, halaman, bagay, at batiran ng likas na pagkatao, at sa kabuuan, ito’y
puwersa sa kalikasan na pawang kumikilos at nagsasalita gaya naghahatid ng aral sa mambasa.
ng tao
O Elehiya – nagpapahayag ng damdamin o guniguni
PABULA - isang uri ng kathang-isip na panitikan kung saan tungkol sa kamatayan o kaya’y tula ng pananangis lalo
mga hayop o kaya mga bagay na walang-buhay ang gumaganap na sa paggunita ng isang yumao
na mga tauhan, katulad ng leon at daga, pagong at matsing, at
O Dalit – awit na pumupuri sa Diyos o Mahal na Birhen
lobo at kambing.
at nagtataglay ng kaunting pilosopiya sa buhay.
AESOP – Ama ng Sinaunang Pabula
O Pastoral – ito’y may layuning maglarawan ng tunay
na buhay sa bukid.
MAIKLING KUWENTO - binaybay ding maikling kwento –
ay isang maigsing salaysay hinggil sa isang mahalagang O Oda – Nagpapahayag ng isang papuri, panaghoy, o iba
pangyayaring kinasasangkutan ng isa o ilang tauhan at may pang masiglang damdamin; walang tiyak na bilang ng
iisang kakintalan o impresyon lamang. pantig o tiyak na bilang ng taludtod sa isang saknong.
DULA - Nahahati ito sa ilang yugto na maraming tagpo. TULANG DULA O PANTANGHALAN
Pinakalayunin nitong itanghal ang mga tagpo sa isang tanghalan
o entablado. O Komedya – Isang gawa na ang sangkap ay piling-pili
at ang pangunahing tauhan ay may layong pukawin
SANAYSAY - Isang maiksing komposisyon na kailimitang ang kawilihang manonood. Nagwawakas ito ng
naglalaman ng personal na kuru-kuro ng may-akda. masaya.
TALAMBUHAY - Isang anyo ng panitikan na nagsasaad ng O Melodrama – Ito ay karaniwang ginagamit sa lahat ng
kasaysayan ng buhay ng isang tao hango sa mga tunay na tala, mga dulang musikal, kasama na ang opera. Ang
pangyayari o impormasyon. sangkap ng uring ito ng dula ay malungkot ngunit
nagiging kasiya-siya ang katapusan para sa
TALUMPATI - Isang buod ng kaisipan o opinyon ng isang tao
pangunahing tauhan ng dula.
na pinababatid sa pamamagitan ng pagsalita sa entablado.
Layunin nitong humikayat, tumugon, mangatwiran, magbigay O Trahedya – Angkop ang uring ito sa dula sa mga
ng kaalaman o impormasyon at maglahad ng isang paniniwala. tunggaliang nagwawakas sa pagkasawi o pagkawasak
ng pangunahing tauhan
KUWENTONG-BAYAN - ay mga salaysay hinggil sa mga
likhang-isip na mga tauhan na kumakatawan sa mga uri ng O Parsa – Isang uri ng dula na ang layuinin ay
mamamayan, katulad ng matandang hari, isang marunong na magpasiya sa pamamagitan ng mga kawingkawing na
lalaki, o kaya sa isang hangal na babae. Karaniwang kaugnay mga pangyayaring nakakatawa
ang kwentong-bayan ng isang tiyak na pook o rehiyon ng isang
bansa o lupain. Kaugnay nito ang alamat at mga mito. O Saynete – Ang paksa nga ganitong uri ng dula ay mga
karaniwang paguugali ng tao o pook.
BALITA - mga iba’t ibang makatotohanang pangyayari na
nagaganap sa isang lugar o bansa. TULANG PATNIGAN

PATULA O KARAGATAN - Ito ay batay sa alamat ng singsing

ng isang prinsesa na naihulog niya sa dagat sa hangarin
TULANG PASALAYSAY - ang uring ito ay naglalarawan ng nitong mapangasawa ang kasintahang mahirap.
mahahalagang mga tagpo o pangyayari sa buhay; halimbawa’y Hinamon niya ang mga binatang may gusto sa kanya
na sisirain ang singsing sa dagat at ang makakakuha’y
-to live for the hope of it all-
 CSA GEN-ED STUDY GUIDE
pakakasalan niya. Sa larong ito, isang kunwa’y • Born on May 11, 1818 in Binan and lived 80 years old,
matanda ang tutula hinggil sa dahilan ng laro; the youngest in a family of 13 siblings. A well-
pagkatapos ay paiikutin ang isang lumbo o tabo na educated farmer who studied Latin and philosophy at
may tandang puti at ang sinumang matapatan ng Colegio de San Jose in Manila.
tandang ito paghinto ay siyang tatanungin ng dalaga • His parents were Captain Juan Mercado
ng mga talinghaga. (gobernadorcillo or mayor of Binan) and Cirila
Alejandra.
O DUPLO - Ito ang humalili sa karagatan. Ito’y
paligsahan ng husay sa pagbigkas at pangangatwiran D. Alonso Clan
ng patula. Ang mga pangangatwiran ay hango sa • Teodora Alonso – Rizal’s mother, one of the most
Bibliya, sa mga sawikain, at mga kasabihan. highly educated women in the Philippines, an Ilocano-
Karaniwang nilalaro upang aliwin ang mga Tagalog-Chinese-Spanish descent, possibly even
namatayan. having Japanese blood.
• Born on November 9, 1827 and lived to be 83 years
O BALAGTASAN - Ito ang pumalit sa duplo at ito’y sa
old. Studied in Colegio de Santa Rosa, gifted woman
karangalan ng Siense Ng Panginay na si Francisco
with insights into literature, art, music, and other forms
“Balagtas” Baltazar. Ito’y tagisan ng talino sa
of Filipino culture.
pagbigkas ng tula, bilang pangngatwiran sa isang
paksang pagtatalunan. • Daughter of Brigida de Quintos
Note:
O PIDGIN- two man’s native language; for example • Eugenio Ursua
talking with a Chinese, and you’re a filipino;you -maternal great great grandfather
seemingly copy the filipino accent -Japanese ancestry
O CREOLE- chabakano; pidgin before E. Claveria List
O IDYA= a balbal word for Hiya
O SEVERINO REYES= Ama ng Sarswelang Tagalog; -Royal Decree of 1849, a new family name was adopted upon
Ama ng Dulang Taglog; Lola Basyang the order of Governor General Narciso Claveria y Zaldua.
O BI-AG NI LAM-ANG= most famous epiko Issued on November 21, 1849 wherein the list of approved
O DARANGAN-= pinakamahabang epiko family names can be referred from the Catalogo Alfabetico de
O AURELIO TOLENTINO= nagsulat ng nobelang Apellidos.
Kahapon, Ngayon, Bukas -Rizal, a shortened form of Spanish word “second crop” seemed
O ALEJANDRO G. ABADILLA= Ako ang Daigidig suited to family of farmers. Originated from the word “Ricial”
O TAHAS= concrete which means rice field.
O BASAL- abstract
O UTAK NG REBOLUSYON= Apolinario Mabini F. Siblings
O UTAK NG KATIPUNAN= Emilio Jacinto -Jose was the 7/11 of the children and younger of the 2 boys.
O Dakilang Manunulat= Jose Rizal 1. Saturnina – oldest, married to Manuel Hidalgo and published
O Lope K. Santos= author of the novel Banaag Pascual H. Poblete’s Tagalog Translation of the Noli me
O Makata ng Manggagawa= Amado V. Hernandez Tangere
2. Paciano – oldest boy, 10 years older than Jose, a major
general in the revolutionary army and married Severina decena.
LIFE AND WORKS OF JOSE 3. Narcisa -known Dona Sisa and can recite from memory all
RIZAL the poems of Jose Rizal, married Antonio Lopez
4. Olympia- married Silvestre Ubaldo, a telegraph operator in
Taft Commission chose Rizal out of several great Filipinos as Manila.
the number one hero of his people. 5. Lucia – married Mariano Herbosa who died in cholera and
was denied a Christian burial.
Republic Act 1425 – the Rizal Law authored by Senator Claro
6. Maria – married Daniel Faustino Cruz
M. Recto signed on June 12, 1956.
7. Jose – our national hero
Latest name – Jose Protacio Realonda Alonso Mercado Rizal 8. Concepcion – known as Concha who died at age 3
9. Josefa – a spinster
Old name- Jose Protacio Rizal Mercado y Alonso Realonda 10. Trinidad – also a spinster
11. Soledad – youngest and married Pantaleon Quintero.
-A child of a good family
Studied at La Concordia College where she and Leonor Rivera
-born on June 19, 1861, between 11 and 12 in the evening, a were classmates
few days before the full moon.
G. Hereditary Influences
-baptized on June 22, 1861 by Fr. Rufino Collantes while Fr.
Pedro Casanas stood as his godfather. • Father
- profound sense of self-respect
I. Jose Rizal’s Genealogy - habit of independent thinking
A. Genealogy – study of ancestry and family history by - love for work
genealogist • Mother
B. Chinese Ancestry - scientific ability
• Domingo Lam-co – Rizal’s paternal ancestor, native - religious nature
of Chinchew district in China, baptized in the Parian - spirit of self-sacrifice
church of San Gabriel on a Sunday on June 1967. - passion for arts and literature
• Inez Dela Rosa – wife of Lamco, half of Lamco’s age. • Malayan Ancestors
Her parents were Agustin Chinco and Jacinta Rafael - love for freedom
C. Mercado Clan - innate desire to travel
• Francisco Mercado y Chinco II – Rizal’s father, a - indomitable courage
prosperous landowner, sugar, and rice planter of • Chinese Ancestors
Chinese-Filipino descent - Serious nature
- Frugality
-to live for the hope of it all-
 CSA GEN-ED STUDY GUIDE
- Patience expressed the importance of religion in education and
- Love for children to him, education without God is not true education.
• Spanish Ancestors • A la Virgen Maria (To the Virgin Mary) – first sad poem
- elegance of bearing Jose wrote
- sensitivity to insult • Al Nino Jesus (To the Child Jesus) -an ode to Jesus was
- gallantry to ladies short and consisted 8 verses only classified as octava
real.
II. Rizal’s Early Childhood • In Memory of my Village (Un Recuerdo a Mi Pueblo)
– Jose recalled his joyous days of his childhood in
A. At age 3 – learned alphabet and prayers from his
Calamba.
mother Teodora, his first teacher. Other early teachers
• Council of the Gods – an allegory that was awarded as
were Maestro Celestino, Maestro Lucas Padua, and
1st place in a competition however, decision was
Leon Monroy who gave Jose introductory lessons in
reversed.
Latin. He was called “Ute” by his brother and sisters
• Mi Primera Inspiracion – my first inspiration, dedicated
and “Pepe” or “Pepito” by townspeople in Calamba
to his mother.
B. At age 5 - read although not fluently, the Spanish
Family bible called Historia Sagrada • The Philippines a Century Hence (Filipinas Dentro de
C. At age 7 – wrote comedy which highlighted his literary Cien Anos) an essay in which he attempted to predict
talent for the local fiesta and was rewarded 2 pesos. the country’s future,
D. At age 8 – wrote the poem, “Sa Aking mga Kabata” • Mi Ultimo Adios (My Last Farewell) – an untitled elegy
E. At age 9 – wrote a poem “Mother’s birthday”. Sent to a but it was later entitled “Mi Ultimo Adios” by Mariano
boy’s school in Binan and his teacher was Dr. Justiniano Ponce, his friend and fellow reformist.
Aquino Cruz. IV. JOURNEY TO MADRID
III. Rizal’s Formative Years
• May 3, 1882 Jose secretly left the country aboard S.S.
A. Years in Ateneo – (Escuela Pia – Ateneo Municipal- Salvadora. He enrolled medicine at the Universidad
Ateneo de Manila Central de Madrid on November 3, 1882 with
• June 10, 1872, Paciano accompanied Jose to matriculate Professor Marquis Busto. He studied painting and
at the Ateneo de Municipal Manila. Fr. Magin Ferrando sculpture at the Academy of San Carlos and drawing
the registrar refused Jose to admit for two reasons (a) he at the Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando with
was late for registration and (b) he appeared sickly and Professor Haes.
undersized for his age. Upon the intercession of Manuel • Freemasonry – a worldwide fraternity where Jose was
Xerez -Burgos, nephew of Fr, Jose Burgos, he was a member in the Acacia lodge No. 9 and his symbolic
admitted in Ateneo. name Dimasalang, which means untouchable.
• Rizal first boarded at Caraballo Street. A 25-minute walk • Uncle Tom’s Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe and The
from Ateneo owned by a spinster named Titay who owed Wandering Jew by Eugene Sue inspired Jose to fight
Rizal family 300n pesos. for the Filipinos.
• Jose Bech – Rizal’s first professor in Ateneo V. THE SCHOLAR’S JOURNEY
• Students in Ateneo is divided into 2 empires to fight for
academic supremacy; the Roman (internos/boarders) and • From Madrid, he went to Paris in 1885 and continued his
Carthaginian (externos/non-boarders) and Jose became medical studies under the famed French ophthalmologist
the “Emperor of Carthaginian” Dr. Louis de Wecker
• Remembered as an original thinker, creative scholar, and • Jose wanted to perfect the German method of diagnosis so
a natural leader he opted to continue studying in Germany. He had a
• Fr. Francisco de Paula Sanchez is Jose’s favorite teacher special training under Dr. Otto Becker.
in Ateneo. He considered him as the “best professor” in • Jose attended lecture courses in the old University of
Ateneo Heidelberg for months only. He lived with Dr. Karl
• He also took private lessons at Santa Isabel College during Ullmer with whom he took delightful walks every
noon recesses to improve his Spanish (3 pesos per session) afternoon.
• During his education in Ateneo, his mother was • Jose continued to write Noli and finished it on Berlin,
imprisoned. Germany on February 22, 1887.
• Maximo Viola (savior of Noli) helped Jose in the printing
Note: -Count of Monte Cristo by Alexander Dumas is the first of the book and one of its first copies was sent to
foreign book Jose read. Travels in the Philippines by Dr. Feodor Ferdinand Blumentritt.
Jagor that criticized Spanish regime in the Philippines. It is a
• On July 5, 1887 he took a ship from Marseilled and started
book that intrigued Jose and inspired to educate his countrymen. his journey back to the Philippines.
-He was known as the “Pride of the Jesuits”. VI. Rizal’s Romances
B. Years in UST 1. Segunda Katigbak (Rizal’s First Love)
-enrolled as a philosophy and medical student. He did
- Jose Rizal was only a young boy of sixteen (16) when
not shine in UST and failed to obtain high academic he first fell in love, and it was with Segunda
records.
Katigbak, a girl from Lipa, Batangas and two years
his junior (Teenage Puppy Love).
C. Rizal’s writings
- Jose met Miss K when he was accompanied by his
• A La Juventud Filipina (To the Philippine Youth) – won friend, Mariano Katigbak when he visited his
a special prize in poetry when Jose was still in UST. maternal grandmother. She was also a close friend of
• Por La Educacion Recibe Lustre la Patria (Through Olympia (Jose’s sister) in school at La Concordia
education Our Motherland Receives Light) – poem Jose College.
wrote while he was in Ateneo which suggested that - Unfortunately, Segunda was already engaged to be
education is an integral part of national character. married to her townmate, Manuel Luz.
• Alianza intima la religion y la educacion (The Intimate 2. Leonor Valenzuela (Invisible Letters)
Alliance of Religion and Education) in which Jose
-to live for the hope of it all-
 CSA GEN-ED STUDY GUIDE
-Known as Orang, his next-door neighboor and ▪ Story of Philippine condition during the last decades
daughter Capitan Juan and Capitana Sanday of Spanish rule.
Valenzuela. She was a tall girl who carried herself with ▪ Inspired by Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s
grace and elegance. Cabin
-He eventually courted Leonor by sending her love ▪ Berlin, Germany
notes, which he wore in invisible ink made from a ▪ Dr. Maximo Viola – savior of Noli Me Tangere
mixture of water and table salt. He taught Leonor how ▪ Elias and Salome – deleted chapter of Noli
to read his letters by heating them over a lamp or a 2. El Filibusterismo (The Reign of Greed/The Subversion)
candle to allow the words to surface. ▪ Dedicated to Gomburza
▪ Valentin Ventura – savior of El Fili
3. Leonor Rivera (Great Love and First Engagement) ▪ Ghent, Belgium
-Jose’s cousing from Camiling and also a La 3. Makamisa
Concordian. A daughter of Antonio Rivera, his uncle ▪ Rizal’s unfinished Tagalog novel, written in a light
in whose house lived during his junior year at UST. sarcastic style and is incomplete for only two chapters
-She and Rizal eventually became engaged. In her are finished
letters, she signed her name “Taimis” in order to hide 4. Dapitan
their intimate relationship from the girl’s parents. ▪ Unfinished novel, written in ironic Spanish. He wrote
-Engaged with Jose but married another man, Henry it during his exile in Dapitan to depict the town life
Kipping. and customs

4. Consuelo Ortiga y Perez (The Madrid Flirt) UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

- A daughter of liberal minded Spanish official who
once served in Manila during the Spanish era.
- Rizal’s romance with Consuelo did not turn into a THE SELF FROM PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVE
serious affair; he decided to take a step back for two • ANCIENT PHILOSOPHERS
reasons: first, he was still engaged to Leonor Rivera Socrates (496-399BC)
at that time; and second, he was aware of his friend’s Plato (428-348 BC)
(Eduardo de Lete) affection for the girl and he did not Aristotle (384-322 BC)
• MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHER
want to ruin their friendship over her.
St. Agustine (354-430 AD)
St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274 AD)
5. O Sei San (Love at First Sight)
• Socrates: The Examined Life and the True Self
-daughter of a Japanese nobleman who had a brief - dialectical questioning, known as the Socratic
affair when she was 23 and Rizal was 27. Her real Method
name was Seiko Usui. - understanding the self begins with self-
-Because of his deep affection for her, Rizal was examination
almost tempted to settle down in Japan. His 45-day - "the unexamined life is not worth living.“
sojourn in Japan was one of the happiest interludes in - true self is the soul, which is distinct from the
his life. physical body
- The soul is the seat of knowledge, morality, and
6. Gertrude Beckett (Contemporary Pastime) virtue.
-blue-blooded Englishwoman who was the oldest - knowledge of the self is the highest form of
daughter of London church organist in whose house knowledge
Rizal lodged when he went to visit London.
- Rizal enjoyed her company. Eventually their Socrates' concept of Reality
flirtatious friendship drifted towards a blossoming
romance. He affectionately called her “Gettie” and in - physical realm- changeable, transient, and
return she called him “Pettie”. imperfect. The body belongs to the physical
-It was an innocent past time, not real love. realm.
- ideal realm- unchanging, eternal, and immortal.
7. Suzzane Jacoby (The Naughty Boy of Brussels) The soul belongs to the ideal realm.
- A Belgian woman Jose met when he stayed with the
Jacoby’s. One of the contributing factors that led Jose • Plato: The Tripartite Soul and the Realm of Forms
to continue writing El Filibusterismo. - enlightened self is one that escapes from
ignorance and perceives the truth
8. Nellie Boustead (A Failed Proposal) self is composed of a tripartite soul:
-intellectual, sure of herself, attractive, and serious
with her religious belief. Jose almost married her when - Reason: seeks truth and wisdom.
he knew Leonor Rivera’s love affair. - Spirit: responsible for emotions, ambition, and
willpower
9. Josephine Bracken (True Love in Exile) - Appetite: desires physical pleasures and material
- Jose called her his “wife” and “dulce estranjera” goods
- An 18 year old lady Rizal met in Dapitan. Jose - happiness can only be achieved by ensuring that
wanted to marry her but because of church Reason is in control of their Spirits and Appetites
requirements they just simply lived together.
- A little boy of eight months was born, who lived for • Aristotle: The Self as a Rational and Social Being
only three hours. Rizal named him Francisco in honor - self is a substance that possesses both form
of his father, and buried the child in Dapitan. (essence) and matter
- Married to a Filipino named Vicente Abad and died - the ultimate goal of life is eudaimonia, often
in Hongkong due to tuberculosis. translated as "happiness" or "flourishing.“
- humans are social animals (zoon politikon)
VII. Rizal’s Novels - achieving virtue through moderation, known as
the "Golden Mean" which means “moderation.”
1. Noli Me Tangere (Touch Me Not)

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three kinds of soul: - suggests that if people carefully examine their
- Vegetative- physical body that can grow sense experience through the process of
- Sentient- sensual desires, feelings, and emotions. introspection, they will discover that there is no
- Rational- intellect makes man know and stable "self“, Thus, “there is no self.”
understand things. - The idea of personal identity is a result of
imagination or illusion. There is no underlying
• ST. AUGUSTINE: I AM DOUBTING, THEREFORE self that remains constant over time.
I AM
- integrated the ideas of Plato and Christianity. • IMMANUEL KANT
- unified perspective on the body and soul. - A human persona is an inner and outer self. It is a
- soul is what governs and defines the human constant struggle between inner and outer self.
person or the self. - the self that makes experiencing an intelligible
- soul is united with the body so that man may be world possible, In other words, the self-constructs
entire and complete. its own reality creating a world that is familiar and
- God is good. Everything created by God is all predictable.
good. Humankind is created in the image and - Through our rationality, the self transcends sense
likeness of God. Therefore, the human person is experience
innately good. - Self is prone to corruption
- Happiness can be found in God alone. - Kantian ethics, a maxim is a personal principle or
rule that a person uses to guide their actions.
• ST. THOMAS AQUINAS: Self as a Composite of Body - Kant argued that for a maxim to be morally
and Soul acceptable, it must be capable of being
- adopted Aristotle’s idea that humans are universalized.
composed of both body and soul.
- subscribed to the concept of hylomorphism, • SIGMUND FREUD
physical world is a composite of matter (hyle) - The self is multilayered:
and form (morphe) - The conscious self is governed by the reality
- believed that the human soul is immortal and principle and is everything you are aware of at any
continues to exist after the death of the body. given moment. Ex. When you’re reading a book
- Powers of the Soul: intellect responsible for and thinking about its plot.
understanding, reasoning, and knowledge. Will - The unconscious are hidden thoughts and feelings
is the choice and decision-making (FREEDOM) that you’re not aware of but still affect you. Ex.
- the ultimate purpose or final end (telos) of the Repressed memories of a traumatic event or deep-
self is to achieve union with God. seated fears, ultimate secret.
- The preconscious memories and information that
THE SELF FROM MODERN PHILOSOPHICAL aren’t in your immediate awareness but can be
PERSPECTIVE easily accessed. Ex. If someone asks you what you
ate for breakfast yesterday.
• RENÉ DESCARTES
➢ concept of self is the phrase "I think therefore I am" THE SELF FROM CONTEMPORY
➢ the act of thinking about the self -being self-conscious is in PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVE
itself proof that there is self.
➢ he essence of the self is a thinking entity that doubts, • MAURICE MERLEAU PONTY
understands, analyzes, questions, and reasons. - The self is inextricable union between mind and body.
➢ Two dimensions of the self: - There is no experience that is not an embodied
1. self as a thinking entity (or soul)- is the nonmaterial, experience.
immortal, conscious being, and independent of the - All knowledge of ourselves and our world is based on
physical laws of the universe.
subjective experience.
2. self as a physical body- physical body, mortal, non-
thinking entity, fully governed by the physical laws of - The self can never be truly objectified or known in a
nature completely objective sort of way.
- The mind and the body are so intertwined that we
• JOHN LOCKE cannot distinguish where the works of the mind ends
- human mind at birth is tabula rasa or blank slate. and the works of the body begins.
- the self or personal identity, is constructed
primarily from sense experiences • GILBERT RYLE
- Self-consciousness is necessary to have a - The self is the WAY PEOPLE BEHAVE.
coherent personal (self) identity or knowledge of - The working of the mind are NOT distinct from the
the self as a person. action of the body but are one and the same.
- Consciousness is what makes possible our belief - The self is the knowing-how (TECHNICAL
that we are the same identity in different ABILITY) and knowing that (facts and propositions)
situations. - The self is best understood as a pattern of behavior,
- Using the power of reason and introspection the tendency or disposition for a person to behave in
enables people to understand and achieve accurate a certain way in certain circumstances.
conclusions about the self.
- Chief end of man as individual is survival. • PAUL CHURCHLAND
- Adheres to materialism, that nothings except matter
• DAVID HUME exists.
- The Bundle Theory of the Self, people experience - If a thing can’t be recognized by the brain, it is not
is just a bundle or collection of different real
perceptions, impressions, sensations, ideas, - Mind cannot experienced by the senses, then mind
thoughts, and images that constantly change over doesn’t really exists.
time. - The self is inseparable from the brain. All we have is
the brain and so, if the brain is gone, there is no self.

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- the physical brain, gives us our sense of self 1. Stratigraphic approach – stacking independent model,
- Decision-making and moral behavior are a biological no integration of the different selves
phenomena 2. Reductionism – attempts to interpret all observation in
single level analysis.
THE SELF FROM SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE Two contrasting model of self:
• GEORGE HERBERT MEAD 1. Egocentric – focuses on individual self
- Theory of the social self, explained that the self has 2. Sociocentric – socially-oriented
two divisions: the "I“ and the "me". THE SELF FROM PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
- The "I" is the subjective element and the active side • Psychology – the sense of self is defined as the way of
of the self. person thinks about and views his or her traits
- It represents the spontaneous, and unique traits of the • Self is a multilevel system that emerges from multifaceted
individual. interactions of mechanisms operating at neural,
- The "Me“ is the objective element of the self. It psychological, and social levels
represents the "internalized" attitudes, expectations,
and demands of other people. • William James
- The "Me" is what is learned in interaction with others - Self is the totality of all that a person can call his or hers
and with the environment. - Two division of self:
- The full development of the self is attained when the “I” – self as subject (thinker and pure ego)
"I“ and the "me“ are united. “Me” – self as object (material, social, Spiritual, and
- empirical)
• CHARLES COOLEY
- the self is not dependent on biological THE SELF FROM PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
predispositions; rather, it is a product of social • William James
interaction. - Self is the totality of all that a person can call his or
- Looking- glass self Theory highlights that the people hers
whom a person interacts become a mirror in which he - Two division of self:
views himself. o “I” – self as subject (thinker and pure ego)
o “Me” – self as object (material, social, Spiritual,
• CHARLES COOLEY and empirical)
Three steps of the Looking-glass self impact one’s self-image: o ME: (Material self) consists of things that belong
1. How we appear to others to us or that we belong to. Ex. family, clothes,
2. How others judge our body, and money are some of what makes up
3. Feeling about or response to judgment our material selves
We are not influenced by other’s opinion, but by our own o ME: (social self) people change how they act
imagination and perception on how others see us. When people depending on the social situation that they are in.
are accepted and valued by others, they tend to feel high self- o ME: (spiritual self) is our subjective and most
esteem. intimate self. It includes one’s personality, core
values, and conscience that do not typically
THE SELF AS A PRODUCT OF MODERN AND POST- change
MODERN SOCIETIES o ME: (pure ego) Transcendental Self the most
• Gerry Lanuza, in modern societies the attainment and puzzling aspect of the self
stability of self- identity is freely chosen. It is no longer o I: the self as a "knower" self as the thinker,
restricted by customs and traditions. rational yet subjective.
• self- identity continuously change due to the demands of • CARL ROGERS
multitude of social contexts, new information - the real self and the ideal self are terms used to
technologies, and globalization. describe personality domains.
• These freedom and changes offer opportunities for self- - Carl Rogers defined the self as a flexible and
cultivation but problems may also arise ( e. g., alienation changing perception of personal identity.
and dehumanization). - The self develops from interactions with significant
• Jean Baudrillard, in postmodern societies, individuals people and self-awareness.
achieve self-identity through prestige symbols that they - The real self is who we actually are. It is how we
consume. think, how we feel, look, and act.
- The real self can be seen by others, but because we
THE SELF AS A PRODUCT OF MODERN AND POST- have no way of truly knowing how others view us,
MODERN SOCIETIES the real self is our self- image.
- The ideal self is how we want to be. It is an idealized
• Friedrich Nietzsche image that we have developed over time, based on
- SELF as necessary fiction, it is the totality of what we have learned and experienced.
individual’s representation. - The closer (congruent) the ideal self is to the real self,
- Master morality values strength, power, and nobility, the more fulfilled and happier the individual
while slave morality values kindness. becomes.
- "revaluation" or "transvaluation" of all values, - The farther (incongruent) the ideal self is to the real
meaning that society should re-examine and overturn self leads to unhappy and dissatisfied person
the traditional values
- Nietzsche famously declared "God is dead,“ the • DONALD WOODS WINNICOTT
moral framework provided by religion was no longer - He thought that people were born without a clearly
sufficient for guiding life. developed self and had to "search" for an authentic
- "will to power" as a fundamental driving force in sense of self as they grew.
humans, more basic than survival or pleasure. - For Winnicott, the self is a very important part of
THE SELF FROM ANTHROPOLOGICAL mental and emotional well-being which plays a vital
PERSPECTIVE role in creativity.
• Anthropology – employs a HOLISTIC approach to study - True self is also known as real self, authentic self,
of the self. original self and vulnerable self; This is rooted from
early infancy in the experience of being alive. Out of
• Naomi Quinn – self is the totality of physical, biological,
this, the baby creates the experience of a sense of
psychological, social, and cultural.
reality, a sense that life is worth living
Two common pitfalls of the self:
• ALBERT BANDURA
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- THE SELF AS PROACTIVE AND AGENTIC suggests - Successful resolution of conflicts at each stage leads to
that humans have the ability to act and make things healthy personality development, while unresolved
happen. In his theory of the self, people are viewed as conflicts can result in fixations that affect adult
proactive agents of experiences. behavior.
- Agency embodies the endowments, belief systems, self- psychosexual stages of development that progresses through
regulatory capabilities, and structures and functions five stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.
through which personal influence is exercised, rather 1. The first stage is the oral stage, which lasts from birth up
than residing as a distinct entity. to the first year of life. During this stage, babies derive
pleasure from oral activities like sucking and biting.
o The main agentic features of human agency are: Overindulgence of the oral needs may lead to oral
• Intentionality refers to acts done intentionally. incorporative personality disorder such as overeating,
• Forethought enables the person to anticipate the likely smoking, and alcoholism while dissatisfaction may lead
consequences of prospective actions. to oral aggressive personality disorder such as sarcasm
• Self-reactiveness enables the person to make choices and tactlessness.
and choose appropriate courses of action, as well as 2. The next stage is anal stage, which occurs around the
motivate and regulate their execution. second year of life. During this stage, the child derives
• Self-reflectiveness gives the person the ability to pleasure from the elimination of body wastes. Through
reflect upon oneself and the adequacy of one's toilet training, the child learns the basic rules of society.
thoughts and actions. People are not only agents of Anal fixations can lead to anal retentive personality
action but self-examiners of their own functioning. disorder such as obsession with cleanliness or anal
• expulsion personality disorder such as clumsiness.
• CARL JUNG 3. Freud called the third stage, phallic stage, “phallus” or
- THE SELF AS THE CENTRAL ARCHETYPE Jung penis that usually occurs around the ages of 3 and 6.
suggested that the psyche continues to develop throughout Children during this stage derive pleasure from
life, but the psyche starts to show a definite form and examining, touching, fondling, or displaying their
content during adolescence. genitals, or others. These behaviors are likely motivated
- Jung conceived the structure of personality (psyche) as a by curiosity on the differences between the anatomy of
complex network of interacting systems that strive toward man and woman. (Sex curiosity)
harmony. Electra complex
The main systems are: Oedipus complex
- The ego is one's conscious mind, the part of the psyche 4. The fourth stage is the latency stage, which lasts from 7 to
that includes perceptions, thoughts, feelings, and 12. At this stage, sexual energy is repressed because
memories that may enter consciousness. It is through the children become busy with school.
ego that we establish sense of stability. 5. The last stage is genital stage, which starts from
- Personal unconscious includes the repressed and forgotten adolescence to adulthood. During this stage, pleasure is
experiences. again derived from the genital area and individuals seek
- The collective unconscious consists of the fundamental to satisfy their sexual drives from sexual relationships.
elements of the human psyche that includes experiences Sexual problems may result as a consequence of
all humans share or in common. inappropriate sex behaviors
within the collective unconscious lie archetypes.
- An archetype is a universal thought form or predisposition ERIK ERIKSON
to respond to the world in certain ways. The archetype • known for his theory of psychosocial development.
represents the hidden potentialities of the psyche, or total • outlines eight stages that an individual goes through during
personality. their lifetime, from infancy to old age.
- For Jung, there are four major archetypes: persona, • Each stage is characterized by a specific conflict or "crisis"
shadow, animus/anima, and self. that must be resolved for healthy psychological
development.
there are four major archetypes:
- The persona refers to social roles that individuals present o Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust
to others. Age: Infancy (0-1 year)
- The shadow refers to the repressed thoughts that are - Crisis: The infant must learn whether or not they can trust
unacceptable. This archetype is often considered as the the world. This is primarily influenced by the consistency
dark side of the psyche. and reliability of the caregivers.
- The anima is the feminine side of the male psyche while - Virtue: Hope – When the child learns that the world is
the animus is the masculine side of the female psyche. reliable and trustworthy, they develop hope that their needs
- The self is the central archetype that unites all parts of the will be met.
psyche. The ego is the individual's conscious perception of - Too Much Positive (Maladaptive Tendency): Sensory
the self. Maladjustment – Excessive trust may lead to being overly
dependent or gullible.
SIGMUND FREUD'S CONSTRUCTION OF SELF AND - Too Much Negative (Malignant Tendency): Withdrawal –
PERSONALITY If mistrust dominates, the child may become fearful,
According to Sigmund Freud, there are three structures of suspicious, and withdrawn from the world.
personality:
o The id is the pleasure-seeking side, immature, impulsive, o Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
child-like and cannot delay gratification. It has no regard Age: Early Childhood (1-3 years)
of others and the law. - Crisis: The child must develop a sense of personal control
o The ego refers to the "I" and works on the reality principle, over physical skills and a sense of independence.
controls the id, and can delay pleasure. The ego can - Virtue: Will – A sense of autonomy and the ability to make
conform with existing societal consideration. choices fosters willpower and determination.
o The superego refers to the "conscience "and "moral - Too Much Positive: Impulsiveness – Excessive autonomy
judge“ of conduct. without appropriate limits may lead to recklessness or
impulsive behavior.
- developed the psychosexual theory of development. - Too Much Negative: Compulsion – Too much shame and
- posits that an individual’s personality is shaped by the way doubt can result in a compulsive need to control, leading to
they navigate through five distinct stages during childhood. feelings of inadequacy.
- According to Freud, each stage centers on the pleasure-
seeking energies of the id focusing on different erogenous o Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
zones of the body. - Age: Preschool (3-6 years)
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 CSA GEN-ED STUDY GUIDE
- Crisis: The child must learn to initiate activities, plan tasks, - Too Much Positive: Overextension – Excessive focus on
and carry out goals, balancing their own desires with social productivity and caring for others can lead to
expectations. overextension, neglecting personal needs.
- Virtue: Purpose – Successfully navigating this stage leads - Too Much Negative: Rejectivity – Stagnation can lead to a
to a sense of purpose and the ability to initiate actions. sense of meaninglessness and rejection of others or society.
- Too Much Positive: Ruthlessness – Excessive initiative
without a sense of guilt can lead to being ruthless, lacking o Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair
consideration for others. - Age: Late Adulthood (65+ years)
- Too Much Negative: Inhibition – If guilt dominates, the - Crisis: The individual must reflect on their life and accept
child may become inhibited, fearful of taking initiative or it as it has been, finding a sense of fulfillment or falling into
risks. despair over regrets.
- Virtue: Wisdom – Successfully navigating this stage results
o Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority in wisdom, an acceptance of life’s complexities and the
- Age: School Age (6-12 years) inevitability of death.
- Crisis: The child must develop a sense of competence and - Too Much Positive: Presumption – An uncritical
mastery in various skills, comparing themselves to their acceptance of one’s life without reflecting on mistakes or
peers. regrets can lead to presumption.
- Virtue: Competence – Success in this stage results in a - Too Much Negative: Disdain – Despair over life’s
sense of competence and belief in one’s abilities. unchangeable past can lead to disdain, bitterness, and a
- Too Much Positive: Narrow Virtuosity – An overemphasis sense of meaninglessness.
on success in one area can lead to being narrowly focused,
neglecting other areas of development. FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH AND
- Too Much Negative: Inertia – Feelings of inferiority can DEVELOPMENT
lead to inertia, where the child avoids challenges due to fear
of failure. o Heredity (Nature)– transmission of physical characteristics
from parents to children to their genes
o Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Confusion o Environment (Nurture) – everything that surrounds and
- Age: Adolescence (12-18 years) influences the child
- Crisis: The adolescent must develop a strong sense of self
and personal identity, exploring different roles and THE SEXUAL SELF
integrating them into a cohesive identity. o Biological Sex
- Virtue: Fidelity – Successfully forming a stable identity - Gonads that produce gametes
leads to fidelity, or the ability to live according to one’s (1) Sperm (Spermatozoa): The male reproductive cell
values and commitments. produced in the testes.
- Too Much Positive: Fanaticism – An overidentification (2) Egg (Ovum): The female reproductive cell produced
with a particular role or ideology can lead to fanaticism, in the ovaries.
rejecting others who differ. o Ovulation: The release of a mature egg from the ovary into
- Too Much Negative: Repudiation – Failing to develop a the fallopian tube, where it becomes available for
coherent identity can result in role confusion and fertilization by sperm.
repudiation of values, leading to identity crises. o Capacitation: A process that sperm undergo after entering
the female reproductive tract, during which they gain the
o Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation ability to penetrate and fertilize the egg.
- Age: Young Adulthood (18-40 years) o Fertilization: The union of a sperm and an egg, usually
- Crisis: The young adult must form intimate, loving occurring in the fallopian tube. When the sperm
relationships with others while balancing the need for successfully penetrates the egg, their genetic materials
personal space and independence. combine to form a single cell with a complete set of
- Virtue: Love – Successfully balancing intimacy and chromosomes.
independence leads to the capacity for love, deep o Zygote: The single cell formed immediately after
connections, and commitment. fertilization, containing the combined genetic material
- Too Much Positive: Promiscuity – Overemphasis on from both parents (a complete set of 46 chromosomes in
intimacy without depth can lead to promiscuity, superficial humans).
relationships lacking commitment. o Cleavage: A series of rapid mitotic cell divisions that the
- Too Much Negative: Exclusivity – Fear of intimacy can zygote undergoes as it moves down the fallopian tube
result in isolation, avoiding close relationships and toward the uterus. This process transforms the zygote into
commitment. a multi-celled structure.
o Morula: A solid ball of cells resulting from the cleavage
o Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation of the zygote. The morula forms around 3-4 days after
- Age: Middle Adulthood (40-65 years) fertilization.
- Crisis: The adult must contribute to society and the next o Blastocyst: A hollow structure formed around 5-6 days
generation, often through parenting, work, and community after fertilization. The blastocyst consists of an outer layer
involvement. (trophoblast), which will develop into the placenta, and an
- Virtue: Care – Successfully engaging in generativity leads inner cell mass, which will develop into the embryo.
to care, a concern for others and the future. o Implantation: The process by which the blastocyst
- Too Much Positive: Overextension – Excessive focus on embeds itself into the lining of the uterus (endometrium),
productivity and caring for others can lead to usually occurring about 6-10 days after fertilization.
overextension, neglecting personal needs. o Embryo: The developing organism from the time of
- Too Much Negative: Rejectivity – Stagnation can lead to a implantation until about 8 weeks after fertilization. During
sense of meaninglessness and rejection of others or society. this stage, the basic structures and organs begin to form.
o Fetus: The term used for the developing organism from
o Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation about 8 weeks after fertilization until birth. During the fetal
- Age: Middle Adulthood (40-65 years) stage, the organs continue to develop and mature.
- Crisis: The adult must contribute to society and the next
generation, often through parenting, work, and community Prenatal Development
involvement. - occurs from conception to birth and is divided into three
- Virtue: Care – Successfully engaging in generativity leads main periods:
to care, a concern for others and the future. - Germinal Period (0-2 weeks):
- Fertilization: The sperm fertilizes the egg, forming a
zygote.

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 CSA GEN-ED STUDY GUIDE
- Cell Division: The zygote undergoes rapid cell division o Gender: Refers to the roles, behaviors, activities, and
(cleavage) and forms a blastocyst. attributes that a given society considers appropriate for
- Implantation: The blastocyst implants itself into the uterine men and women. It's often understood as a social and
wall, beginning the formation of the placenta. cultural construct rather than purely biological.
- Embryonic Period (3-8 weeks): Examples: Masculine, feminine, androgynous, genderqueer.
- Formation of the Embryo: The blastocyst develops into an
embryo. This stage is critical as the basic structures and o Gender Identity: Refers to a person’s internal sense of their
organs start to form. own gender, which may or may not align with the sex they
- Organogenesis: Major organs and systems, such as the were assigned at birth. It is how individuals perceive
heart, brain, and spinal cord, begin to develop. The neural themselves and what they call themselves.
tube (which becomes the brain and spinal cord) forms Examples: Cisgender (when gender identity matches assigned
during this period. sex), transgender (when gender identity does not match
- Differentiation: Cells differentiate into various types assigned sex), non-binary, genderfluid.
needed to build tissues and organs.
- Vulnerability: The embryo is highly vulnerable to o Sexual Orientation: Refers to the pattern of emotional,
environmental influences, such as drugs, alcohol, and romantic, or sexual attraction one feels toward others. It’s
infections, which can cause birth defects. about who you are attracted to
Examples: Heterosexual (attracted to the opposite sex),
Embryonic Period: Internal Organs homosexual (attracted to the same sex), bisexual (attracted to
- Male Wolffian system (epididymis, vas deferens, both sexes), pansexual (attracted to individuals regardless of
ejaculatory ducts, seminal vesicles) gender).
- Female Mullerian System (fallopian tubes, uterus, upper
portion of vagina o Gender expression refers to the way an individual
- 2 hormones (testosterone and anti-Mullerian hormone) externally presents their gender to the world.

Embryonic Period: External Organs This can include a range of aspects, such as:
- The Glans – develop the head of the penis and clitoris - Clothing: The types of clothes a person wears, which might
- Urethral Folds – fuse in the male and enlarged as the labia be traditionally associated with masculinity, femininity, or
minor a mix of both.
- Lateral bodies – form the shaft of the penis or the hood of - Hairstyle: Choices about how one styles their hair, which
the clitoris can reflect gender norms or blend characteristics.
- Labioscrotal swellings – scrotum and labia major - Behavior and Mannerisms: How a person acts, including
gestures, speech patterns, and other behaviors that may
Prenatal Development align with or defy traditional gender roles.
- Fetal Period (9 weeks to birth): - Body Language: The ways in which individuals express
- Growth and Maturation: The fetus undergoes significant themselves through physical movements and expressions.
growth and the organs mature. The body systems develop Voice: How a person’s vocal pitch, tone, and speech
their functions. patterns align with or challenge gender expectations.
- Movement: The fetus begins to move, and by around 16-
20 weeks, these movements can be felt by the mother. LGBTQIA++
- Viability: By around 24 weeks, the fetus reaches a stage o L - Lesbian: A woman who is attracted to other women.
where it could potentially survive outside the womb, o G - Gay: A person who is attracted to people of the same
though with medical support. gender; often used to refer to men attracted to other men.
- Final Preparations: The last trimester is focused on rapid o B - Bisexual: A person attracted to both their own gender
growth, brain development, and preparation for birth, and other genders.
including lung maturation. o T - Transgender: A person whose gender identity differs
from the sex they were assigned at birth.
Puberty Stage o LGBTQIA++
- o Q - Queer: An umbrella term that can refer to anyone who
- Growth spurt - significant changes, transitioning into doesn't fit into the traditional categories of gender and
adulthood and achieving sexual maturity. sexuality, often used by people who reject traditional
Growth Hormones gender roles and norms.
(1) Hypothalamus – releases gonadotropin-releasing o I - Intersex: A person born with physical sex characteristics
hormones to the pituitary gland that don’t fit typical definitions of male or female.
(2) Follicle stimulating hormone – cause the testes to release o A - Asexual: A person who experiences little to no sexual
testosterone attraction to others; sometimes includes Aromantic
(3) Luteinizing hormone – stimulates the ovaries to produce individuals, who experience little to no romantic attraction.
estradiol (most common type of estrogen) o ++ - signifies the inclusion of other identities and
orientations not covered by the core acronym, recognizing
SEX AND GENDER the diversity within the LGBTQIA community.
o Sex: Refers to the biological and physiological Example:
characteristics that distinguish male and female bodies. - Pansexual: A person who is attracted to individuals
This includes aspects like chromosomes, hormone levels, regardless of their gender.
and reproductive/sexual anatomy. - Demisexual: A person who only experiences sexual
Examples: Male, female, intersex attraction after forming a strong emotional connection.
Exam of intersex - Genderqueer: A person whose gender identity is not
- (Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS) (typically male) exclusively male or female and may be a blend of both or
but with female features. neither.
- Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH): (typically female) - Non-Binary: A person who does not identify strictly as
might have masculinized genitalia due to high levels of male or female, and may have a gender identity that is fluid
androgens. or falls outside the traditional binary.
- Klinefelter Syndrome: males having an extra X, physical - LGBTQIA++
traits that include reduced muscle mass, larger breasts, and - Genderfluid: A person whose gender identity shifts
infertility. between different genders at different times.
- Turner Syndrome: female has only one X chromosome, - Two-Spirit: A term used by some Indigenous cultures in
have physical characteristics such as short stature, a North America to describe a person who embodies both
webbed neck, and may experience infertility. masculine and feminine qualities or has a gender role that
is distinct from the traditional binary.

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 CSA GEN-ED STUDY GUIDE
- Androgynous: A person whose gender presentation or
identity blends or alternates between traditional male and
female characteristics.

Biological Factors
- Genetic Influences:
- Prenatal Hormonal Environment: (levels of sex
hormones) (Fraternal Birth Order Effect)
- Brain Structure
Environmental
- Family Environment:
- Social and Cultural Influences
- Psychosocial Factors
CATEGORIES & CLASSIFICATION OF ART
MATERIAL SELF (1) Visual arts: painting, sculptures, architecture
- Physical Possessions: (2) Performing arts/Combines arts: music, dance, film,
The material self includes all the objects that an individual owns theater, literary, performance poetry
and feels connected to, such as clothing, gadgets, vehicles, and (3) Digital art: art made with the aid of electronic devises
personal items. These possessions often reflect personal tastes, or intended to be displayed on computer
status, and aspects of identity. For instance, the clothes a person (4) Applied arts: fashion design. Furniture design, interior
wears or the car they drive can be expressions of their design, graphic design
personality, values, or social standing.

The Body:
The body is a central component of the material self. How
individuals perceive, care for, and present their bodies plays a
crucial role in their self-concept. This includes aspects like
physical appearance, health, grooming, and how the body is
adorned (e.g., through fashion, tattoos, or piercings).

Home and Living Environment:

The spaces where individuals live, such as their home or
personal room, are extensions of the material self. These
environments are often decorated and organized in ways that
reflect personal identity, comfort, and lifestyle. The choice of
home, its location, and the way it is furnished are all
expressions of the material self.

Two elements of sign

(1) Signifier- physical form (1) ARTIST: art practitioner who produces or create
(2) Signified – mental concept about the object and its effects indirectly functional arts with aesthetic value using
on him imagination
(2) ARTISAN: a craftsman who produces directly functional
ARTS APPRECIATION and/or decorative arts
• ART- it comes from the Italian word artis, which means
“craftsmanship, skills, mastery of form, inventiveness, and VISUAL ELEMENTS OF ART
the association that exist between form and ideas and
between materials and techniques” (1) Line
• From Aryan root, Art comes from the word “ar” which
means “to join together”
• From Greek word, it comes from the word “Artizein”
which means “to prepare” and “arkistein” which means to
put together

ESSENTIALS OF ART

(1) Man-made (2) Color

(2) Must be creative not imitative
(3) Must benefit and satisfy man
(4) Expressed through certain medium or material

ASSUMPTIONS OF ART

(1) Universal
(2) Not nature
(3) Involves experience (3) Shape
- Geometric shapes (regular & precise)
- Organic shapes (represent object from nature)
- Biomorphic (qualities of biological organisms)
- Amorphous (exist without any basis from either nature
or geometry
(4) Space

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 CSA GEN-ED STUDY GUIDE

(5) Value

(6) Texture

PRINCIPLES OF ARTS

(1) Balance: symmetrical or asymmetrical

(2) Harmony: sameness/belonging
(3) Proportion: size relationship or forms and shapes
(4) Variety: combination of visual elements
(5) Dominance/Emphasis: area of composition which
dominates or commands attention; usually achieved
through contrast
(6) Movement: illusions of movement
(7) Rhythm: feeling of movement achieved by repetition
of regulated visual infos

ELEMENTS OF MUSIC

(1) Rhythm- pattern in time

(2) Melody- succession of consecutive notes
(3) Harmony- combination of different tones or pitches
(4) Texture

(5) Dynamics

(6) Timbre- tone color, quality of sound generated by

instrument or by voice

-to live for the hope of it all-