GROUP PROCESSES & WORK TEAMS (Sandro)
Groups: Individuals can work independently
Teams: Members must collaborate to complete tasks
Terms used interchangeably; distinction often unnecessary. Not all collections of people are groups
TYPES OF GROUPS IN ORGANIZATIONS
1. Formal Groups - Official subunits like committees, departments, work crews
2. Informal Groups - Arise naturally (e.g., lunch buddies, training partners)
Functions:
1. Fulfill social needs (friendship, belonging)
2. Provide security and emotional support
3. Encourage cooperation
4. Help regulate behavior and share workplace norms
SOCIAL INFLUENCES IN GROUPS
o Social psychologists examine how group dynamics shape individual behavior.
o I/O psychologists apply these findings in organizational settings.
1. Norms – shared expectations for appropriate responses in a group, guide and regulate group behavior
1. Descriptive norms - Reflect what most people actually do, feel, or think.
Example: Everyone in the office checks email first thing in the morning
2. Prescriptive Norms - Reflect what people should do, feel, or think.
Example: "Employees should dress in formal business attire for meetings."
2. Roles - expected behaviors, obligations, and actions associated with a specific position within a group or organization. these behaviors are
shaped by both internal factors (values, attitudes) and external factors (social pressure, job requirements)
i. Internal vs External Forces (Kurt Lewin)
an individual's behavior is influenced by personal factors (e.g., values and attitudes) and external influences (e.g., social
pressures, job requirements), meaning behavior is a function of both the person and the environment
Formula: Behavior (B) = f (Person (P), Environment (E)
a. Perception matters - Each member of a group perceives their role based on expectations they believe others have
of them. These perceptions influence how individuals perform their duties and behave within the group
i. As a father, an individual has an internalized perception of what duties and behaviors are expected in
this role, which might include providing care, being emotionally supportive, etc.
ii. Role Differentiation - This is the process by which distinct roles are assigned to various members in a group or organization
can be through:
b. formal: e.g., job descriptions, rules
c. informal: e.g., expectations communicated through peer interactions
iii. Role Conflict – When there is incompatible or competing demands placed on an individual in their role(s).
1. Intra-role - Conflicting expectations within the same role (e.g., a manager is expected to enforce rules strictly but
also be friendly and lenient).
2. Inter-role - Conflicts between different roles held by the same person (e.g., work demands vs. family
responsibilities).
3. Person-role - When role demands clash with personal -values or beliefs
iv. Role Ambiguity - Occurs when an individual lacks clear information about their role expectations, responsibilities, or how to
perform their duties.
i. Unclear goals or expectations.
ii. Uncertainty about who to report to or how performance is measured.
iii. Can lead to confusion, anxiety, and decreased performance.
3. Cohesion - the degree to which members of a group are motivated to stay in the group and the strength of the bonds that unite them
o a sense of "we-ness," where group members prioritize collective goals over individual ones
o key components: binding and combatant force; teamwork and interpersonal attraction
Positive Consequences:
1. Cohesive groups:
2. report higher levels of satisfaction due to better interpersonal relationships and a shared sense of purpose
3. tend to perform better across a variety of settings, such as athletic teams, organizations, and educational environments
Negative Consequences:
1. Groupthink: excessive cohesion can lead to
2. groupthink, where the desire for harmony and conformity overrides realistic decision-making, leading to poor outcomes.
3. Stagnation: in highly cohesive groups, there may be resistance to change or dissenting opinions, potentially hindering
innovation and growth.
factors affecting cohesion:
1. Social Interaction: high-quality interactions and shared experiences foster greater unity
2. Similar Beliefs and Goals: group cohesion is often
3. strengthened when members share common values, goals, and commitments]
in creating cohesion, the group must:
1. set clear goals and communication
2. display positive leadership
3. encourage collaboration
4. Group Development - the process through which a group evolves from initial formation to eventual dissolution
o involves changes in roles, norms, cohesion, and performance over time
o influences team effectiveness, satisfaction, and productivity
Tuckman's Five-Stage Model of Group Development
1. Forming: members get to know each other; interactions are polite and cautious
2. Storming: conflicts and disagreements emerge; individual differences surface
3. Norming: group cohesion develops; norms and roles are established
4. Performing: focus shifts to productivity and goal achievement
5. Adjourning: group disbands after task completion; may include emotional responses
Gersick's Punctuated Equilibrium Model
o groups don't always develop in a linear way.
o exhibit periods of stability punctuated by sudden change (especially at midpoint).
o emphasizes urgency, task deadlines, and external pressures.
Integrative Perspective
o stage-based and punctuated models are complementary:
i. Stage models explain continuous structural changes
ii. Punctuated models explain discontinuous shifts in task behaviors
o useful for analyzing both interpersonal development and task dynamics
5. Social Loafing - A reduction in individual effort when working in groups compared to working alone
o first studied by Max Ringelmann (1913) through rope-pulling experiments.
o individuals may "hide" in the group, leading to diminished performance
Psychological Explanations
o Diffusion of Responsibility: people feel less accountable for the outcome
o Expectancy Theory of Motivation (Vroom) - if individuals don't believe their efforts affect outcomes, motivation drops
FACTORS that reduce Social Loafing
1. Identifiability
2. Task Attractiveness
3. Personal Accountability
4. Cohesiveness of the Group
5. Small Group Size
o Role clarity reduces loafing. When individuals understand their responsibilities, they are less likely to disengage.
o Role ambiguity or overlap can increase social loafing, as people assume others will take care of the work.
Karau & Hart (1998): High cohesion groups have lower levels of loafing.
o Stronger social norms
o Greater group commitment
o Fear of letting the group down
o Interpersonal bonds reinforce individual accountability.
related concepts...
o Free Riding - individuals do little work but still enjoy rewards
o Sucker Effect - high-performing members lower effort to avoid being exploited
o Social Compensation - Some members work harder to compensate for expected low effort from others
STRATEGIES TO COMBAT SOCIAL LOAFING
1. Assign clear, individual roles
2. Increase visibility of individual contributions
3. Design engaging and meaningful tasks
4. Foster group cohesion early
5. Use peer evaluations
6. Reduce group size where possible
GROUP DECISION MAKING
Groups play critical roles in shaping major aspects of society-governing companies, universities, legal systems, and healthcare
Five Key Steps to Effective Group Decision Making Adapted from Janis & Mann, 1977
1. Diagnose the Problem
Reach a shared understanding of the issue
o differentiate facts from opinions
o identify root causes, not just symptoms
Common Mistakes:
o rushing into solutions
o scapegoating or confusing correlation with causation
2. Generate Solutions
Brainstorm a wide range of ideas
o Classic brainstorming or electronic brainstorming tools (e.g., Google Jamboard, Miro)
Common challenges:
o production blocking (members waiting to speak)
o fear of judgment
o repeating past solutions without innovation
3. Evaluate Solutions
Critically assess each option
consider both benefits and worst-case scenarios
involve diverse perspectives
4. Choose a Solution
Select the best, most feasible option
Decision Techniques:
Delegation
o Averaging individual inputs
o Majority vote
o Consensus (preferred but time-consuming)
Challenges:
o power imbalances
o biased evaluation favoring "pet" solutions
5. Develop an Action Plan and Implementation
Turn decisions into action
Components:
o Timeliness
o Assigned roles
o Clear benchmarks for progress
Implementation ensures follow-through, accountability, and allows evaluation and adjustment
Ineffective Decision Making
o Occurs when group decisions fail to achieve optimal outcomes
o Can lead to wasted resources, missed opportunities, or even disasters
Common Causes
o rushing to decisions without adequate discussion
o lack of participation or dominance by one member
o poor communication
o no clear process or structure
Process Loss
o defined by Ivan Steiner (1972) in "law of group performance"
Actual Productivity = Potential Productivity - Process Loss
o Non-motivational factors that reduce group effectiveness
Common Causes
o Poor coordination (e.g., working in silos)
o Miscommunication or misunderstandings
o Redundant or conflicting efforts
Shared vs. Unshared Information
Groups often rely too much on shared information
Unshared information: held by only one or few members, often ignored
Leads to incomplete analysis
Ways to improve shared information:
Use participative leadership
Actively seek diverse viewpoints
Create psychologically safe environments
Groupthink
o Coined by Irving Janis (1972)
o Occurs when desire for harmony overrides critical evaluation
Examples:
Group projects where one idea is accepted without critique
Class committees rejecting suggestions to preserve tradition
Antecedents of Groupthink
1. Excessive group cohesion
2. Isolation from outside perspectives
3. Dominant, biased leadership
4. High stress and urgency surrounding decisions
Symptoms of Groupthink
1. Belief in group's invulnerability and moral correctness
2. Self-censorship by individual members
3. Suppression or discouragement of dissent
4. "Mindguards" who protect the group from contradictory info
WORK TEAMS OF THE 21ST CENTURY
What Is a Work Team?
o defined as interdependent and coordinated individuals with specific roles
o members share common goals and objectives
o unlike loosely formed groups, teams are intentional and structured
FIVE KEY TYPES OF WORK TEAMS
1. Production Teams
a. Front-line teams producing tangible output
b. Often self-managed or self-led
Examples:
c. Electronics assembly units
d. Coal mining crews
e. Candy production crews
2. Management Teams
a. Coordinate other work units and manage operations
i. Planning, budgeting, staffing
b. Examples:
i. Top corporate executive teams
ii. Military command teams
iii. Healthcare management teams
3. Service Teams - Address customer needs directly
a. Serve many customers at once
b. Examples:
i. Flight attendants
ii. Hospital emergency units
iii. Retail customer service teams
4. Project Teams - Formed for specific projects and disband after completion
a. Often cross-functional
b. Examples:
i. New-product development teams
ii. Research and design project groups
iii. Publisher teams for launching a book
5. Advisory Teams - Solve problems and recommend solutions
i. Often temporary and non-operational
b. Examples:
i. Quality circles
ii. Employee involvement groups
iii. University advisory boards
WORK-TEAM EFFECTIVENESS
Cohen's Framework of Team Effectiveness
Developed by Susan Cohen (1994; Cohen & Bailey, 1997)
Three core dimensions:
1. Team Performance: Productivity, output quality, cost control
2. Member Attitudes: Job satisfaction, trust in management, organizational commitment
3. Withdrawal Behaviors: Turnover, absenteeism,
Work-Team Effectiveness
Taskwork vs. Teamwork
Taskwork: Task-oriented duties required for success
Teamwork: Process-oriented behaviors like communication and coordination
Both are necessary for overall team success
Predictors of Work-Team Effectiveness
Based on Sundstrom et al. (2000)
Five major categories:
1. Organizational Context: Rewards, feedback, training
2. Group Composition & Size: Cognitive ability, personality traits, demographics
3. Group Work Design: Task and goal interdependence
4. Intragroup Processes: Cohesion, communication, efficacy
5. External Group Processes: External communication and interactions
Predictors of Work-Team Effectiveness
Personality traits impact effectiveness:
Extraversion and neuroticism: Related to leadership performance
Agreeableness: Linked to contextual performance
Conscientiousness: Predicts backup behavior
Interaction between team member traits matters
High-conscientiousness members provide more support
Extraverted members receive more help, even if not needed
Team personality dynamics influence cooperation
The Team Role Test - Created by Mumford et di. (2008)
o Measures understanding of different team roles (task, social, overall)
o Predicts effectiveness better than personality or cognitive ability alone
Work-Team Effectiveness key findings:
Cognitive ability, personality, and expertise improve team performance (Stewart, 2006); Bell, 2007)
Task design and leadership also key
Demographic diversity = no significant impact (Horwitz & Horwitz, 2007)
Task-related diversity (education, expertise) = positive impact
Team diversity (newcomers and veterans) enhanced innovation (Perretti & Negro, 2007)
Practical implication: Mix of experience levels fuels creativity
Work Teams in the 21st Century.
Recent and Future Trends
o Expansion of Team Use
o Cross-functional and inter-organizational teams are rising
o Fluid Team Structures
o Teams are becoming more flexible and dynamic
o Rise of Virtual Teams
o Virtual teams work across geographic boundaries
