p.

76-77

Britain: Union and

conflict
Today the British Isles contain two countries: the United Kingdom and
the Republic of Ireland. Both countries are members of the European
Union. The period 1500 to the early 20th century was a period of great
change, during which the British Isles were united into one country,
and then divided into two.
This is an image of the Battle of Culloden of 1746, the last battle
ever to be fought on British soil. It was an important event in the
attempt to create a single country that would unite the British
Isles.
The picture helps show how the history of Britain from 1500 to
the early 20th century involved conflict. Although Culloden was
the last battle in Britain, it wasn't the last example of conflict,
which recurred throughout the history of Britain and Ireland,
from 1500 to the 20th century.
For example, from 1603, England and Scotland were united
under one king. But not everyone in Scotland was happy with
the union between the two countries. This unit explores how
conflict shaped the creation of modern Britain
 Lesson 3.1
p.78-79

The Growth of
Britain
In the period 1500-1918, there were significant developments in
Britain. We are going to examine the importance of these
changes, and how they contributed to the growth of Britain.

Britain changed in many ways between 1500 and 1918. There

were dramatic changes in technology, for example. Can you
think of any other ways Britain changed?
After Henry VIII (1509-1547) began the Reformation of the
English church, more people rejected the Catholic Church and
supported Protestantism.Then the Catholic Stuarts came to
power in England in 1603. King Charles I (1625-1649) clashed
with parliament over religion and power. This led to the English
Civil War of 1642-1648, which parliament won. Charles I was
beheaded in 1649 and parliament ruled
England from 1649 to 1653. Oliver Cromwell then ruled from
1653 to 1658, as Lord Protector. In 1660, parliament decided to
restore the monarchy, and invited Charles II to become the king.
The Stuart line of kings ended in 1688 with the Glorious
Revolution. James II was a Catholic, who was feared by powerful
Protestants. So in 1688 they invited William of Orange and his
wife Mary, the Princess Royal, to become the King and Queen of
England. James II fled to France. In 1707 Scotland was united
with England and Wales through the Act of Union, which ended
Scottish independence.
In the 18th and 19th century, parliament's power increased. The
majority of people, however, could not vote for their government.
So, in the 19th century, campaigners such as the Chartists
demanded more political reforms. The Great Reform Act of 1832
and the 1884 Reform Act extended the vote to more adult men.
Women, however, were not allowed to vote until the
Representation of the Peoples Act in 1918.
From 1500 to 1918, there were dramatic technological changes.
In the 16th century roads and transport were very poor. It took
six and a half days to travel between London and Newcastle by
stage coach in
1750. Roads improved in the 18th century, with the introduction
of turnpikes and toll
houses, where people were charged for using the roads.
The growth of industry in the 18th and 19th centuries depended
on the transport of goods around the country. More canals were
built in the 18th century, such as the Bridgewater Canal
between Liverpool and Manchester. In the 19th century, steam
trains and steam ships further improved transport. The building
of railway lines, such as the Liverpool and Manchester Railway,
reduced transport costs.
Goods became cheaper, and demand for them increased. This
encouraged trade and sparked the changes which became known
as the Industrial Revolution (1730-1850). Motorised vehicles and
aeroplanes appeared in the early 20th century. Although these
technologies The
could be used for peaceful means, they were also used for
warfare during World War One
(1914-1918) and World War Two (1939-1945).
• Describe the different events that
contributed to the growth of Britian from
1500 to 1918
 p.90-91

Britain & Ireland

1500-1800
Relations between Britain and Ireland changed between 1500
and 1800, often because of different religious beliefs and
arguments over who should control Ireland. These changes
caused rebellions and wars
In 1500-1800 there were many violent clashes between the Irish
and English.
In the 1530s Henry VIII supported religious reforms against the
Catholic Church. The Irish Catholics disliked his reforms. They
attempted a rebellion in 1534. By 1541, however, the Irish were
forced to accept Henry VIII (1509-1547) as king. Although
Edward
VI (1547-1553) had strengthened Protestantism in England, but
Catholicism remained strong in Ireland. Elizabeth I (1558-1603)
increased her control over Ireland by sending English settlers to
Ireland. In 1607, after a failed Irish rebellion, James I
(1603-1625) sent more settlers and they established the
Plantation of Ulster. In
1603 Catholics owned 90 percent of the land, but by 1750 this
had fallen to five percent.
In 1641 the Irish rebelled against Charles I (1625-1649).
Approximately 3,000 Protestant settlers were killed. The English
Civil War (1642-1649) distracted England from Ireland. However,
after the execution of Charles I in 1649, Oliver Cromwell led an
army to crush the Irish. He was very brutal and brought more
land under Protestant control. In September 1649 Cromwell
attacked the Irish town of Drogheda, to crush a rebellion against
English rule that had broken out. Over 2,000 people were killed
in Drogheda by English troops.
After losing his throne in 1688 James II (1685-1688) turned to
King Louis XIV. He provided a French army, which James II took
to Ireland. James Il gave land back to Irish Catholics. However,
King William III (1688-1702) of England sent an army to crush
James Il.
They met at the River Boyne on 1 July 1690. The forces of James
I were defeated. English troops established control over Ireland.
The English parliament passed penal laws against the Catholics
in Ireland; for example, no Catholics could be lawyers.
During the 18th century Ireland remained largely peaceful.
Towards the end of the 18th century, however, more Irishmen
wanted increased political power. In the 18th century the Irish
had their own parliament in Dublin. The Irish parliament had
limited power over the Irish government, which mostly consisted
of Englishmen appointed by the parliament in London. In the
1770s George III relaxed some penal laws. The English were
fighting American rebels and feared a rebellion in Ireland. In
1789 the French Revolution took place, which resulted in the
spreading of radical ideas. These events caused more Irishmen -
both Catholic and Protestant - to demand more political power in
the 1790s.
 p.104-105

The Division of Ireland

Why do you think the majority of the Irish population and the
British government supported partition in 1922?
How was Northern Ireland different from the rest of Ireland?

In 1918 Sinn Fein had the most Irish MPs in the Westminster
parliament. In 1919 Sinn Fein MPs declared themselves the
government of Ireland. They ignored British rule and established
the Irish Republican Army (IRA). Ulster, populated mostly by
Protestants, remained loyal to Britain.
The Sin Fein leader Eamon de Valera supported violence against
British forces. Led by Michael Collins, the IRA began a guerrilla
war against the police, the Royal Irish Constabulary. Britain sent
troops to Ireland to support the Irish police. Some of these troops
were called Black and Tans. All sides committed brutal killings.
The Black and Tans killed and tortured IRA suspects. The IRA
killed Protestant farmers. This resulted in attacks on Catholic
families in Belfast.
In 1920 Lloyd George, the British prime minister, introduced the
Government of Ireland Act. The act allowed six of Ulster's nine
counties to become self-governing with a parliament in Belfast.
The remaining 26 counties would have their parliament in
Dublin. Britain would control the Irish military and naval bases.
The IRA rejected the act and the guerrilla war continued.
Lloyd George was determined to end the conflict. Britain was still
recovering from the cost of World War One. Fighting the IRA was
very expensive. The American government criticised Britain for
not allowing Irish independence. In 1921 a truce was agreed
between Britain and the IRA.
The Anglo-Irish treaty was signed, which had many
consequences. The 26 counties of Ireland became the Irish Free
State. All British forces were withdrawn. The Irish Free State
created its own army, currency and flag.
The six counties of Northern Ireland were not included in the
Irish Free State. The Irish Free State remained a part of the
British Empire.
The majority of people voted for the treaty in 1922 because they
wanted peace. However, De Valera and some members of the IRA
rejected the treaty. A brutal civil war broke out in the Irish Free
State, which lasted until 1923. Throughout the 20th century
tensions remained high between Catholics and Protestants in
Northern Ireland.
 p.108-109

The Beginnings of
Empire
Britain is a group of islands off the north-west coast of Europe.
Its native language, English, is spoken all over the world. An
important reason for this development was the growth of the
British Empire, which continued from around 1700 to after the
end of the First World War (1914-1918). How and why did Britain
become interested in creating an empire across the world?
Trade was an important reason why
Britain began to acquire land overseas. Britain took over lands in
the West Indies and North America to grow crops such as sugar
cane and cotton. It used African slaves to do the work. Many
ship owners became wealthy by selling African slaves to
plantation owners.
British merchants bought slaves in West Africa and transported
them in horrific conditions to the 'New World' of North and South
America. Thousands died on the voyage across the Atlantic.
Britain, however, became wealthy from the slave trade. It was
Britain's desire to become wealthy from trade that led to the
beginnings of empire.
 p.110-111

Britain and the

World
Many important events and people shaped Britain in the period
1700-1918. Placing events in chronological order allows
historians to have a more accurate view of the past.
Getting you thinking
Nelson's Column in Trafalgar Square, London, was built to
celebrate Admiral Nelson's naval victory at the Battle of Trafalgar
in 1805. Napoleon Bonaparte the emperor of France wanted to
invade Britain. He could not launch an invasion due to the
strength of the British Navy in the English Channel. Napoleon
ordered the French Navy, under the command of Admiral
Villeneuve, to sail towards the English Channel. On 21 October
1805, Nelson located Villeneuve and destroyed the French fleet
at the Battle of Trafalgar. Nelson was killed on his ship, the HMS
Victory.
However, Napoleon did not invade Britain, and in 1815 was
finally defeated at the Battle of Waterloo.
Not all important events are to do with war. Lady Mary Worley
introduced a smallpox inoculation into Britain in
1717. Immunity was gained by causing a mild form of the
disease in healthy people, often by blowing powdered smallpox
scabs up people's noses. A vaccination was fully developed in
1796 by Edward Jenner. Jenner's development of vaccinations
resulted in the emergence of many other vaccines, such as
today's swine flu vaccine. Today smallpox has nearly been wiped
out as a disease.
Throughout the 19th century, various people attempted to build
flying machines. On 17
December 1903, Wilbur and Orville Wright launched the first
controlled, sustained and powered flight in the USA.
From this point, flying developed rapidly, increasing travel and
trade around the world.
There were many important events and individuals from 1700 to
1918.
In 1914 one of the world's most destructive wars began, ending
in 1918. In 1916 at the Battle of the Somme, the British Army
suffered 70,000 casualties on the first day. However other
events, such as the American Declaration of Independence in
1776, and the surrender of British Forces in 1781, resulted in
the USA becoming the most powerful country in the world. The
abolition of slavery within the British Empire in 1833 was a very
important development, both for Britain and for other countries -
including the USA, which fought a civil war over slavery thirty
years later.
 p.112-113

Britain: A trading
nation
There were many reasons for Britain becoming an important
trading nation in the period 1750-1900. Factors such as having
a large navy encouraged trade.
Getting you thinking
Look at the pictures of tins on this page, and the designs on
their lids.
• What did the tins contain, and when do you think they were
made?
What do they tell us about trade with other countries?
• What do they tell us about how the British liked to see
themselves?
Britain in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries had a large
merchant navy and important ports, such as Bristol and
Liverpool. Wealthy individuals provided finance to support
trading voyages and find new trading opportunities. Increased
wealth and a growing population in Britain also encouraged
trade. British companies such as the East India Company, which
operated from the 17th century to the early 19th century, helped
to build the British Empire and create new trading links.
Most governments in the 18th century supported mercantilism.
This was a trading system designed to protect British industry
and control trade. Exports from Britain were sold to colonies
within the empire, and imports such as sugar and tobacco were
sent to Britain. This trade was protected through taxes, and
through the army and navy. This policy was known as
protectionism, meaning that only Britain could trade with British
colonies. British governments placed custom duties or tariffs on
goods coming into Britain. This encouraged people to buy
cheaper British goods.
In the late 18th century and 19th century, however, more people
were beginning to support free trade, as argued by Adam Smith
in his book 'The Wealth of Nations'. He believed that customs
duties and tariffs should be abolished to encourage trade. Smith
believed this wow' Sla
Cadbury
increase profits for trading companies and for the nation as a
whole. Adam Smith believed protectionism actually reduced
trade.
(British governments in the 1820s began to adopt a laissez faire
position towards trade. Many customs duties and tariffs were
removed by the mid-1850s. Support for the mercantile system
had almost disappeared. As a result, British exports increased
and secured Britain's position as the leading trading nation
during the 19th century.
Trade was also encouraged by technological developments.
Larger ships made of iron and powered by steam engines
emerged. These ships brought cheaper raw materials to Britain,
resulting in cheaper goods being
made in British factories. This increased demand
th
for such goods,
which helped increase British trade in the 19 century.
 p.114-115

The slave trade

Britain's participation in the slave trade caused great suffering.
Yet successive British governments supported the slave trade.
Getting you thinking
• Why did people in 17th- and 18th-century Britain support
slavery? Use the map below for possible ideas.
Britain supported the trade triangle in the 17th century and
18th
century because it was very profitable. Britain sent goods to
Africa in exchange for slaves. These slaves were then transported
to America and sold to plantation owners. Then raw materials
such as sugar were sent back to Britain. Most slaves were
bought from African and Arab slave traders.
In the period 1700-1807, approximately 12 million Africans were
sent to the Americas in horrific conditions. The 'Brookes' slave
ship carried 600 slaves when it was designed to carry only 451.
Around 15 percent of those sent died during the voyage. Many
slaves died on the plantations through disease or harsh
punishment.
However, huge profits drove the slave trade. Bristol and Liverpool
grew due to slave trade profits. In the 1730s, the average voyage
from Bristol picked up 170 slaves in Africa and made a large
profit of €8,000. By 1771, there were 106 ships a year sailing
from Liverpool, carrying a total of 282,000 slaves. By 1788,
£200,000 worth of goods was being sent to Africa each year. Of
this sum, £180,000 was used for buying slaves. In the 1790s
Liverpool's slave trade accounted for 15 percent of Britain's
entire overseas trade.
Many slaves worked on sugar and cotton plantations in the West
Indies. Cotton was a vital raw material for Britain's growing
industries. In 1770, a third of Manchester's textiles were
exported to Africa and half to the West Indies. The slave trade
provided many new jobs in Britain. In 1753 there were 120 sugar
refineries in England. Many factories emerged in Liverpool to
equip the slave ships. By 1774 there were fifteen rope factories in
Liverpool.
Cheaper goods and foods improved people's living standards and
diets. Sugar, for example, was added to foods such as bread and
porridge. In 1700 British people ate four pounds of sugar each
year, but by 1800 this had increased to 18 pounds. Many British
families made enormous profits from the sugar plantations in the
West Indies.
Many people involved in the slave trade invested money in
Britain. For example, James Watt's work in the steam engines
was partly financed by money from the West Indian slave trade
 p.116-117

Colonial rule in the

West Indies
The British used a variety of methods to control the West Indies.
However, the slaves were never completely subdued and many
rebelled against their owners and rulers.
Getting you thinking
British colonial rulers used very violent methods to control their
slaves. Why do you think this was?
Britain gradually exerted control over the West Indies in the 17th
and 18th centuries. In 1655, the British took control of Jamaica
from the Spanish, gaining more islands after their victories over
the French in the Seven Years War (1756-1763) and the
Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815).
Britain was attracted by the sugar and rum that were produced
in the islands. British companies encouraged settlers to emigrate
to the West Indies. Each island had leaders and assemblies who
answered to the British government. The plantation owners
dominated political life in the islands.
By the 1820s, 12 million people lived in the Americas. Two
million were Europeans and the rest were slaves. Slave owners
used violence to control and make slaves work harder. Many
slaves died from the severe punishments they experienced.
Slaves were organised to work from childhood to old age. Slave
families were often split up when sold to other plantations for
profits.
However, slaves still resisted the plantation owners. Some slaves
ran away and established their own communities, becoming
known as Maroons. They resisted by attacking plantations and
setting slaves free.
The British controlled the Maroons by granting them more
freedom and even allowed them to own slaves.
In 1791 slaves rebelled on the French island of St Domingue and
murdered white plantation owners. The British sent troops to
crush the rebellion, but were defeated by a slave called Touissant
L'Ouverture. The slaves declared their island independent, and
renamed the island Haiti in 1804.
In 1831 a slave rebellion broke out in Jamaica, caused by a
rumour that King William IV had granted slaves their freedom.
The rebellion was led by Samuel Daddy Sharp. After four months
the rebels were defeated and their leaders executed. However, the
rebellion convinced the British prime minister, Earl Grey, that
slavery should be completely abolished. Many people in Britain
supported the abolition of slavery in the early 1830s. Slave
owners were given £20 million in compensation for setting their
slaves free.
 p.124-125

The Indian Mutiny

1857
The Indian Mutiny of 1857 was the closest the British came to
losing control over India in the 19th century. During the mutiny
both the British and the Indian rebels committed very violent
and cruel acts.
Getting you thinking
• Can you decide who was more brutal during the mutiny?
The cartoon below, from Punch magazine, wants to show that
British forces were fighting for justice during the Indian Mutiny,
which began in May 1857. The final spark that started the revolt
was when sepoys in the Indian army refused to bite cartridges
before loading them into their Enfield
Rifles.
Most Sepoys were either Muslims or Hindus.
They believed the cartridges had cow and pig grease in them. In
the Hindu religion, cows are sacred animals. Muslims believe
that pigs are unclean and should not be eaten. Many Indians
were also unhappy that the British were ending some of their
traditions, such as banning suttee and making
English the official language of India.
The revolt began in Meerut near Delhi in northern India.
Eighty-five sepoys refused to use the cartridges. They were
arrested and chained together and sentenced to ten years' hard
labour. This harsh punishment caused more sepoys to rebel in
Meerut and they executed their British officers. The revolt spread
across northern India. The rebels captured Indian towns such as
Delhi. One of the most violent events took place in Cawnpore.
General Wheeler, 300 soldiers and their families were besieged
by rebel forces led by Nana Sahib. In June 1857, the British
surrendered and Sahib told them they could leave by the river.
However, he broke the agreement and attacked the soldiers.
He also ordered the execution of the women and children, many
of whom had their throats cut.
British forces under the leadership of General Havelock reached
Cawnpore and discovered the massacre. Havelock ordered
Colonel Neil to punish captured Indian rebels. Colonel Neil did
not hold trials. He ordered that the Muslim prisoners be forced
to eat pork and the Hindus be forced to eat beef. The prisoners
were also forced to lick up the blood of their victims. After being
humiliated the prisoners were then hanged.
It took over a year for British soldiers, with the support of loyal
Sikh troops, to crush the revolt. Thousands were executed for
participating in the revolt. The British viewed the revolt as led by
people who failed to see the benefits of the British Empire. Many
Indians joined the revolt because they believed they were
defending their religion and traditions against their oppressive
British rulers.
 p.128-129

Britain and North

America
 1620
The British colony of
1607 Massachusetts is
British settlers create a established by the Pilgrim
settlement in Jamestown, Fathers. They are fleeing
Virginia. They do so in order religious persecution in
to find gold, silver, trade England. They are radical
goods and spread the Protestants who disagree
protestant religion with the Church of England.

1608
French create the town of
Quebec, in modern-day
Canada as a trading post and
a base to spread the Catholic
religion.
 1702-13
Queen Anne's War
1664 between Britain and
Pennsylvania is created France. The war is
by William Penn. He is a fought over trade and is
Quaker and wants to part of a war between
create a colony based on the two countries in
religious freedom. Europe.

1670
Britain creates the
Hudson's
Bay Company to
develop trade with
Canada. The company is
a rival of French traders
in Canada.
 1756-63
Britain defeats France in the
French and Indian War. The
1733 war is fought over trade and
The British colony of Georgia land, and is part of a
is created. Britain now has 13 worldwide war between the
colonies in eastern North two countries. Britain wins
America and more colonies and now dominates all of
in Canada. eastern North America.

1744-48
War resumes with France in
King
George's War. The war is
fought over trade and land
and problems in Europe.
 1764
Britain begins to tax the
British colonies in North
America to help pay for 1783
Britain's North American Britain is forced to give
army. independence to the 13
This leads to protests by colonies, which become the
colonists against taxation. United States.

1775
British colonists in the 13
Colonies of the
modern-day eastern United
States revolt against British
rule. It is the start of the
American War of
Independence.
 p.130-131

Causes of American
war of independence
No taxation without representation!
In 1763 Britain had won a great victory over France in the
French and Indian War. All of France's colonies in North America
now became part of Britain's empire. Yet within 12 years, 13 of
Britain's American colonies rose in revolt against British rule.
The picture shows one of the acts of rebellion. So, why did such
a change take place?
Getting you thinking
1763 was a year of victory for Britain and the American
colonists.
The French threat in North America had come to an end.
However, Britain's victory created problems that eventually led to
war.
Britain had gained large amounts of land from France, but in
1763 Britain would not allow American colonists to enter these
new lands.
This caused resentment among the colonists who wanted to
expand westwards.
The war against France had cost a lot of money. So did the
maintenance of a British army in North America. So the British
government expected the colonists to pay towards these costs.
The government in Britain passed acts of parliament to raise
money, such as the Stamp Act of 1765. This placed a tax on
newspapers and official documents. This was done without
consulting the colonists. The Stamp Act caused widespread
rioting in America and demands for repeal. In 1766 the king,
George III, repealed the act. This gave the signal to the colonists
that opposition to British laws could be successful.
In 1770 rioters opposed taxes on trade. In Boston, New England,
troops shot and killed five rioters.
In 1773 the government passed the Tea Act, which lowered tax
on British tea, making it cheaper than American tea. In Boston
Harbour, colonists dressed as Native Americans boarded tea
ships and threw the British tea into the harbour. The incident
became known as the
'Boston Tea Party'.
In 1774 Britain's government allowed the former French colony
of Quebec to give the Catholic Church a special position. This
infuriated the Protestant population of Britain's 13 colonies.
The colonists then met together in an assembly called the
Continental Congress. The assembly aimed to oppose British
laws. They claimed that no taxation should be made in the 13
colonies without the support of the colonists. 'No Taxation
without representation' became the slogan of colonial opposition
to Britain's rule in North America.
In the following year, 1775, British troops in New England
attempted to take guns and ammunition away from the
colonists. At Lexington and Concord, troops and colonists
clashed. The American War of Independence had begun.
 p.132-133

Britain loses the war

In the American War of Independence, Britain had the world's
best navy and one of its largest armies. The American colonists
were a ramshackle band of farmers and townspeople. However,
the Americans won. The picture shows the final surrender of
Britain at Yorktown. How could the world's greatest empire lose?
Getting you thinking
Britain had to fight a war over 3,000 miles from Britain. It took
over two months to sail from Britain to the 13 colonies.
Many of the 13 colonies were heavily wooded, divided by rivers
and mountains. This was very difficult country for the British
army to fight in.
The colonists were formed into an army by George Washington.
Washington avoided major battles so as to prolong the war,
which would make the British give up.
British troops were led by poor commanders. General Burgoyne,
who attempted to split New England from the rest of the
colonies, was surrounded by the Americans at Saratoga. He was
forced to surrender his whole army. This was the first major
victory for the colonists.
The Battle of Saratoga convinced the British prime minister, Lord
North, that the war could not be won. It also persuaded France
to join the American colonists in the war against Britain.
Many people in Britain supported the American colonists'
demand for’ no taxation without representation’.
France, Spain, and Holland joined the war on the American side
from 1778. They had modern armies and large navies. Britain
had to fight a war in the colonies, Europe, the West Indies and
India.
In 1779 the British navy lost control of the North Atlantic ocean.
This was the only time Britain lost control of this area in the
entire 18th century.
American and French troops forced a British army under Lord
Cornwallis to surrender at the costal town of Yorktown.
Cornwallis could not pull his army out because the French navy
controlled the sea off the coast of North America.
 p.136-137

A country without a
king: The United
States
Getting you thinking
In 1787, representatives from each of the 13 states met in the
hot, humid summer of Philadelphia. Each wanted to keep control
of its own affairs as much as possible. However, all the states
realised they had to work together to prevent attack from other
countries and to encourage trade. They came together to produce
a constitution for a new state. These would be the rules which
decided how political power was divided.
The 13 states were of different sizes. Some were large with big
populations, such as Virginia. Others were small, such as Rhode
Island. Each had its own way of organising its government.
The 13 states had revolted against Britain because they feared
tyranny. If they were to create their own new country they
wanted to prevent any one person or organisation having
complete power. If any agreement was to take place, it would
involve compromise by all the states.
Who was to be the chairman of this mixed gathering of states?
The states chose George Washington. He had been the general
who had led the states to victory over Britain.
How to avoid tyranny?
The representatives at Philadelphia decided to divide political
power between the states and a national government. The
national government had control over foreign affairs, national
defence and trade between the states.
Everything else such as law and order and education was
controlled by individual states.
In the national government, political power was divided between
an elected president, a parliament and a court of law. No one
part of government could act alone. It had to get the support of
the other two parts of the national government. This was called
the separation of power.
What made the United States different from most European
countries was the decision not to have a monarch. Instead it
became a republic. It was to have an elected president chosen for
a four-year period of office.
George Washington was chosen as the first president and took
office in 1789.
The US system of government
President
• elected every four years
• head of armed forces
responsible for foreign policy
Laws were made by Congress, consisting of two houses, the
Senate and the House of Representatives.
Senate
• each state, whether large or small, had two senators
• elected new senators every 6 years
House of Representatives
• states had seats based on their population, so large states had
more representatives
Laws passed by Congress would then be reviewed by the
Supreme Court.
Supreme Court
• members chosen for life interpreted the constitution could
decide whether or not the president or Congress acted lawfully
Court.
Supreme Court
• members chosen for life interpreted the constitution could
decide whether or not the president or Congress acted lawfully
 p.142-143

The Lion’s share: the

British Empire in
1918
Getting you thinking
The picture below is the cover of an annual from 1913, showing
Britain as a roaring lion. In 1918 Britain had the world's largest
empire, covering a quarter of the world's surface. It also
contained a third of the entire world's population. How did a
small country off the coast of Europe come to possess the world's
greatest empire?
Britain acquired a large empire for a variety of reasons.
Trade
Britain wanted raw materials for its manufacturers and new
markets for British goods:
• India from 1612 until the end of 19th century provided goods
such as cotton and a place to sell British goods.
The islands of the West
Indies produced sugar after the 1660s.
• Hong Kong, a British colony, began to trade with China in
1842.
• South Africa provided gold from the 1880s.
Canada produced wheat.
Until the abolition of the slave trade in 1807, slaves for the West
Indies plantations came from Gambia and Ghana in west Africa.
protection of trade routes
Britain occupied other places to protect its sea routes, to ensure
trade could continue safely.
The British established colonies in:
• Singapore (1815)
• Cape of Good Hope (1806)
• Falkland Islands (1833)
Naval bases
Britain had the world's greatest navy after the 18th century. It
required naval bases around the world. When coal became the
major fuel for naval vessels, these bases also acted as coaling
stations:
• Gibraltar (1713)
• Malta (1815)
• Singapore (1815)
• Labuan Island off Borneo (1842)
Victory in war
Britain won many wars from the 18th century to 1918. As the
victor, Britain was able to acquire territory from the defeated
countries:
• Quebec in Canada from France (1763)
• Tanganyika in East Africa from Germany
(1918)
Land for settlement
Many British people wanted to start new lives overseas. Parts of
the British Empire provided new lands for these settlers:
• Australia from 1788
• Canada in the 19th century
• New Zealand in the 1840s
Protecting British lands in
India
India was regarded as the most important part of the British
Empire. It was called
'the jewel in the crown of the Empire'. To protect India from
attack, Britain acquired the following territories:
• the region of present-day Pakistan in the 1840s
• Myanmar (Burma) in the 1880s
Spreading the Christian religion
British missionaries went overseas to spread the Christian
religion to non-Christian people:
• Uganda in the 1890s