VSCI (Ethology) ➢ But it reappears in an animal’s

behavior after any change in its

1ST Semester – 2ND Term environment.

Habitat Selection/Exploration ❖ Exploratory behavior equips the

animal with a system of behavioral
Why is understanding habitat adjustability that can be brought
selection important? readily into operation.

a) Comfort zone
Exploratory System
b) Source of food and water • The exploratory system in behavior is
evident through many animal
c) Reproduction activities.

d) Refuge from predators • This system can be outlined most

simply as causal factors and
e) Establish socialization w/ other consequent activities as follows:
species avoidance of competition
(food, space, etc.) a) Need within the animal for
perception of environmental
f) Maintain ecological niche (balance) characteristics.

g) Develop individual animal’s b) Activation of the exploratory

exploratory behaviors behavior.

h) Establish groups/individual space c) Receipt of sensory feedback from

requirements the environment and hence
information that can be used.
i) Maintains survivability/evolution and
avoid extinctions d) Reduction in the causal factor level
as a result of sensory input.
j) Forecasting of future events
e) Return of the cycle to a basal level
of readiness with the lodgment of
❖ All domestic animals are strongly the information in the memory.
motivated to explore and investigate
when they encounter a new
environment. Functions of Exploratory Behavior
❖ Each of the functional systems of
❖ Only when the environment has animals requires that some
become very familiar to them does exploration and investigation occur
the exploratory behavior subside. before it can operate effectively
A. Efficient exploitation of food sources ➢ This demonstrates that socially
must be preceded by location of these deprived lambs have deficits in
and estimation of efficient routes to exploratory capacity.
use when acquiring food. ➢ A deficit of this nature would not
provide the animal with good
B. Water sources and places where survival prospects in a natural
water loss is minimal must be found. environment.

C. Physical hazards must be located if ❖ Incomplete exploration is a poor basis

they are to be avoided successfully for adaptation, and an animal with
such a behavioral deficit must be at a
D. Exploration of other individuals and of biological disadvantage in many
own ability must occur if adequate situations.
sexual and social behavior is to occur.
❖ Exploratory deficits will result in
E. Most of all, exploration is necessary if cognitive deficits, and associated
effective anti-predator behavior is to fearfulness will probably create stress
be shown. predisposition in various demanding
husbandry situations.

Factors Affecting Exploratory Behavior

Exploration and Awareness
❖ Most animals put into a new open
area are likely to follow the boundary ❖ The key function of exploration is
before exploring the interior of their preparation for what might happen in
enclosure. the future:

❖ In these initial activities, groups may ➢ Will a predator attack and what
be bunched in a closer intra-group shall I do?
spatial organization than usual.
➢ Will there be a shortage of food or
❖ A factor often associated with close competition for food and how they
confinement, is the absence of shall act so as to maximize the
possibilities to explore, investigate chance of obtaining sufficient
and interact with social companions. food?

❖ Livestock held in social isolation show ➢ If it becomes cold, windy or wet,

a variety of abnormalities of where they shall hide?
behavioral development.
❖ When such questions are put in the
❖ Isolation-reared lambs tend to avoid first person, it becomes clearer that
the situation of a novel environment the actions of the individual that
by withdrawing and avoiding explores are preparations for
interaction with it. possible, perhaps predicted, future
events.
❖ A substantial degree of awareness is between one another (except in
needed to be able to evaluate and special circumstances related to
prepare for what might happen in the sexual, maternal and aggressive
future. behavior).

❖ The distance they maintain between

Spacing Behavior themselves and other animals,
especially potential predators, is
• It is of considerable importance for
much greater.
social species that live in closely
➢ This latter if light distance is the
associated social groups.
radius of space within which the
➢ E.g., pack of wolves or dogs, which
animal will not voluntarily permit
can be considered as one species,
the intrusion of man or other
are clustered in an extended
animals that might be dangerous
family group in relatively small
without escaping.
areas for much of their lives.

• In social species, cross-specific

Reactions To Intrusions Include:
relationships of a mutually beneficial
➢ Startle
kind are frequent.
➢ Alarm
➢ Dogs identify humans as
➢ Fight or Flight Display
important social partners and
➢ Vocalization
many humans identify dogs as
important social partners.
➢ Occasionally, the individual
Territory
regarded as a partner views the
• An area that is defended.
member of the other species as
largely a provider rather than a
partner.
Agonistic Behavior
• A term often used for behavior
involving threat, attack or defense.
Two (2) General Types of Spacing
➢ Groups of farm animals–
especially those kept for long
1. Individual Space
periods in extensive areas such as
• That is defined in terms of the
common grazing, ranges and
individual and hence moves with it.
ranches–devote little energy to
fighting or threat.
2. Home Range and Territory
• Refer to a static area used by the
animal.
Group Harmony
• A prominent feature of collective
behavior through systems of social
❖ Dogs, horses, rabbits, cattle, sheep,
organization.
goats, pigs and domestic fowl allow
fairly close physical proximity
❖ When animals limit their movements 3. Individual space
to a home range this will include • Most animals actively preserve a
resources such as food. minimum distance from themselves
and attempt to prevent others from
❖ Conspicuous features of group entering this space.
behavior are social facilitation and • The minimum distance within which
synchrony of action, so that the approach elicits attack or avoidance.
members of a group are often involved
in the same activities.
Spatial Features
• May be defined by local geography in
Three (3) Types of Space significant ways for animals:
➢ Edge of a river, lake, or wood
1. Home Range ➢ Series of caves
• Area that the animal learns thoroughly ➢ Open space where no predator
and that it habitually uses. could approach
• In some cases, the home range may ➢ Marshy area
be the animal’s total range. ➢ Refuge tree
• Within a home range, such as an • Could be selected by an animal as a
extensive area of pasture, there may place to spend time.
be a core area.

Core Area Association vs. Avoidance

• The area of heaviest regular use within
the home range. ❖ Although domestic animals maintain
• Generally includes resting areas. individual space and sometimes
defend territories, they also actively
remain close to certain other
2. Territory individuals.
• An area that is defended by fighting or
by demarcation, which other ❖ Some of such association is between
individuals detect so that the mark or mother and offspring.
other signal is a deterrent to entry.
❖ Other association is between animals
• It need not be permanent, but would reared together or between animals
often provide for requirements of that form an attachment later in life.
nutrition, shelter, resting, watering,
exercise, evacuation, periodic ❖ Animals that are associated may
movement, and defensive shifting. move closer together when there is
danger.
• In many species, these are used to
attract a mate.
 Two (2) Types of Spatial Needs Terminologies

1. Quantitative Adaptability
• Relate to space occupation, social • Describes the extent to which the
distance, flight distance, and actual regulatory systems of an animal can
territory. facilitate physiological or behavioral
responses that allow it to deal with
2. Qualitative changes in its environment.
• Relate to space-dependent activities
such as eating, body care,
exploration, kinetics, and social Animal sanctuary
behavior. • An enclosure or area which houses a
group of orphaned or rescued
animals.
Crowding • Typically, the animals are kept either
• Groups of individuals whose permanently or for an extended
movements are restricted by the period of time prior to release back
physical presence of others. into their natural environment.

• A high density means more likelihood

that one animal will come closer to Animal Shelter
another than its individual distance. • Aims to provide for an animal in the
short term with a view to rehoming.
• The intrusion into individual space
may result in an aggressive response
or an avoidance reaction which, in Brumation
turn, results in a further such • Winter dormancy in reptiles (snakes,
intrusion. lizards, turtles, alligators).

• It does not necessarily result in

increased agonistic behavior, but it Captive Animal Environments
often does so. • These are diverse and include private
homes, farms, ranches, animal
• It has an effect on the extent to which shelters, laboratories, zoos, circuses,
animals move about. sanctuaries and others.

Overcrowding Cholecystokinin (CCK)

• When high social density causes • A hormone found within the brain and
adverse effects on the fitness of gastrointestinal system that has
individuals. diverse roles in sexual behavior,
learning, pain and, most importantly,
gastrointestinal (GI) function and
feelings of satiety.
Group Grouping
• Animal associations are observed
• Animals are often found in close
when groups are more beneficial for
associations or groups.
individual members than solitary
action or existence.
• The study of why animals group
➢ Predator mobbing
together is a fundamental question in
o An example of a group-related
sociobiology and behavioral
benefit.
ecology.
o This is where pre harass and
attack a predator to lower the
• Animals may form groups due to
immediate and long-term risk
localized resources or attractions
posed by it, warn others, and
(e.g. moths around light).
communicate about the
➢ These groupings are not
predator's threat.
necessarily due to the animals
being social in nature.
• Grouping may be distinguished into
two:
• Locally distributed habitats and
➢ Aggregations – e.g. an association
resources may overlap with other
of animals without any clear
animals, leading to clumps or
organization over an abundant
groups.
source of food.
➢ Social groups – characterized by
• If the habitats and resources are some degree of cohesion and
patchy in distribution then the coordination of movements
animals may also appear to be living among group members.
in social groups, even though they do
not engage in much social behavior.
Habit
• Non-social animals tend to have • A behavior or sequence of behaviors
random patterns of distribution while that has been performed with such
social animals, tend to have even or regularity in response to a certain
clumped distributions. stimulus.

• Predators may hesitate to attack a • A fixed, semiautomatic response.

large group of animals and, if they do,
the risk to any one of the group is
• May occur with some regularity and
greatly decreased.
may appear to be independent of its
original reward.
• Groups of animals also have better
access to resources.
• Becomes entrenched within the
➢ They potentially have access to
behavioral predispositions of the
mates without prolonged
individual following repetition, and
searching and they may have help
this developmental element
in finding and/or building shelter.
 distinguishes it from fixed action • Four primary taste sensations have
patterns. evolved to assist in this process:
a) Sweetness
• Habits are often referred to in a o For foods with high
negative context, although they may concentrations of simple
not necessarily be detrimental to the carbohydrates.
individual’s welfare or fitness. b) Sourness
o For foods with a high acid:base
• For example, habits might include ratio.
successful ritualized behavior c) Saltiness
sequences, as occur, for example, in o For foods with high
courting displays, as well as concentrations of sodium and,
behaviors with more negative to a lesser extent, potassium.
connotations such as stereotypical d) Bitterness
pacing within confinement. o For foods with potentially toxic
organic compounds, e.g. many
plant alkaloids.
Handling
• Can be defined as the manual or • There is limited evidence that animals
mechanical carrying, moving and/or can recognize the inherent value of
transportation of fauna. foods from their taste.
• The correct handling of animals is
important for their welfare, as • They may adapt to potentially toxic or
incorrect handling may result in stress bitter compounds, however, and this
and injury to the animal. could be due to increased hunger in
• It may also have health and safety the absence of alternative, safe,
implications for the handlers foods.
involved.
• They can also develop aversions to
sweet foods.
Hedyphagia
• The selection of food items according • In relying on sensory feedback, the
to the amount of pleasure derived hypothesis of hedyphagic selection
from them, or their hedonic value. does not often have sufficient regard
for the post ingestional
• Natural selection has evolved consequences of the feed.
mechanisms for animals to be
satiated by foods that are good for
them, but not by foods that do them Hierarchy
harm or are of no benefit. • In order to cohabit, they establish
social relationships between group
• The primary mechanism for members, and one outcome of these
discrimination between foods is by relationships is the establishment of
their taste.
 dominance hierarchy or social • A critical component of animal
hierarchy. territoriality is that an individual must
use a particular area for an extended
• The term hierarchy suggests that the period of time, a pattern of behavior
animals are arranged in some kind of called site fidelity.
static graded or ranked order, but in
most animal groups this is an
oversimplification. Territory Defense
➢ As relationships between • Includes a wide range of aggressive
individuals are often dynamic and behavior patterns that tend to
situation specific and may involve discourage other individuals from
coalitions formed with other group remaining in, or returning to, a
members. particular area these include chases,
fights and the use of jaws, claws,
horns or other weaponry to inflict
Home Range costs on other individuals.
• Its concept seems implicitly
understood but is difficult to define • Many territorial animals are able to
and measure precisely. discourage other individuals from
• It is often defined as the area that an entering space using behavior
animal routinely uses. patterns that do not have such an
• Alternatively, it may be defined as the obvious and immediate effect on the
area that an animal is familiar with recipients.
(which would be larger than the area
that it normally uses) or the area that • Experimental studies using tape-
it uses a large proportion of the time recordings have shown that the song
(hence excluding areas used only of a territory owner reduces the
occasionally). chances that other members of the
species will enter the territory, relative
to their entry rates when control
Territoriality sounds are played from the same
• One of the most useful general location.
definitions was developed in the
middle of the 19th century, defined a • Familiar examples of territorial
territory as any defended area. advertisement include:
➢ songs of birds or crickets
• These days, most scientists focus on ➢ visual signals such as the push-up
space that is defended for a long displays of lizards
period relative to an animal’s lifespan, ➢ scent marks deposited around the
to distinguish the defense of a territory by wolves or rabbits.
territory from the defense of more
ephemeral resources (e.g. individual • Territory owners often make fine
food items or basking sites). discriminations among different
 categories of intruders when • The geographic distribution of food (or
defending their territories. some other defendable resource, e.g.
➢ E.g. male house mice defend potential mates) is an important
exclusive territories against other determinant of whether an animal will
dominant males, but permit adult defend a territory or not.
females, subordinate males and
juveniles to share their territory.
Translocation
• In many species, territory owners • The intentional capture and transfer
behave differently when interacting of wild animals or populations from
with individuals with whom they share one part of their historic range to
a common border (neighbours) than another.
when interacting with otherwise
comparable strangers. • Used to establish, re-establish or
augment a wild population to
• In some species, territory owners are increase the viability of a species or to
less aggressive to neighbours than to supplement game animal
strangers (the so-called dear enemy populations.
effect), while in other species the
reverse is true, and owners react more • Also used as a control measure to
aggressively to neighbours than to remove nuisance animals from areas
strangers. where they are causing damage, and
thus alleviate human-animal conflict.
• In some animals, discrimination
among different categories of • Most translocation research has
intruders may even extend to selected focused on mammals and birds, but
members of other species. translocations have also been
➢ E.g. algae-eating reef fish that conducted with fish, amphibians and
defend their territories against invertebrates.
other species with similar feeding
habits but ignore species with • Though translocation has become an
different feeding habits. increasingly popular conservation
tool, most translocations fail to
produce sustainable populations and
Territory involve risks such as disease
• Can be defined as an area that is transmission.
defended (physically, vocally, e.g. ➢ This has led to an increased
howling or birdsong, or withscent interest in determining the factors
marking, etc.) against a particular that influence the success of
category of members of the same translocations and to design
species (conspecifics) or the methodology to minimize
members of other species transmission of disease.
(heterospecifics) for an extended
period of time.
• Post-translocation mortality is • Post-release dispersal and habitat
highest in the first days to weeks selection may initially be high
following release, as animals make because animals:
settlement decisions and modify the ➢ Are site faithful
release-site habitat to accommodate ➢ Are not familiar with the physical
their needs. characteristics of the release site
or with the individuals with whom
• Problems associated with the initial they were released
establishment phase include: ➢ Are at a disadvantage when
a) Post-release dispersal (i.e. long- competing for resources with
distance movement away from the residents
release site).
b) Predation • Biologists studying translocations are
c) Stress response to the novel beginning to understand these
environment problems and modify translocation
d) Finding food methodology to address these issues.
e) Competition for resources (e.g.
territory) with conspecifics - either ➢ For example, to dampen post-
residents or fellow releasees. release dispersal and decrease
stress, biologists have used soft
• Among the proposed explanations for release techniques, where the
the high mortality during the animals are provided with some
establishment phase, post-release form of support during the release
dispersal and predation are thought (e.g. a period of time in an
to be important factors. enclosure on the release site
and/or supplemental food being
• Immediate rejection of a release site provided after release).
indicated by post-release dispersal
has been documented in many ➢ Compared with hard release (e.g.
species. direct release without an
➢ In some cases, translocated acclimation period), soft releases
animals travel all the way back to are generally thought to enhance
their natal habitat (i.e. ‘homing’). the likelihood of translocation
success, via increasing site fidelity
• Long-distance movement and, for and post-release survival.
many species, the required habitat
modifications (e.g. digging burrows) • However, results that have directly
leave translocated animals addressed this question are mixed,
particularly vulnerable to predation possibly because other factors that
immediately after release. influence translocation success (e.g.
predators) outweighed the effects of
this technique.
Grooming • Birds use their bills to realign and
• A natural behavior which function is dress feathers with oil from a gland at
thought primarily to be cleaning of the the base of the tail, a behavior known
outer surface of the body, including as preening.
removal of both dirt and parasites. ➢ Preen Glands
o Located on the back near the base
• It may be equally important as a of the tail.
display behavior and a social o These secrete lubricants that keep
behavior. their feathers from drying out
completely.
• Many species of animals spend a
large part of their time self-grooming. • Invertebrate animals also spend time
in grooming rituals:
• It involves cleaning the surface, also ➢ Insects rub their antennae.
known as the integument, of the ➢ Crustaceans have appendages
body, including hair, skin, feathers or with setae (hairs) specialized for
scales. grooming. Like insects, they keep
➢ As the integument may function as their antennae and gills clean.
a temperature regulator, a sense
organ, a protective device, a • Licking the body surface may help to
moisture barrier and a signaling keep animals cool, and behaviors
device, its care is critical in body such as dust bathing, commonly
maintenance. observed in birds, may help with this
process, too, as well as with the
• Animals differ in their methods of removal of parasites.
grooming:
➢ Mammals tend to lick themselves, • In birds with a deformed beak or bill,
use their teeth to nibble and/or the resulting parasite infestation can
use their forepaws. reduce the insulating properties of the
➢ Primates use their dexterous plumage.
hands to rub and manipulate their
hair. • Grooming may also help to heal
➢ Companion animals may spend a wounds.
large amount of time in self- ➢ Animal saliva may produce
grooming. proteins that help in wound
healing.
• Cats are known for their fastidious
attention to self-grooming. • Ants have metapleural glands.
➢ Located on the thorax (the region
between the head and body of
arthropods).
➢ These secrete antibiotic
substances that are smeared over
 their bodies to keep bacteria and ➢ Birds may groom one another,
fungi from flourishing in their nest. especially when forming pair
bonds.
• Grooming can also serve as a social ➢ Primate relatives, such as baboons
signal. and chimpanzees, spend more
➢ Small male rodents groom not only time grooming near-relatives than
to keep their fur clean but also to more distantly related individuals.
attract females. The longer a male
grooms himself the more interest a • Mutual grooming serves not only to
female shows, possibly due to the clean areas of the body that are
odors that the males are emitting. difficult to reach, but also reinforces
the bond between kin.
➢ In some birds a ritualized display of
grooming is often part of a male’s • Wild animals in captivity may also
courtship display, a bright and display excessive grooming behavior,
healthy coat attracting potential possibly as a result of boredom or
mates. frustration resulting in displacement
behavior, replacing more appropriate
➢ In the chimpanzee males groom behavior that may have been
one another, more when females performed in the wild.
are present.
• Stereotypic or compulsive and
• Social insects also use grooming as a repetitive grooming behavior has
communication tool: been observed in many species,
➢ Worker honeybees groom the including giant pandas, parrots and
queen, picking up a pheromone chimpanzees.
that is then transferred through the
nest. • Behavioral enrichment programs,
now included in the management
• Mutual or social grooming is readily programs of many zoos and wildlife
demonstrated in adults of many parks, are helping to reduce this
animal species: unwanted behavior.
➢ Horses regularly groom one
another, a response that has been • In addition to reducing the parasite
shown to reduce heart rate. load and keeping the animal’s coat
➢ Primates, particularly the apes, healthy, grooming, such as stroking or
help to remove parasites and dirt petting the animal for pleasure, is a
from one another’s coats. mutually beneficial exercise and an
➢ Cats that are familiar with one important part of caring for animals,
another or related are more likely to and therefore has a significant role to
groom one another and to spend play in enhancing the human-pet
time in proximity to one another. bond.
Allogrooming
• The grooming of one individual by
another.
• It will often be reciprocated by
conspecifics in bouts of mutual
grooming.
• It is commonly observed between
mother and young, and is necessary
for the cleaning of juvenile animals,
which may not yet be able to toilet or
self-groom.