GROUP 6.

COMMUNICATION FOR WORK PURPOSES

A. WORKPLACE COMMUNICATION?
​ Workplace communication is a discipline of its own that is unlike academic or scholastic
writing. Workplace writing serves specific purposes for particular individuals, groups,
organizations, or departments. The same is true to spoken communication in the workplace
both in personal interactions or through phone conversations. Therefore, in communicating in
the workplace, your purpose and audience should be identified and specifically considered to
ensure that your message and the way you deliver your message are appropriate to the context.

In communicating in the workplace, there are 3 things you need to consider:

1. PURPOSE. According to Searles (2014), nearly all workplace writing is done for at least one
of three purposes: to recreate a record, to request or provide information, or to persuade.

So, before attempting to compose a letter, you must first do some thinking in order to identify
which of the three categories of purpose applies. Ask yourself two questions: Am I writing
primarily to create record, to request/provide information, or to persuade? Summarized in one
sentence, what am I trying to say? To answer, focus on your subject matter, with special
emphasis on the most important elements. To enable you to get off to a running start, answering
the five W's (who, what when, where,why) might be a helpful strategy.

2. AUDIENCE. Who will read what I have written? That is the next logical question. Also, the
following questions should be considered: Am I writing to one person or more than one? What
are their job titles and/or areas of responsibility? What they do already know about the specific
situation? Why do they need this information? What do I want them to do as a result of receiving
it? What factors might influence their response? (Searles, 2014).

By answering these questions, you will be better able to state the purpose of your
communication, provide necessary details, cite meaningful examples, achieve the correct level
of formality, and avoid possible misunderstandings, thereby achieving the outcome that you
desire.

In identifying your audience, the following broad categories of workplace communication

must be considered:

a. Upward Communication– from your position to an audience above you in the job hierarchy. ​
​ Example: A response to a letter from your manager.
b. Lateral Communication– between you and an audience within your level of hierarchy.
​ Example: A phone call to/from a coworker you are collaborating with.
c. Downward Communication– from your position to an audience below you in the job
hierarchy. ​ Example: An oral reminder to a trainee.
d. Outward Communication – between you and a company that you do business with or an
audience outside your workplace.
​ Example: A letter of inquiry addressed to a supplier regarding a delivery to your office.

The category influences workplace communication in many ways, particularly in determining

format. For example, for the first three categories, memos and emails are the preferred
mediums. For the fourth one, writing business letters, and sometimes for efficiency purpose,
emailing are the norms.

3. TONE
Tone in workplace communication means the feeling your words give — are you being polite,
bossy, friendly, or cold?

When you start a message, you can use two styles:

1.Writer-centered:
​ You focus on yourself (the sender).
​ It often starts with “I want”, “I need”, or “I think”.
​ It can feel bossy, cold, or unfriendly – even if that’s not the intention.
​ Example: "I want this done today."
2.Reader-centered:
​ You focus on the person you're talking to (the reader).
​ Example: "Can you please finish this today so we can stay on track?"

Reader-centered tone is better at work because it shows respect and teamwork.

- Expressing messages in a gentle manner is important, even when discussing negative topics ​
​ such as delayed projects, going beyond a deadline or denied claims.
- Use the most upbeat, relatable, gentle and reader-centered wordings
- Using positive words like "please" and "thank you" can help create a sense of understanding ​
​ between the sender and receiver.
- Rephrasing negative content into more positive climate can impact the tone of the message.
Examples:
1.​ Instead of "I cannot process your request for a credit in your account unless it has been ​
​ investigated by the fraud department", say "Your request for a credit in your account will ​
​ be processed after it has been investigated.”
2.​ Instead of “We are closed after 5:00 PM daily”, say “You may visit us daily before 5:00 ​
​ PM.”
3.​ Instead of “Wait for our call regarding your concern.” say “Please be advised that you ​
​ can expect a call from us regarding your concern.”

- When acknowledging mistakes, it's important to apologize without incriminating oneself

or one's group. A simple acknowledgment and apology can go a long way in maintaining
positive relationships.

Making an apology which is vague and rather impersonal does not mean that workplace
communication suggests to falsify responsibility. It is important that you uphold moral
and ethical standards in providing sincerity to an issue.

Speaking of moral and ethical standards, remember that workplace communication will fail
the ethics test if it is corrupted by any of the following tactics identified by Searles (2014):
​ 1. Suppression of information: The outright burying of data to hide inconvenient
truths. (Example: A company fails to reveal product-testing results that indicate potential danger
to consumers.)
​ 2. Falsification or fabrication: Changing or simply inventing data to support a desired
outcome. (Example: A company boasts of a fictitious enterprise to lure investors into supporting
a new venture.)
​ 3. Overstatement or understatement: Exaggerating the positive aspects of a situation
or downplaying negative aspects to create the desired impression.
(Example: A public-opinion survey describes 55 percent of the respondents as a
"substantial majority" or 45 percent as "a small percentage.")
​ 4. Selective misquoting: Deleting words from quoted material to distort the meaning.
(Example: A supervisor changes a report's conclusion that "this proposal will seem feasible only
to workers unfamiliar with the situation" to "this proposal will seem feasible... to workers.")
​ 5. Subjective wording: Using terms deliberately chosen for their ambiguity.
(Example: A company advertises "customary service charges," knowing that "customary" is
open to broad interpretation.)
​ 6. Conflict of interest: Exploiting behind-the-scenes connections to influence decision
making. (Example: A board member of a community agency encourages the agency to hire her
company for paid services rather than, soliciting bids.)
​ 7. Withholding information: Refusing to share relevant data with coworkers.
(Example: A computer-savvy employee provides misleading answers about new software to
make a recently hired coworker appear incompetent.)
​ 8. Plagiarism: Taking credit for someone else's ideas, findings, or written material.
(Example: An employee assigned to prepare a report submits a similar report written by
someone at another company and downloaded from the Internet.
Chapter 7: Communication for Work Purposes
BUSINESS LETTERS

​ Over the past years, the skill in business writing is considered one of the important
elements for success in any field of endeavor; be it in business, profession, or specialization.
Thus, obtaining skills in making an effective business letter is a requirement for making a strong
connection to any linkages in any kind of transaction.

Here are the following definitions and descriptions given by experts about business writing:

According to W. J. Weston, a business letter is the process of accomplishing business

transactions in written form.

As Nordquist (2017), author and professor at Armstrong State University, said in his online
article, the term business writing refers to memorandums, reports, proposals, emails, and other
forms of writing used in organizations to communicate with internal or external audiences.
Business writing is a type of professional communication. Also known as business
communication and professional writing.

Mosura, et al. (1999), in their book entitled Contemporary Technical Writing Styles and
Strategies, said: Writing business correspondence like letters and memos is a skill or potential
that must be developed and possessed by a person regardless of his work, profession or
specialization.

Cullen (2017), an international business writing trainer and executive writing coach, had this to
say: Improving your business writing can propel both careers and businesses. It's the channel
that transmits nearly all business work and insight, and interaction. It flows up, down, laterally,
internally, and externally to customers. It's the foundation of business.

These provide you with ideas regarding the use and importance of business letters in
almost all sorts of transactions, and having the necessary skills in making them as early as
your student years will be your advantage.

I. PURPOSES
​ ● Convey Information: The primary purpose of any business letter is to convey
information related to business activities. Business letters are utilized to communicate with
customers, suppliers, debtors, government authorities, financial institutions, banks, insurance
companies, and other parties connected to the business. The letter serves as a formal method
of sharing information clearly and professionally.
​ ● Maintain Evidence: Business letters also serve as a means of maintaining
documentary evidence. Letters can be preserved for future reference, providing a record of
agreements, decisions, and communications. This documentation is vital for legal and historical
purposes.
​ ● Problem Solving: Disputes and misunderstandings can arise in business interactions.
Business letters play a crucial role in resolving such issues. By addressing concerns formally,
clarifying positions, and providing solutions, business letters can help prevent conflicts from
escalating and maintain positive professional relationships.

II. TIPS IN WRITING BUSINESS LETTERS

Use the following basic tips to ensure your correspondence has a clean, professional look.
1. Choose Standard-Sized White Paper:
​ Use high-quality white paper, usually 8.5” x 11” (letter size).
2. Use Easily Understood Typography:
​ Select a font that is easy to read, such as Times New Roman, Arial, Calibri, or any other ​
​ formal, easy-to-read font style.
3. Ensure the Letter is Neat:
​ The letter should be clear, well-organized, and professional.
4. Do Not Write or Type on the Back of the Paper:
​ A business letter should only be written on the front of the paper.
5. Follow the Seven C’s of Effective Writing.

SEVEN C’S OF EFFECTIVE WRITING

o Clarity:
​ Choose precise, concrete, and familiar words. Construct effective sentences and ​​
​ paragraphs. The reader should understand the message upon the first reading.
o Completeness:
​ Ensure the letter provides all necessary information. For example, an order letter should ​
​ not only mention quantity, but also size, price, packaging, delivery details, transportation ​
​ charges, discount rates, payment terms, and conditions.
o Conciseness:
​ Be to the point. Avoid unnecessary repetition and include only relevant material. The ​
​ message should be brief yet complete.
o Concreteness:
​ Use specific facts and figures. Put action in verbs, and choose words that create clear ​
​ images in the reader’s mind. Avoid vague language.
o Consideration:
​ Focus on the reader by using "you" instead of "I" or "we". Show the reader the benefits ​
​ and emphasize positive, pleasant facts. Be mindful of the reader's perspective.
o Courtesy:
​ Whether writing a complaint or addressing a concern, be sincere, thoughtful, and ​
​ respectful. Express appreciation, and offer to assist within reason. Always maintain a ​
​ courteous tone.
o Correctness:
​ Use the appropriate level of language, and double-check facts, figures, dates, prices, ​
​ spelling, and grammar. Maintain proper writing mechanics to ensure professionalism.
III. PARTS OF A BUSINESS LETTER
1. The Heading

​ The heading contains the return address with the date on the last line. Sometimes it is
necessary to include a line before the date with a phone number, fax number, or e-mail address.
Often, there is a line skipped between the address and the date. It is not necessary to type a
return address if you are using stationery with the return address already imprinted, but you
should always use a date. Example:

​ 543 Washington St
​ Marquette, MI 49855
​ Tel:
​ Fax:
​ Email:
​ June 28, 2011

2. The Recipient’s Address/Inside Address

​ This is the address to which you are sending your letter, and it includes the name which
the letter is written to and addressed to. It could be a person, a company, or an organization's
name. Example:

​ DR. VICTORIA B. MARTINEZ

​ Principal
​ St. Anthony Integrated School
​ Quezon City

The inside address begins four lines below the heading and is even with the left-hand margin.

●​ If you don’t know the name of the person who will be handling the letter, you may
address it to a title.

●​ Specify the department in the company to which you are writing.

​ Be sure to make it as complete as possible so it gets to its destination. Always include

title names (such as Dr.) if you know them. This is, like the other address, on the left margin. If a
standard 8 ½” x 11” paper is folded in thirds to fit in a standard 9” business envelope, the inside
address should appear through the window in the envelope (if there is one). Be sure to skip a
line after the heading and before the recipient’s address, then skip another line after the inside
address before the greeting. For example, see the end of this sheet for a sample letter.
3. The Salutation
​ The salutation (or greeting) in a business letter is always formal and written in politeand
courteous manner. It is followed by a comma (,) or a colon (:). But, in the business letter,
the salutation is always followed by a colon (:).

​ It often begins with “Dear {Person’s name}.” Once again, be sure to include the
person’s title if you know it (such as Ms., Mrs., Mr., or Dr). If you’re unsure about the
person’s title or gender, then just use their first name. For example, you would use only the
person’s first name if the person you are writing to is “Jordan” and you do not know whether
they identify as male, female, or non-binary.

Example:
Mr. (NAME),
Sir (NAME),
Dear Sir (NAME),
My Dear (NAME),
Mrs. (NAME),

Madame (NAME):
Dear Madame (NAME):
Dear Dr. (NAME):
Dear Rev. (NAME):
Miss (NAME):

4. The Body of the Letter

​ The body is the meat of your letter. This part contains the main purpose of the letter, the
very reason for writing. The body of the letter must be written in a straightforward, simple, and
coherent manner.

​ For block and modified block letter formats, single-space and left-justify each paragraph.
Using the semi-block style, each paragraph will be indented a few spaces. Be sure to leave a
blank line between each paragraph, however, no matter the format. Be sure to also skip a line
between the salutation and the body, as well as the body and the close.

5. The Complimentary Close

​ The complimentary close is a short and polite remark that ends your letter. The close
begins at the same justification as your date and one line after the last body
paragraph.mCapitalize the first word of your closing (Thank you) and leave four lines for a
signature between the close and the sender’s name. A comma should follow the closing.
Example:
A Less Formal
Person Is Higher Than You
Respectfully yours,
Very respectfully yours,
Sincerely yours,
Very sincerely yours,
Much obliged,
Very much obliged,
Truly yours,
Very truly yours,

The word very is used to show great respect to the reciever/ recipient of the letter.

6. The Signature Line

​ Skip at least four lines after the close for signature, and then type out your name to be
signed. The name is written in the first line, then your position on the next line; your signature is
above your name.
​ If you are printing this letter out and sending it by mail, you will sign your name in pen.
This line will include your first and last name, and often includes a middle initial, although it is
not required. You may put your title beforehand to show how you wish to be addressed (Ms.,
Mrs., Dr.). The signature should be in blue or black ink.

IV. BUSINESS LETTER FORMATS

These are formats of a business letter according to
https://www.nmu.edu/writingcenter/parts-business-letter:

1. Block/Full-block Format
​ This is the most common layout for a business letter. In block format, all parts of the
letter are aligned to the left. The text is single-spaced, and a double space is used only when
starting a new paragraph. This format is left-justified and widely used in most business settings
due to its simplicity and clarity.

2. Modified Block Format

​ In the modified block format, all parts of the letter are left-aligned and single-spaced,
except for the heading and the closing, as well as to the date (aligned with the right side), which
are placed at the right margin, making this format slightly less formal than the full block format
but still professional. This format is commonly used when a more personal touch is desired.

3. Semi-Block Format
​ In the semi-block format, paragraphs are indented instead of being left-aligned. The
heading is centered, and the date can be placed three spaces after the heading on the right
side. The recipient's address is left-aligned, and the closing is placed on the right side. This
format is less formal than the block format and more formal than the modified block format,
making it versatile for most business situations
.
V. TYPES OF BUSINESS LETTER
​ The following are the most frequently written business letters. Each is briefly described
and exemplified using different formats:

1. Letter of Request.
​ This letter is written to make someone do something or consider something. A letter
requesting an interview is an example of this. The application letter could be the most popular
example of this, as the applicant is requesting a prospective employer to consider their job
application.
2. Letter of Inquiry.
​ Letters of inquiry are among those regularly received by business firms; hence, they are
also called everyday letters. Such letters have to be answered promptly because they could
clinch a business deal or at least build public relations for the company (Alcantara, et.al, 2010).
A letter of inquiry is done when something in concern of the business must be clarified or to get
information about, like the products or services, price list, mode of payment, mode of delivery,
etc.
3. Letter of Order.
​ A letter of order is done when a company formally wants to avail the service or product
of their partner company. In writing a letter of order, one must remember that the description of
the merchandise needed to order is clearly stated. Its quantity, size, color, and other special
features must be well stated as well. The schedule of shipment, as to when, where, and how,
must also be given. Finally, the ordering company must also inform the mode of payment it will
use to process the order.

4. Letter of Acknowledgement.
​ A letter of acknowledgment is sent by the company when orders or remittances are
finally received by them. For the new customers, they have to respond right away to establish a
good relationship with them for the sake of future transactions. When writing this kind of letter,
one must include the following: a very warm, polite and welcoming start of the letter, the
confirmation that the company already received the remittance or payment for the transaction,
the OR (Official Receipt), and the assurance that the expected service will be done right away.

5. Letter of Complaint or Claim.

​ This is the letter to make when, for example, the delivered products do not match the
order that was made prior to the delivery. When making this letter of, you must include some
background information, but come quickly to the point, identifying the problem. Also, politely say
what you want the reader to do about the problem.
6. Letter of Adjustment.
​ An adjustment letter is done when there is a request for themodification of the product or
to explain something about the delivered product. An adjustment letter should begin with a
positive statement, expressing sympathy and understanding. Near the start, it should let the
reader know what is being done, and this news, good or bad, should be followed by an
explanation. The letter should end with another positive statement, reaffirming the company's
good intentions and the value of its products, but never referring to the original problem
(https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-adjustment-letter-1688973).

VI. DO’S AND DON'TS IN WRITING BUSINESS LETTERS

Do’s

1. Write with the reader in mind. If you're writing about a technical subject for a non-technical ​
​ reader, try to avoid technical jargon and acronyms they may not be familiar with and, if ​
​ possible, explain concepts in a way that the reader can relate to.
2. Choose an appropriate tone for your business writing. You may wish to adopt an informal
​ tone when writing for colleagues or business associates that you know well, but in any ​
​ situation where you are not one hundred percent sure as to how your writing will be ​
​ received or interpreted, it's better to play it safe and maintain a formal and respectful ​
​ tone.
3. Save your best-written documents as templates for future use. There is no point in
​ wasting effort to reinvent the wheel each time you need to write a similar document.
​ Save well-written and effective documents as templates that can be edited and
​ amended for future use.
Don’ts

1. Become over-reliant on your computer's spelling/grammar checking facility. It is easy ​

​ to assume that nowadays computers are smart enough to pick up and correct every little ​
spelling and grammatical error, but this isn't the case. Always proofread your writing for ​ ​
mistakes before distributing it to a wider audience or, better still, get someone else to ​ ​
check it over for you.
2. Be tempted to use sarcasm jokingly in written communication. In verbal communication, ​
​ your intent, whether serious or humorous, is given away by your delivery and tone of ​
​ voice. These qualities are lost in written communication, and a quip which may seem ​
​ funny to you at the time of writing may be entirely misinterpreted by the reader, causing ​
​ unintended offence. As far as humour goes in business writing, if in doubt, leave it out.
3. Be careless when writing a recipient's name, gender, or professional title. Whether ​
​ you're writing to your CEO or an important customer, accidentally addressing them as ​
​ 'Mr.' when you meant 'Mrs.' or 'Ms.' is inexcusable, as is attributing them an incorrect job ​
​ title or spelling their name incorrectly. Check and double-check that you have the correct ​
personal details before sending letters or emails.
GROUP 8
A.​ MEMORANDUM

What is a Memorandum?
​ A memorandum, commonly referred to as a memo, constitutes a concise message or
record utilized for internal communication within a business. While once the predominant
method of internal written correspondence, memoranda(plural) have experienced a decline in
usage following the advent of email and other electronic messaging forms; nevertheless, the
ability to compose clear memos can undoubtedly benefit one in the crafting of internal business
emails, as both often serve the same purposes.

​ A memorandum may have a format specific to an office or institution.

​ Memos are an effective way to communicate significant decisions or policy changes to

your employees or colleagues. It’s important to take the time to craft a well-written memo to
ensure your message is conveyed as intended.

​ Memos can be used to quickly communicate brief but important information to a wide
audience, such as procedural changes, price increases, policy additions, meeting schedules,
reminders for teams, or summaries of agreement terms. Memoranda can move horizontally and
vertically within a company; hence, they are considered a vital means of information
dissemination that are sure to be received by everyone in the company.

​ Aside from this, they can also be considered written records or documents of the
company. It must be remembered that the key people in the organization, though they are not
mentioned in the memorandum, should be furnished with all important memoranda to keep
them abreast of what is happening in the agency.

​ A memorandum is usually sent by a person occupying a high position to their

subordinates. However, there are instances when a memorandum is sent to individuals having
the sane rank with you, in this case “Memo for” instead of “Memo to” should be used.

B. Types of Memoranda

​ As mentioned above, memorandums serve as internal communication within a

workplace. Naturally, there are different purposes of internal communication within a workplace,
which will also apply to memorandums.

1.​ Memorandum that requests.

This document serves as a guideline for making requests. When asking for something, it’s
important to approach the situation with courtesy and respect. Avoid using demanding
language; instead, begin with your request and provide a rationale for it. Conclude your
document politely by stating the deadline for the request and explaining the reason for that
timeline.
 2.​ Memorandum that responds.
This is used when there is a prior document that needs a response. As such, you start with a
summary of the previous document, followed by your responses arranged according to the
order of the original requests. To facilitate this, use boldface headings to emphasize or clarify
groupings. Close politely by making an assurance that you are willing to be of service again.

3.​ Memorandum that informs.

This document is used to state, explain, or clarify a policy or issue. Therefore, it should be
concise and clear. To begin, summarize the main idea and, if necessary, provide an explanation
for it. Conclude by highlighting the benefits.

​ C. Writing an Effective Memo

​ ​ An effective memo, wrote Barbara Diggs-Brown, is "short, concise, highly
organized, and never late. It should anticipate and answer all questions that a reader might
have. It never provides unnecessary or confusing information." (The PR Styleguide, 2013)

​ ​ Be clear, focused, and concise while ensuring your message is thorough.

Maintain a professional tone, as if the entire world could read your words. Avoid including any
sensitive information, particularly in today’s environment where it's easy to "click and forward" or
copy and paste.

Format
​ To create an effective memo, start with the essentials: indicate the recipient, the date,
and the subject line. Begin the body of the memo by stating its purpose. Convey the information
you want the readers to understand and conclude with any actions you need them to take.

​ Keep in mind that employees may only skim the memo when they first receive it, so use
short paragraphs and subheadings. Whenever possible, incorporate lists as they serve as
"points of entry" for readers, allowing them to easily refer back to specific sections of the memo.

Writing the Heading of the Memorandum

1. Type “MEMORANDUM” at the top of the page. State that this document is a memorandum
at the outset. Label the page “MEMORANDUM” 1.5 inches (3.8 cm) from the top of the page.
Put the word in bold on the first line. You can either center it on this line or left-align it. You might
also choose to make the font larger for this word.

Double space between this line and the next line of the heading.

2. Address the recipient appropriately. A memo is formal business communication, and you
should address the reader formally as well. Use a full name and title of the person to whom you
are sending the memo.

If you are sending a memo to the entire staff, you might write: “TO: All Employees.”
3. Add additional recipients on the CC line. The “CC” line indicates who will receive a
“Courtesy Copy” of the memo. This is not the person to whom the memo is directed. Rather,
someone may need to stay informed about policies or issues you’re addressing in the memo.

4. Write your name in the “From” line. The heading needs to include who is writing and
sending the memo. Your full name and job title go in this line.

5. Include the date. Write the complete date, spelling out the month and including the date and
year. For example, write: “DATE: January 31, 2019” or “DATE: 31 January 2019.”

6. Choose a specific phrase for the subject line. The subject line gives the reader an idea of
the memo. Be specific but concise.

7. Format the heading properly. The heading should be at the top of the page, aligned to the
left-hand side of the page. Capitalize the words “TO:”, “FROM:”, “DATE:”, and “SUBJECT:”

A sample heading would look like:

​ TO: Name and job title of the recipient

​ FROM: Your name and job title
​ DATE: Complete date when the memo was written
​ SUBJECT: (or RE:) What the memo is about (highlighted in some way)

#ImportantThingsToRemember
= When constructing the heading, be sure to double-space between sections and align the text.
= You may choose to add a line below the heading that goes all the way across the page. This
will separate the heading from the body of the memo.

Writing the Body of the Memorandum

1. Consider who the audience should be. To get people to read and respond to the memo, it’s
important to design the tone, length, and level of formality of the memo to the audience who will
be reading it. Doing this effectively requires that you have a good idea of who the memo is
intended for.

2. Skip a formal salutation. A memo does not start with a salutation such as "Dear Mr. Trump".
Instead, it should begin directly with the opening segment that introduces the matter being
discussed in the memo.

3. Introduce the problem or issue in the first paragraph. Provide a brief context for the
action you want them to take. This serves a purpose similar to a thesis statement, introducing
the topic and explaining its significance. You might also think of the introduction as an abstract
or summary of the entire memo. As a general guideline, the opening should be about one
paragraph long.

4. Give context for the issue at hand. Your reader may require some background information
about the issue you are addressing. Provide context, but be brief and only include what is
necessary.

5. Support your course of action in the discussion segment. Provide a brief summary of the
actions to be implemented. Present evidence and logical justifications for the proposed
solutions. Start with the most important information, followed by specific supporting details.
Explain how readers will benefit from taking the recommended action, or how they may face
disadvantages if they choose not to act.

6. Suggest the actions that the reader should take. A memo serves as a call to action on
specific issues, such as announcing a new company product, outlining new policies for expense
reports, or addressing a particular problem the company is facing. In the closing paragraph or
sentence, restate the action you want the reader to take.

7. Close the memo with a positive and warm summary. The final paragraph of the memo
should restate the next steps to address the issue at hand and include a warm note reiterating
the organization's solidarity.

GROUP 9. PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION COMMUNICATION FOR WORK PURPOSES

COMMUNICATION FOR WORK PURPOSES

​ Effective communication in the workplace is essential for productivity and

organizational success. Despite the availability of various communication tools, studies have
shown that many professionals still struggle with conveying information clearly and effectively.
Dainton and Zelley (2015) highlight this paradox, noting that while communication is often
emphasized in corporate settings, effective organizational communication is rarely practiced. In
response, educational institutions are placing greater emphasis on developing students'
communication skills, particularly in writing. This report focuses on two critical forms of
workplace communication—MEETING MINUTES and INCIDENT REPORTS—and aims to
enhance understanding of their structure, purpose, and importance in documenting key events
and facilitating informed decision-making.

A. MINUTES OF THE MEETING

I.​ Definition:
​ Minutes of the Meeting are official written records that document the discussions,
decisions, and actions taken during a meeting. They serve as a reference point for future
planning, accountability, and tracking progress. Well-documented minutes help ensure
transparency and clarity across team members and stakeholders.

II.​ Purpose/Objectives:
1.​ Primary Objective
​ To create an accurate, formal record of the discussions, decisions, and action items from
a meeting.
Meeting minutes serve a dual purpose: they inform those unable to attend the meeting about
the discussions and decisions and provide a reference point for future decision-making based
on what was agreed upon during the meeting.
2.​ Key Objectives:
​ i. Documentation: Meeting minutes provide a written record of what was discussed and
decided.
​ ii. Transparency and Accountability: They ensure everyone is aware of the meeting's
outcomes and who is responsible for specific actions.
​ iii. Record Keeping: Minutes serve as a permanent record of the meeting, which can be
useful for historical purposes or for referencing in the future.
​ iv. Reference Material: They provide a summary of key points for those who couldn't
attend or need to refresh their memory.
​ v. Action Item Tracking: Minutes help to track progress on assigned tasks and ensure
accountability.
​ vi. Legal Record: In some formal settings, meeting minutes can serve as a legal record
of the meeting.

III. Components of the Meeting Minutes:

The meeting minutes typically include:
1.​ Meeting Basics – Organization name, date/time, location, meeting type
2.​ Attendance – List of attendees and absentees with roles
3.​ Call to Order – Time and presiding officer.
4.​ Approval of Minutes – Amendments or acceptance of previous minutes
5.​ Agenda & Discussion – Agenda items, motions, votes, decisions
6.​ Action Items – Tasks, assigned persons, deadlines.
7.​ Announcements – Summary of announcements made.
8.​ Adjournment – Time ended, motion to adjourn.
9.​ Next Meeting – Date, time, and location
10.​Secretary's Info – Name, signature, preparation date

IV. Types of Minutes:

1.​ Action Minutes
Action minutes focus exclusively on documenting the decisions made and the specific tasks
assigned during a meeting. They do not include the detailed discussion or context surrounding
those decisions.
 2.​ Discussion Minutes
These minutes provide a detailed account of the discussions that took place, including the
rationale behind decisions, arguments presented, and differing opinions.
3.​ Verbatim Minutes
These minutes are word-for-word transcripts of what was said during the meeting. They
capture every statement, speaker by speaker.
4.​ Summary Minutes
Summary minutes provide a concise overview of key topics, decisions, and actions discussed,
without the detailed dialogue or justifications.
5.​ Action and Decision List
This format presents a tabular list of all decisions made and the corresponding actions to be
taken, including the rationale where applicable.
6.​ Informal Minutes
Informal minutes are flexible, loosely structured notes, often written in casual language. They
capture the essence of the meeting without adhering to strict formats or sections.
7.​ Formal Minutes
Formal minutes follow a strict and structured format, adhering to organizational or legal
standards. They are typically reviewed and approved in subsequent meetings.
8.​ Executive Minutes
Executive minutes are high-level summaries intended for senior executives. They highlight
strategic decisions and omit operational details.

V. Standard Format:
●​ Meeting Title: A clear and specific title that reflects the purpose of the meeting (e.g.,
"Event Planning Meeting"). It helps identify what the meeting was about at a glance.
●​ Date + Time : Indicates when the meeting took place. This includes the exact date and
starting time of the meeting.
●​ Location: Refers to the venue where the meeting was held (e.g., “Conference Room B,
Xexfo”). In virtual settings, this may be a Zoom link or platform name.
●​ Attendees: The list of individuals who were present during the meeting, usually with
their names and positions for clarity and accountability.
●​ Absentees: Names and positions of people who were expected to attend but were not
present. This is helpful for tracking participation.
●​ Agenda: A structured list of topics or issues to be discussed during the meeting.
Each agenda item usually includes a short description or objective.
●​ Decisions: Summarizes the outcomes or resolutions made during the meeting. This
records what was agreed upon.
●​ Action Items: Specific tasks assigned to individuals or teams as a result of the
meeting. It usually includes the responsible person and expected deliverables.
●​ Next Meeting Date: The scheduled date for the next meeting, ensuring continuity and
preparation for follow-up discussions.
VI. Process in Creating:
​ BEFORE THE MEETING
●​ Prepare thoroughly.
●​ Work with the chair to determine the level of detail required.
●​ Create a structured agenda and minutes template in advance, listing date, time, location,
and agenda items.
●​ Distribute or review all relevant materials beforehand.
●​ Bring tools for note-taking (laptop or notebook) and an attendance list so participants
can check in.
DURING THE MEETING
●​ Follow the agenda outline to record proceedings.
●​ Start by noting basic details – organization name, meeting date/time, location, chair, and
list of attendees (and absentees)
●​ For each agenda item, jot down the key points of discussion (in your own words) and
any formal motions or resolutions.
●​ Record outcomes and vote results, and list all action items with the person responsible
and deadlines.
●​ Use neutral phrasing and avoid trying to transcribe every remark; focus on decisions,
agreed actions, and important questions raised.
AFTER THE MEETING
●​ Finalize the minutes promptly.
●​ Transcribe any handwritten notes and fill in any missing details while the discussion is
fresh.
●​ Proofread carefully for accuracy, consistency, and grammar.
●​ Ensure all motions, names, figures, and action items are correct.
●​ Circulate the draft minutes to participants (often via email or a shared platform) for
review and approval.
●​ Incorporate any feedback, finalize the document, and file the approved minutes with the
meeting’s agenda and materials as the official record.

VII. Key Terminologies:

●​ Agenda – List of topics to be discussed; shared in advance for preparation.
●​ Quorum – Minimum number of members needed to officially hold the meeting.
●​ Minutes – Official summary of decisions, actions, and key points from the meeting.
●​ Motion – A formal proposal made during a meeting that requires a vote.
●​ Action Item – A specific task assigned to someone, with a set deadline.
●​ Ad hoc - specially for the purpose of...
●​ Adjourn -to stop a meeting until a late date
●​ Adopt minutes - when minutes are accepted by members
●​ Consensus - general agreement
●​ Convene - to call for a meeting
●​ Propose - to suggest an idea
●​ Oppose - to speak against a motion/idea suggested by another member
VIII. Things to Avoid:
OVERLOADING DETAILS
●​ Avoid recording every comment.
●​ Focus on key outcomes, motions, and decisions.
SUBJECTIVITY AND BIAS
●​ No personal opinions or emotional language.
●​ Use neutral, professional phrasing (e.g., “concerns were raised”).
POOR STRUCTURE
●​ Follow the agenda format.
●​ Use clear headers, bullet points, and sections for clarity.
DELAYING DISTRIBUTION
●​ Share minutes promptly to aid follow-up.
●​ Timely circulation ensures accuracy and accountability.
OMITTING CORRECTIONS
●​ Accept and apply corrections.
●​ Ensures reliable and credible meeting records.

IX. Best Practices in Writing Minutes:

●​ PREPARE BEFOREHAND: To organize and gather all necessary materials, agendas, or
information before the meeting begins. This ensures the meeting runs smoothly and
efficiently.
●​ RECORD ESSENTIAL DETAILS: To document the most important information
discussed during the meeting, such as key points, decisions, and action items, ensuring
nothing critical is missed.
●​ FOLLOW THE AGENDA STRUCTURE: To adhere to the predefined order of topics or
items listed in the meeting agenda, maintaining focus and ensuring all planned
discussions are covered.
●​ CAPTURE KEY DECISIONS & ACTIONS: To document the major decisions made
during the meeting and the specific actions that need to be taken, including who is
responsible for each action and deadlines if applicable.
●​ USE CLEAR & NEUTRAL LANGUAGE: To write minutes in straightforward, unbiased,
and professional language, avoiding jargon or subjective opinions to ensure clarity and
objectivity.
●​ ENSURE ACCURACY & CONSISTENCY: To verify that the minutes are factually
correct and formatted uniformly, reflecting the actual proceedings of the meeting without
errors or discrepancies.
●​ DISTRIBUTE PROMPTLY: To share the finalized meeting minutes with all relevant
participants quickly after the meeting, ensuring that decisions, action items, and key
discussions are communicated while they are still fresh in attendees' minds. This helps
maintain accountability and keeps projects moving forward efficiently.
X. Importance of Accurate Meeting Minutes:
●​ Official record: serves as the formal documentation of what was discussed and decided..
●​ Organizational memory: helps future and absent members understand past decisions.
●​ Accountability & transparency: tracks who agreed to what and when tasks are due.
●​ Legal & compliance tool: proves due diligence and satisfies audit/regulatory
requirements
●​ Strategic planning support: guides future actions by providing reliable reference points.

IX. Traditional and Digital Tools:

TRADITIONAL TOOLS
1.​ Pen and paper- Ideal for small, informal meetings or backup note-taking
2.​ Printed templates - Pre-formatted sheets with fields for date, time, agenda, attendees,
and action items
3.​ Agenda Printout + Margin Notes - Keeps notes contextually aligned with the discussion
4.​ Personal notebooks or Binders - Keeps meeting records together in one place.
DIGITAL TOOLS
1.​ Google Docs- Free, collaborative tool with real-time editing
2.​ Otter.AI - AI assistant that transcribes meetings live
3.​ Notion - All-in-one workspace for notes, tasks, and projects
4.​ Other Tools - Options: OneNote, Word, Fireflies.ai, Fellow, Diligent

B. INCIDENT REPORT

I.​ Definition:
​ ​ An incident is any unplanned event that causes or could have caused harm, ​
​ such as an injury, illness, exposure to a hazard, or property damage. In safety programs,
​ the word “incident” replaces “accident” to emphasize that most incidents are ​ ​
​ preventable. Incident reporting is the formal process of documenting exactly what ​
​ happened. An incident report is a written account that records the details of the event –
​ including where and when it happened, who was involved, and how it occurred – so that ​
​ management can investigate and learn from it. This documentation provides an official ​
​ record of the incident, with facts and timelines, to help prevent future problems.

II.​Purpose/Objectives:
​ ​ The main goals of incident reporting are to improve safety and comply with
regulations:
●​ Prevent future incidents: By documenting incidents, organizations can analyze their
causes and implement fixes. Investigating reported incidents “provides the opportunity to
identify hazards… and implement… corrective actions necessary to prevent future
incidents”. In other words, incident reports help spot patterns and unsafe conditions
before someone gets hurt again.
●​ Learn from every event: Even a minor incident or near miss (a “close call”) contains
lessons. Tracking all incidents helps safety teams find trends and weaknesses in
procedures. For example, a health and safety department “tracks and investigates
 work-related incidents to help prevent injuries and illnesses, and to maintain safe and
healthy workplaces”.
●​ Demonstrate commitment: Thorough reporting shows that an organization values
safety. Employers that focus on fixing “root causes, not on finding fault or blame…
improve workplace morale and increase productivity,” because workers see that safety
matters.
●​ Legal and regulatory compliance: Many agencies require incident reporting. For
instance, OSHA mandates immediate notification for certain events (see When to Report
below). Timely reports also ensure faster medical response and benefits when injuries
occur.

III. Types Of Incidents To Report:

​ ​ Workplace incidents can take many forms. Common categories include:
●​ Injuries and Illnesses (e.g. cuts, strains, or work-related illnesses).
●​ Chemical/Environmental Exposures (to hazardous materials, radiation, etc.).
●​ Fires and Explosions.
●​ Property Damage (equipment or facility damage).
●​ Near-Misses (Close Calls): Events that could have caused injury but didn’t.
Organizations often encourage reporting near-misses so hazards can be fixed before
someone is hurt.
●​ Other Events: Some reports cover security breaches or behavioral incidents. In general,
any unexpected event that threatens safety or property should be reported.

​ ​ These categories often overlap. For example, a spill (a hazard) that causes no
injury is a near-miss, whereas the same spill causing a burn would be an injury incident.

IV. Classification of Incidents:

​ ​ Incidents are often classified by their outcome or severity:
●​ By Severity: Minor incidents (only first aid needed) versus serious ones (hospitalization
or lost work days). OSHA distinguishes injuries requiring medical treatment beyond first
aid (which are recordable) from simple first-aid cases.
●​ Reportable vs. Non-Reportable: Some cases must be immediately reported to
authorities. OSHA, for example, requires employers to report any work-related fatality
within 8 hours and any in-patient hospitalization, amputation, or loss of an eye within 24
hours. Other incidents are still logged internally but do not trigger an OSHA call.
●​ Incident vs. Near Miss: A near-miss is defined as “a potential hazard… where no
personal injury was sustained, but where… injury easily could have occurred”.
Organizations may classify and track near-misses separately from actual injuries to
measure the overall safety of the workplace. Treating near-misses seriously helps
prevent more serious incidents.

V. Writing an Incident Report:

​ ​ When documenting an incident, follow best practices to ensure the report is
accurate and useful. Key writing tips include:
 ●​ Use objective, factual language: Write only what you know happened. Describe events
and actions in a neutral way, without blaming or speculating. For example, say “The
forklift struck a shelf” instead of “The forklift operator was careless.” Using verifiable
details keeps the report clear and reliable.
●​ Include all relevant details: Make sure to record the who, what, when, where, and how.
Important elements include: date and time, location, names and roles of people involved
or injured, witness names, and a step-by-step description of what occurred. Also note
the equipment or materials involved, and any environmental conditions (like slippery floor
or poor lighting). Complete information makes investigation and analysis much easier.
●​ Keep it clear and concise: Use short, direct sentences. A report doesn’t need flowery
language; just the facts in order. Organize the description chronologically (first this
happened, then that happened). If the report form has sections (e.g. “Incident
Description,” “Witness Statement,” “Corrective Actions”), fill in each section with the
required info.
●​ Be timely: Write the report as soon as possible while details are fresh. Recording events
within a few hours (or at most one day) improves accuracy. Many organizations ask that
reports be completed within 24–48 hours of the incident. Prompt reporting also ensures
that any urgent corrective actions (like fixing a hazard) can be taken immediately.
●​ Maintain confidentiality: Use discretion when including personal information. Incident
reports often involve sensitive details (medical issues, personal info). Only include what’s
necessary, and follow privacy policies. A good practice is to share reports only with
people who need to know (managers, safety staff, HR).

VI. After an Incident Reporting:

​ Immediately after an incident occurs, take these steps (adapted from university
and OSHA guidelines):
●​ Ensure safety and care: First, make sure everyone is safe. Administer first aid
or call emergency services if needed. Remove the person from danger if
possible, and perform any urgent corrective action (for example, turn off
machinery or clean up a spill) to prevent further harm.
●​ Notify supervisors: Tell your immediate supervisor or a responsible manager
right away about the incident. They may call for additional help (EMS, building
maintenance, etc.) and will start the formal reporting process. Don’t wait – even
minor incidents should be reported promptly.
●​ Secure the scene: If it’s safe, preserve the incident area as-is so investigators
can examine it. Take photos of the scene, equipment, or conditions that
contributed to the incident (spills, broken tools, warning signs). Identify and ask
witnesses to stay nearby to give statements.
●​ Document and report: Fill out the official incident report form or online system.
Many organizations require a written report within 24 hours. Provide the details
you gathered: what happened, when, where, and who was involved. Include
witness statements or attach notes. For example, Stanford’s policy instructs
employees to “complete necessary documentation” (their Incident Report form)
 immediately after reporting the incident. The University of Washington similarly
requires submission of an online accident report within 24 hours if possible.
●​ Follow any emergency protocols: If special hazards are involved (chemicals,
fire, radiation), follow your workplace’s emergency procedures (evacuation, spill
cleanup, etc.) and notify the designated safety team. For example, some labs
require special logs for chemical exposures or radiation incidents.

VII. When to Report:

​ Always report an incident promptly — even if you’re not sure how serious it is. As a
general rule, “if in doubt, report it.” Key points on timing:
●​ Immediately for serious incidents: If someone has died or needs in-patient
hospitalization, or if there is a major injury (amputation, loss of an eye), OSHA requires
employers to be notified right away. Fatalities must be reported within 8 hours; serious
injuries within 24 hours.
●​ Within 24 hours for others: For most work-related injuries or illnesses (even if they seem
minor), you should file an incident report on the same day or the next day. Stanford, for
instance, requires all work-related incidents (injury, illness, exposure) to be reported
within 24 hours of occurrence.
●​ Report near-misses too: Don’t wait for an injury. If a close call (a “near miss”) happened
— for example, you nearly slipped on a wet floor but didn’t fall — file a report. Reporting
near-misses helps catch hazards before someone gets hurt. The UW safety office
explicitly “highly encourages” reporting near-miss events.
●​ All work-related incidents: Typically, any event that occurs at work should be reported:
injuries (even if only first aid was needed), illnesses from work, exposures, fires, and
even property damage where someone could have been hurt. If you discover a serious
hazard (like a structural crack or exposed live wire), report that too.

VIII. The Incident Reporting Process:

​ Once an incident report is submitted, the organization follows a process to investigate
and resolve it:
a.​ Review and Acknowledge: A supervisor or safety officer receives the report and
checks that it is complete. They may interview the reporter immediately for any missing
information.
b.​ Investigation: A team (often including supervisors, safety staff, and sometimes
employees) investigates the incident. They gather evidence (photos, equipment logs),
interview all witnesses and the person involved, and analyze conditions. The goal is to
understand why it happened. OSHA and EPA encourage a root cause analysis: look
beyond the obvious cause to find underlying system failures. For example, if a spill
caused a slip, root cause analysis asks why the spill occurred, why it wasn’t cleaned up,
etc.
c.​ Identify Contributing Factors: Investigators list all factors that led to the incident:
equipment failure, lack of training, poor lighting, pressure to work quickly, etc. By asking
“why” repeatedly, they may find several root causes.
 d.​ Corrective Actions: Based on the findings, the team recommends specific fixes. This
can include repairing equipment, revising procedures, retraining staff, or installing
safeguards. The idea is to fix the system so the incident (and similar ones) do not
happen again. As OSHA emphasizes, incident investigations should focus on “identifying
and correcting root causes”, not blaming individuals.
e.​ Reporting Back: The supervisor or safety manager communicates the findings and
corrective actions to all affected employees and managers. This might involve a safety
meeting, updated safety instructions, or signage. Sharing lessons learned is vital to
improve the overall safety culture. (Many organizations even maintain an incident log or
database to track trends over time.)
f.​ Follow-Up: A person is assigned to verify that corrective actions are implemented. For
example, if a new guardrail was ordered after the incident, the team checks that it was
installed and is used correctly. This closes the loop.

IX. Importance of Incident Reporting:

​ Timely and accurate incident reporting is crucial for safety and health. Some key
reasons:
●​ Prevents Recurrence: Documenting incidents allows organizations to catch hazards
early. For example, if several reports show workers spraining ankles at one entrance,
management can add non-slip mats or change the walkway before a serious injury
occurs. By implementing fixes, future incidents are avoided.
●​ Improves Safety Culture: When workers see that reports lead to real changes (and not
punishment), they trust the system. As OSHA notes, focusing on improvements rather
than blame “improves workplace morale and productivity”. A strong reporting system
shows that management values everyone’s safety.
●​ Compliance and Legal Protection: Incident records help in meeting legal
requirements. For example, OSHA logs (Form 300) and report submissions demonstrate
compliance during inspections. Accurate documentation can also protect the
organization in case of liability claims by showing that appropriate steps were taken.
●​ Learning and Improvement: Repeated incident patterns reveal systemic issues. In
patient-safety studies, for instance, hospitals use incident reports to learn from mistakes
and improve care. Similarly, any workplace can analyze reports to spot trends (like
defective tools or inadequate training). This organizational learning is only possible if
incidents are reported.
●​ Cost Savings: Preventing injuries saves money. According to studies, each serious
injury avoided saves on medical costs, lost workdays, and insurance claims. While we
didn’t cite specific figures here, safety professionals agree that prevention through
reporting is far cheaper than dealing with repeated accidents.

X. Common Mistakes to Avoid:

​ Even good systems can falter if reports aren’t done properly. Watch out for these
pitfalls:
●​ Delayed Reporting: Waiting too long to file a report can let evidence disappear and
memories fade. Timely reporting (often within 24–48 hours) is essential for accuracy.
 ●​ Incomplete Information: Leaving out details (time, location, names, sequence of
events) makes investigation hard. Every report should answer the basic questions: who
was involved, what exactly happened, when and where it happened, and why (as far as
known).
●​ Underreporting Near-Misses: Ignoring incidents that almost happened is a lost
opportunity. Failing to report near-misses means missing chances to fix hazards before
an injury occurs. Treat near-misses with the same importance as actual incidents.
●​ Subjective or Blaming Language: Writing opinions or judgments (“He’s careless”, “She
didn’t follow instructions”) can bias the report. Stick to facts. Avoid using accusatory or
emotional language, as it may discourage others from reporting or cooperating.
●​ Skipping Training/Unclear Procedures: Sometimes employees don’t report because
they’re not sure how. Organizations should train everyone on the reporting process. If
procedures are unclear, incidents will slip through. (Likewise, lack of management
support can lead to inconsistent reporting across departments.)
●​ No Follow-Up: Filing the report is just the start. A common mistake is treating it as done
and forgetting to investigate or fix the problem. Without proper follow-up, the hazard
remains.

XI. Tools & Formats:

​ Organizations use various tools and formats to standardize incident reporting:
●​ Paper or Digital Forms: Many workplaces provide a specific form or template for
reports. For example, Stanford University uses an “Incident Report (SU-17)” form that
employees and supervisors fill out. This form guides the user to include necessary
details and helps safety staff track trends across the university.
●​ Online Reporting Systems: Increasingly, companies use web portals or mobile apps.
The University of Washington, for instance, has an Online Accident Reporting System
(OARS) where employees submit incident reports electronically. Digital systems can
automatically flag when reports are overdue and compile data for analysis.
●​ Regulatory Templates: OSHA and other agencies sometimes provide sample forms.
OSHA’s “Near-Miss Incident Report Form” is a template that encourages reporting of
hazards. It defines a near-miss and includes fields to describe the hazard and
recommend fixes. Companies can adopt or adapt such forms for consistency.
●​ Software Tools: Some industries use specialized safety-management software (e.g.
Intelex, Gensuite) that include incident modules. These can handle attachments (photos,
videos), route reports to the right people, and track corrective actions. Even email or
helpdesk systems are used as ad-hoc reporting tools in some organizations.
●​ Standard Content: Regardless of format, most incident reports cover similar sections:
date/time, location, individuals involved, incident description, witness statements,
immediate actions taken, and recommended corrective actions. Following a consistent
format helps ensure every report has the key facts.
GROUP 10. CITATION AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

A.​ AVOIDING PLAGIARISM

​ Plagiarism is the unethical practice of using words or ideas (either planned or

accidental) of another author/researcher or your own previous works without proper
acknowledgment. It is considered as a serious academic and intellectual offense; plagiarism can
result in highly negative consequences such as paper retractions and loss of author credibility
and reputation. It is currently a grave problem in academic publishing and a major reason for
retraction of research papers.

Here are some guidelines to avoid plagiarism:

1. Understand the context

Do not copy–paste the text verbatim from the reference paper. Instead, restate the idea in your
own words.
Understand the idea(s) of the reference source well in order to paraphrase correctly.

2. Quote
Use quotes to indicate that the text has been taken from another paper. The quotes should be
exactly the way they appear in the paper you take them from.

3. Identify what does and does not need to be cited

Any words or ideas that are not your own but taken from another paper need to be cited.
Cite Your Own Material—If you are using content from your previous paper, you must cite
yourself. Using materials, you have published before without citation is called self-plagiarism.
The scientific evidence you gathered after performing your tests should not be cited.
Facts or common knowledge need not be cited. If unsure, include a reference.

4. Manage your citations

Maintain records of the sources you refer to. Use citation software like EndNote or Reference
Manager to manage the citations used for the paper
Use multiple references for the background information/literature survey. For example, rather
than referencing a review, the individual papers should be referred to and cited.

5. Use plagiarism checkers

You can use various plagiarism detection tools such as iThenticate or eTBLAST to see how
much of your paper is plagiarized.

B.​ BIBLIOGRAPHY

​ A bibliography is a list of all of the sources you have used in the process of researching
your work. In general, a bibliography should include: the authors’ names, the titles of the works,
the names and locations of the companies that published your copies of the sources, the dates
your copies were published, the page numbers of your sources (if they are part of multi-source
volumes)

C.​ CITATION

Citing and Referencing in Academic Writing

Academic writing involves sources of information from authorities of published materials (books,
journal articles and published reports). These sources are used to support the ideas you
present. They are classified as primary and secondary.

Primary: publicly available data (historical documents, interview data), raw data from
experiments and demographic records

Secondary: data that were also based on primary data and have been produced for public
consumption in journal articles or chapters in edited books.
When you include sources in your academic paper, they are known as literature. When you use
literature in your paper, it is known as citing or in-text referencing.

D.​ CITATION STYLE TYPES

There are many types of citations styles used in academic writing and they depend on the type
of paper you are doing. Generally, students do not choose, they simply comply with the
referencing style guidelines provided by the school or department they belong to. The following
are the citation style types commonly used in academic writing:

APA (American Psychological Association) FORMAT

​ This is used within the social sciences and sometimes in other related fields. It is an
author-date format by which in-text references are given within parentheses.
a.​ Author Rules:
​ Initials are separated and ended by a period e.g. Mitchell, J.A
​ Multiple authors are separated by commas and an ampersand e.g. Mitchell, J.A.,
Thomson, M., & Coyne, R
​ Multiple authors with the same surname and initial: add their name in square brackets
e.g. Mendeley, J. [James]

b.​ Date Rules:

​ Date refers to date of publishing
​ If the date is unknown ‘n.d’ is used in its place e.g. Mendeley, J.A. (n.d)

c.​ . Title Rules:

​ The format of this changes depending on what is being reference.
 d.​ Publisher Rules:
​ If in the US: the city and two letter state code must be stated e.g. San Francisco, CA
​ If not in the US: the city and country must be stated e.g. Sydney, Australia

e.​ Retrieved from Url: This is used if the source is an online source

In-text referencing:
​ Example: Diaz (2010) suggested that…
​ Recommendations suggested that (Diaz, 2010)

Reference list:
1.​ Book:​ Author’s last name, Initials. (Year Published). Title of book. Place of publication.
Publisher.

Example: Walklate, S. (2017). Criminology: The basics (2nd ed.). London, United
Kingdom: Taylor & Francis Ltd.

2.​ Journal article: Last name, Initials. (Year Published). Title of article. Title of Journal,
Volume number. Page numbers.

Example: Sorensen, J., Snell, C., & Rodriguez, J. J. (2006). An Assessment of Criminal
Justice and Criminology Journal Prestige. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 17(2),
297-322.

3.​ Webpage: Author’s last name, Initials. (Year Published). Title of webpage. Retrieved
from [URL here].

Example: Muirehead, R. (2016). Components of the Criminal Justice System | Goodwin

College. Retrieved from https://www.goodwin.edu/enews/components-criminal-justice/

Notes:​
​ If there is no author, begin with the title and then the publication date

​ If there is no publication date, write n.d. (no date) within the parentheses instead

2. MLA (Modern Language Association) FORMAT

This is used within the fields of literature and language. In-text referencing is also done
within parentheses at the end of the sentence.

In-text Referencing: In MLA, the last name of the author and the page number are cited.
Example: Diaz suggested that… (11)
Recommendations suggested that… (Diaz 11)
Reference list:
1.​ Book: Author’s last name, First Name. Book Title. Place of publication. Publisher,
Publication year.

Example: Walklate, Sandra. Criminology: The Basics. 2nd ed. London, United Kingdom:
Taylor & Francis Ltd, 2017.​

2.​ Journal Article: Author’s last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Journal Title. Volume.
Issue Publication Year. Inclusive page numbers.

Example: Sorensen, Jon, et al. “An Assessment of Criminal Justice and Criminology
Journal Prestige.” Journal of Criminal Justice Education, vol. 17, no. 2, 2006. pp.
297-322.

3.​ Webpage: Author’s last name, First name. “Title of Work.” Title of overall website.
Version. Publisher. Publication Year. Date of access.

Example: Muirehead, Roger. “Components of the Criminal Justice System.” Goodwin

College. Wordpress, 2016, www.goodwin.edu/enews/components-criminal-justice/.
Accessed 11 Nov. 2015.

E. Using Other Authors’ Ideas in Your Paper

​ You cannot simply copy literature when you cite them in your paper. You have to state
the author’s idea in your own words. While this may be difficult at first, you can improve with
practice. You can do this effectively by summarizing and paraphrasing.

a.​ Summarizing
To summarize is to select the key or important features of a text and then consolidate these into
a shorter version of the original text. Summarizing is done by simplifying ideas and by using
differently structured sentences (Bowker, 2007).

Example:

Original Text Summarized Version

According to Quijano (2007), reading One of the main reasons why students do
problems are one of the primary reasons why poorly in the National Achievement Test is
some students do poorly in the National poor reading skills (Quijano, 2007). Which in
Achievement Test or NAT has something to turn are due to the students’ disinterest in
do with reading. Students’ poor reading skills reading.
are credited to their lack of interest in reading
itself.
 Paraphrased Version
Original Text
This study was conducted among 100 Grade 100 Grade V pupils in Reina Mercedes
V pupils of Reina Mercedes Central School Central School in the school year 2017-2018
during the school year 2017-2018. Through participated as respondents in this study.
the data-gathering, the researcher was able Data gathered from the respondents
to determine the relationship between the indicated the relationship between reading
reading performance and the reading anxiety performance and the reading anxiety
of the pupils experienced by the pupils.

As you might have noticed, the paraphrased version is not necessarily shorter than the
original text. Furthermore, the order of ideas did not change.

Additional Techniques in Summarizing and Paraphrasing

Your summarizing and paraphrasing skills can be improved if you take the time to develop
an extensive vocabulary of words you can use. You may start with the following terms
(Bowker, 2007).

You can also practice effectively summarizing and paraphrasing by changing the structure
and form of the sentences. For that, you may use the following strategies (Bowker, 2007):

1.​ Start by citing the author’s name first

Examples:
Diaz (2010) stated that….
According to Diaz (2010) ….

2.​ Cite the author’s name in the middle or at the end of the statement
Examples:
As indicated by Diaz (2010) ….
Reading anxiety was defined by Diaz (2010) ….
Reading anxiety is the….as stated by Diaz (2010).

3.​ Use different linking expressions or transitional devices to start a statement

related to the previous one.

4.​ Summarize a point shared by different authors

Example: Diaz (2010), Cruz and Po (2013) and Santos (2016) argued in their respective
studies that…

b. Quoting Authors’ Ideas

​ There are times when you do not have to summarize and paraphrase other authors’
ideas when you use them in your paper; and you may use direct quotations instead. When
you do this, you have to enclose the direct quotations with quotation marks (“ “).
​
Example: According to Natividad (2018), “Prospective teachers need to master
communicative competence to ensure effective instruction in their classrooms later on.”

Direct quotations must be used minimally. You use direct quotations only when:

a.​ You cannot simplify the idea in your own words

b.​ You want to express the idea as authoritatively as possible
c. The original words need to be available for a particular purpose (laws, literary piece
excerpts)

​ Direct quotations should never stand alone as much as possible. They should always be
placed in the text as support to other points made or as support for other statements.

Example: Communicative competency is regarded as a crucial ability for teachers; that is

why they should be trained for it as early as possible. According to Natividad (2018),
“Prospective teachers need to master communicative competence to ensure effective
instruction in their classrooms later on.”

As you can see in the given text, the direct quotation functioned as a support for the claim
given in the first sentence.

Tips for Including Quotations in the Academic Paper:

​ Type every word as exactly as it is: wording, spelling and punctuation.
​ If there are errors in the original statement, do not correct them. Just place the Latin term
“sic” after the identified error/s to indicate that the words appeared as such in the original
text.
​ If you have to remove some parts from the quotation, replace them with the ellipses (…).
This can be done if there are parts of the quote that are unnecessary to your purpose.