MGY-001

INTRODUCTION TO
Indira Gandhi
GEOINFORMATICS
National Open University
School of Sciences

Block

1
OVERVIEW OF GEOINFORMATICS
UNIT 1
Geoinformatics: An Introduction 7
UNIT 2
Recent Trends in Geoinformatics 27
UNIT 3
Indian Scenario in Geoinformatics 51
Glossary 71
Abbreviations 73
Programme Design Committee
Prof. V. N. R. Pillai Prof. Saumitra Mukherjee Prof. Anji Reddy
Former Vice-Chancellor School of Environmental Sciences Environment Science &
IGNOU, New Delhi JNU, New Delhi Technology
JNT University, Hyderabad
Prof. K. R. Srivasthan Dr. V. K. Panchal
Former ProVice-Chancellor Associate Director Mr. Sandeep Kumar Srivastava
IGNOU, New Delhi Defence Terrain Research Associate Director & Head
Laboratory, DRDO, Delhi Geomatics Solutions
Prof. Geeta Kaicker Development Group
Director, School of Sciences Prof. S. K. Pande C-DAC, Pune
IGNOU, New Delhi School of Studies in Geology &
Water Resource Management Dr. Benidhar Deshmukh
Prof. J. K. Garg Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University School of Sciences
Dean, University School of Raipur IGNOU
Environment Management
G.G.S. Indraprastha University Dr. Seema M. Parihar Dr. Kakoli Gogoi
New Delhi Associate Professor School of Sciences
Kirori Mal College IGNOU
Maj. Gen. (Dr.) R. Siva Kumar Joint Director, Developing
CEO, NSDI & Head, NRDMS Dr. Meenal Mishra
Countries Research Centre School of Sciences
Division, DST, New Delhi Delhi University, Delhi IGNOU
Dr. Shamita Kumar Late Dr. S. K. Pathan
Vice Principal Dr. M. Prashanth
Former Head School of Sciences
Institute of Environment GIDD/GTDG/RESA
Education & Research IGNOU
Space Applications Centre
Bharati Vidyapeeth University ISRO, Ahmedabad Dr. Omkar Verma
Pune School of Sciences
Mr. T. Radhakrishnan IGNOU
Prof. B. Krishna Mohan Chief Technical Officer
Centre of Studies in Resources IIITM-K, Trivandrum
Engineering, IIT-Bombay, Mumbai
Programme Coordinator: Dr. Benidhar Deshmukh
Block Preparation Team
Course Contributors Content Editor
Mr. O. M. Murali (Units 1, 2 & 3) Dr. Seema M. Parihar
Systems & Project Engineer Associate Professor
WTI Advanced Technology Ltd. Chennai Kirori Mal College
Delhi University, Delhi
Dr. Benidhar Deshmukh (Unit 1)
School of Sciences, IGNOU
Dr. Meenal Mishra
School of Sciences, IGNOU
Course Coordinators: Dr. Meenal Mishra and Dr. Kakoli Gogoi
Acknowledgement: We gratefully acknowledge Prof. Geeta Kaicker, Director, School of Sciences for thoroughly
reading the course material and providing her valuable suggestions to improve the Course. We also thank
Prof. P. K. Garg, IIT Roorkee and Mr. Sandeep Kumar Srivastava, C-DAC, Pune, for critically going through
the course material and their helpful comments

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January, 2012
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2012
ISBN-978-81-266
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Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the
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MGY-001 INTRODUCTION TO
GEOINFORMATICS

Today, we live in an era that is characterised by technological advancements

that are so dynamic that at times it goes beyond our imagination. In the rapidly
changing world, geoinformatics has a special status. Use of geoinformatics for
monitoring environment and human activities on the Earth’s surface, with a
view to improve Earth’s environment began during the 1970s. The early
weather images from India’s own INSAT series of satellites brought the
applications of space technology into the lives of the common man. While
undoubtedly we need a change in our attitudes and lifestyles to mitigate the
human impact on environment. Technology plays a crucial role in helping us
make environmentally appropriate decisions. Wherein, geoinformatics
provides appropriate technologies and methodologies to analyse information
about the Earth.

Geoinformatics technologies include Remote Sensing (RS), photogrammetry,

cartography, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Spatial Decision Support
Systems (SDSS), geodesy and Global Positioning Systems (GPS). The
geoinformatics technologies have witnessed significant developments over the
last few decades, which have led to widespread use of the technologies in
different fields and disciplines. Geoinformatics is central to all the disciplines
which use data recognised by their locations. Geoinformatics has now become
an important tool for decision makers across a wide range of disciplines,
researchers and academia and also for national survey and mapping
organisations, industries, environmental agencies and local and national
governments.

With the widespread use of the geoinformatics technologies, need for

professionals and researchers adept in the use of the technologies has
prompted introduction of the Post Graduate Certificate Programme in
Geoinformatics. The programme aims to provide you conceptual
understanding of geoinformatics and related technologies and also to acquaint
you with the use of technologies through basic hands-on training skills.

The Course would introduce you to the concept, components and applications
of geoinformatics. The course comprises of four blocks. Block-1 provides you
an overview of geoinformatics and Block-2 introduces the basic concepts of
geospatial data. You will learn about basics of maps and mapping in Block-3,
and the Block-4 would give you an overview of the scope and applications of
geoinformatics.

Objectives:
After studying this course you should be able to:
• acquire understanding on the basic concepts and fundamentals of the
geoinformatics and also recognise the national agencies and initiatives
involved with geoinformatics related work;
• attain knowledge on the basic concepts of geospatial data, different data
sources along with data products and formats and data analysis tools;
• discuss basics of maps and mapping, interpretation of topographical maps
and also how to choose a suitable map projection; and
• describe scope and applications of geoinformatics in different fields such
as natural resources studies and management, landuse and urban
planning, e-governance, climate, agriculture, health, archaeology,
business, environment and disaster related studies.
• a number of acronyms have been used throughout the self learning
material, which have been listed at the end of each block for your ready
reference.
We hope that after studying this Course you will acquire basic understanding
of the geoinformatics and its application in different fields.

We wish you best in this endeavour!!

BLOCK 1 OVERVIEW OF
GEOINFORMATICS
Geoinformatics is the synergy of several disciplines, namely remote sensing,
photogrammetry, cartography, geographic information science, geodesy,
computer science. Its applications are mainly oriented to real world
management problems pertaining to natural and man-made environments.
Geoinformatics has become an important tool for decision makers across a
wide range of disciplines for research and academia. National organisations,
industries, environmental agencies together with local and national
governments are enthusiastically making use of geoinformatics in their day to
day functioning.
This block introduces you to the concepts and fundamentals of the
geoinformatics. The block comprises three units, wherein you will be
introduced to the basic concepts of geoinformatics along with the recent trends
and current scenario of geoinformatics in India.
Unit 1 is an introduction to the fundamentals of geoinformatics. Here we
introduce you to various components of geoinformatics that include
cartography, photogrammetry, remote sensing, Geographic Information
Systems (GIS), and the Global Positioning System (GPS). We also briefly
discuss how geoinformatics has evolved as a discipline and about its
multidisciplinary nature. You will also learn about the advantages, applications
and products of geoinformatics.
Unit 2 deals with the recent advances and trends in different components of
geoinformatics i.e. in remote sensing, photogrammetry, GIS and GPS. This
unit also elaborates on the trends, developments and the challenges faced by
geoinformatics industry and education sector.
In Unit 3, you will study about the scenario of geoinformatics from an Indian
perspective. You will learn about the role of national agencies, initiatives and
organisations which have shaped Indian geoinformatics industry. You will also
find a discussion about the career options and education in the field of
geoinformatics.

Objectives
After studying this block, you should be able to:
• identify the various components of geoinformatics and develop a concept
of its various applications, advantages and products;
• discuss the recent trends in the developments and advancements of
remote sensing, photogrammetry, GIS and GPS;
• elaborate upon the recent trends in geoinformatics education and training;
• list the national agencies involved in geoinformatics activities and their
initiatives; and
• familiarise you with career options in the field of geoinformatics.
We hope that after studying this block you will acquire understanding of the
fundamentals of geoinformatics, its recent trends and Indian scenario.
Wishing you success in this endeavour!
Overview of Geoinformatics

6
 Geoinformatics: An
UNIT 1 GEOINFORMATICS: AN Introduction

INTRODUCTION

Structure
1.1 Introduction
Objectives
1.2 What is Geoinformatics?
1.3 Components of Geoinformatics
Computer Science
Geodesy
Cartography
Photogrammetry
Remote Sensing
Global Positioning System
Geographical Information System
1.4 Advantages
1.5 Evolution of Geoinformatics as a Multidisciplinary Discipline
1.6 Applications
1.7 Geoinformatics Products
1.8 Activity
1.9 Summary
1.10 Unit End Questions
1.11 References
1.12 Further/Suggested Reading
1.13 Answers

1.1 INTRODUCTION
You know that the increasing human population is exerting an unprecedented
pressure on the existing natural resources. Therefore, in order to meet the ever
increasing demand on the infrastructure development, urban planning, healthy
neighbourhood, safe transportation of human populace and material,
management of natural resources, disaster preparedness of the community,
conservation of biodiversity and elevating the status of endangered animals to
safe level, etc. require a comprehensive approach with careful understanding
of geography of the Earth. Here comes the power of ‘Geoinformatics’, which
uses the modern scientific and technological advancements for better
utilisation of space to have for sustainable human growth. Geoinformatics can
be defined as the science and technology that deals with the geoinformation,
its acquisition, creation, storage, processing, presentation and dissemination.
And, by spatial information and data we mean any information and data that
can be linked to a location on Earth.

As you are being introduced to the new discipline of geoinformatics, we

would like to present you some real time examples on how the geoinformatics
technology could be better utilised to manage the day-to-day affairs and 7
Overview of Geoinformatics increase your efficiency. For example all major Telecom companies in India
use geoinformatics technologies to lay their cables and locate mobile towers.
Power sectors across Indian states have identified geoinformatics technologies
as the decision support tool for locating the electrical assets in towns to reduce
transmission loss and reduce electrical theft through consumer mapping.

With this brief introductory note on geoinformatics and its diverse

applications, we further proceed to appraise you of varied components and
products of geoinformatics.

Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to:
• define geoinformatics;
• identify various components of geoinformatics;
• develop a concept of its advantages and diverse applications;
• recognise the evolution of geoinformatics;
• discuss the multidisciplinary nature of geoinformatics; and
• list types of geoinformatics products.

1.2 WHAT IS GEOINFORMATICS?

Geoinformatics today has become an important technology to the decision-
makers across a wide range of disciplines, industries and organisations as it
enables them to acquire, process, analyse, visualise spatial information and
Earth science deals with
produce outputs. Now, before we delve deeper into the Geoinformatics
the study of different
aspects of the Earth. technology, let us first understand the meaning of the term Geoinformatics.

Informatics is understood
The term geoinformatics consists of two words, geo (Earth) and informatics
as the study of (the study of information processing). Hence, geoinformatics can be
information processing. understood as the union of Earth sciences and Informatics. We can say that
Geoinformatics broadly deals with the use of information technology for
Geographic refers to the collection, analysis, storage, retrieval, representation and dissemination
Earth’s surface and near
surface whereas spatial is
of information about the Earth.
a broad term which refers
The term ‘geoinformatics’ is believed to have come in existence just few
to any space and not just
the space of the Earth’s decades back as a result of the integration of three disciplines, namely
surface. photogrammetry, remote sensing and geographic information systems.

Though the term There is another term i.e. ‘geomatics’, which was first used in Canada at Laval
geospatial is a subset of University in the early 1980s to describe the above mentioned disciplines
spatial, it is commonly realising the concept that increasing potential of computing which was
used to refer to any revolutionising surveys and representation sciences. According to the
spatial data.
Department of Geomatics Engineering, University of Calgary, “Geomatics
Engineering is a modern discipline, which integrates acquisition, modelling,
analysis, and management of spatially referenced data, i.e. data identified
according to their locations”.
Geomatics Industry Association of Canada (GIAC) defines geomatics “as a
technology and service sector focusing on the acquisition, storage, analysis,
dissemination and management of geographically referenced information for
improved decision-making”.
8
The word Geomatics is derived from the French word Ge´omatique, which Geoinformatics: An
Introduction
was coined by Dubuisson, a French Photogrammetrist. The term Geomatics is
more commonly used in North America whereas Geoinformatics seems to be
more popular in Europe such as in Netherlands where there is a
Geoinformatics Department at the famous ITC (International Institute for
Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences).
Michalak (2000), considers the term ‘geomatics’ to be interchangeable with
‘geoinformatics’. However, some people are of the opinion that though both
geomatics and geoinformatics include and rely heavily upon the theory and
practical implications of geodesy. There is a difference in the meanings that
the terms geomatics and geoinformatics convey.
Let us come back to the definition of geoinformatics. Wikipedia defines
geoinformatics as “…the science and the technology which develops and uses
information science infrastructure to address the problems of geography,
geosciences and related branches of engineering”.
According to Jachimski (2001), ‘geoinformatics’ is “...the science of the
gathering, processing and dissemination of information which is spatially
defined within the Earth’s system”.
Geoinformatics has been described as “the science and the technology dealing
with the structure and character of spatial information, its capture, its
classification, its storage, processing, portrayal and dissemination, including
the infrastructure necessary to secure optimal use of this information” or “the
art, science and technology dealing with the acquisition, storage, processing,
production, presentation and dissemination of geoinformation” (Oledzki,
2004). Conceptualisation of Geoinformatics is represented in Fig. 1.1.

Fig. 1.1: Conceptualisation of Geoinformatics (modified from Oledzki, 2004)

Oledzki (2004) believes that the term Geoinformatics is more easily

understood, and is much better at conveying the essence of spatial research
focusing on informatics. Hence, in the course material the term
Geoinformatics (GI) would be used.
With this background, you will now be able to define geoinformatics. 9
Overview of Geoinformatics
1.3 COMPONENTS OF GEOINFORMATICS
From our discussion on the definition aspect of geoinformatics, we understand
that geoinformatics is an integrated spatial research tool. It encompasses a
broad range of disciplines including surveying and mapping, Remote Sensing,
Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Global Positioning System (GPS),
Geodesy and computer science. Various components of geoinformatics are the
followings:
• Computer Science
• Geodesy
• Cartography
• Photogrammetry
• Remote Sensing (RS)
• Global Positioning System (GPS)
• Geographic Information System (GIS)
You would be introduced to the major disciplines later in the relevant courses.
However, let us get a brief idea about the various disciplines that constitutes
geoinformatics.

1.3.1 Computer Science

Informatics, as a discipline, comprises of both the computer technologies, i.e.
hardware and software. The important role of information derives from our
Computer science is
composed of many broad necessity to manage more and more numerous and complex data in every
disciplines, including field. The knowledge of computer science is a pre-requisite to represent and
artificial intelligence and process applicable information through the development of hardware and
software engineering. software. Computer science culture is now more prevalent contributing in
improvement of our activities and research. The application and usage of
computer science to geoinformatics go hand-in-hand. You will come across
various aspects of the application of computer science to geoinformatics while
studying about geoinformatics data acquisition, processing, product
generation, data visualisation, dissemination, etc.

1.3.2 Geodesy
Geodesy also known as geodetics is the discipline that deals with the
measurement and representation of the Earth. Geodesy is defined as the
science concerned with the study of shape and area of the Earth. Geodesy
defines the shape and dimensions of the Earth through its two branches:
gravimetry and positioning astronomy.
Gravimetry deals with the determination of Earth’s gravity and its anomalies
and the gravity determines the shape of the Earth.
Positioning astronomy determines the position of the points on the globe
through the observation of stars and artificial satellites.
The study of geodesy began with mere curiosity and the never-ending human
inquisitiveness to explain the Earth’s unknown through logic. It has been a
great challenge for researchers to accurately represent the 3-dimensional Earth
into 2-dimensional map forms. The underlying concept of geodesy helps in
10
representing the Earth in 2-dimensions. You shall read more about geodesy Geoinformatics: An
Introduction
while discussing datums, map projections and coordinate systems in Unit 8 of
this course.

1.3.3 Cartography
Cartography is generally considered to be the science and art of designing,
constructing and producing maps. It includes almost every operation from
original field work to final printing and marketing of maps. It is also treated as
a science of human communication.
We will study in detail
International Cartographic Association defines Cartography as the discipline about map reading and
dealing with the conception, production, dissemination and study of maps. their understanding in
Map is a drawing of the whole or part of the surface of the Earth on a plane Unit 9 and 10
Understanding the Maps,
surface to a particular scale. It is a manually or mechanically drawn picture of of Block 3 of MGY-001.
the Earth showing the location and distribution of various natural and cultural
phenomena. A sample map is shown in Fig. 1.2.

Fig. 1.2: Cartographic visualisation of Avenue Trees in Chennai (map courtesy: WTI
Advanced Technology Ltd.)

Cartographic representation is the key in deciding the fate of any map

generated out of various geoinformatics analysis. Cartographic visualisation,
which is the graphical presentation of geographic information, such as data,
processes, relations or concepts, limits the extent of map details which could
be incorporated for the given study area as depicted in Fig. 1.2.
Now, let us understand how a map is different from a photograph. Map gives a
picture of one or several of the elements of the Earth’s surface (Fig. 1.3) but
such a picture is not the same as a photograph. Photograph shows all the
visible details (pertaining to shapes and sizes) of the area photographed
irrespective of their relevance to the purpose for which it has been taken
(Fig. 1.4).

11
Overview of Geoinformatics Moreover, a photograph shows only those objects which are physically
present. A map, being the mental and manual creation of man gives only those
details in their true or visible shape and size using symbols in which we are
interested. They may or may not have similarities with the shape and size of
the objects represented on the photograph.

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.3: (a) Ward Map of Chennai city corporation useful for detailed study (Source:
http://tnmaps.tn.nic.in/district.php) whereas (b) is a district map of Tamil Nadu
with district capitals as dots useful for regional level study (source: http://
tnmaps.tn.nic.in).

Fig. 1.4: An aerial photograph of the Jolly Buoy island at the Mahatma Gandhi Marine
National Park at Wandoor located about 30 km from Port Blair in Andaman
12
1.3.4 Photogrammetry Geoinformatics: An
Introduction
Photogrammetry is the technology developed for determining the geometric
properties of objects from their photographic images. Photogrammetry is
concerned with making measurements about position and shape of objects
with the help of photographs. The American Society for Photogrammetry and
Remote Sensing (ASPRS) has defined photogrammetry as “…the art, science,
and technology of obtaining reliable information about physical objects and
the environment through processes of recording, measuring and interpreting
photographic images and patterns of recorded radiant electromagnetic energy
and other phenomena”.

Although, both maps and aerial photographs present a ‘bird’s eye-view’ of the
Earth, aerial photographs (Fig. 1.4) are not maps. Maps are orthogonal
representations of the Earth’s surface, meaning that they are directionally and
geometrically accurate (at least within the limitations imposed by projecting a
3-dimensional object into 2-dimensions). Aerial photographs, on the other
hand, display a high degree of radial distortion. In other words, the topography
is distorted, and until corrections are made for the distortion, measurements
made from a photograph are not accurate. Nevertheless, aerial photographs are
a powerful tool for studying the Earth’s environment.

In the late 1800s, cameras were positioned above the Earth’s surface in
balloons or kites and aeroplanes to take oblique aerial photographs of the
landscape. During World War I, aerial photography played an important role in
gathering information about the position and movements of enemy troops.
After the war, civilian use of aerial photography from airplanes began with the
systematic vertical imaging of large areas of Canada, the United States, and
Europe. Many of these images were used to construct topographic and other
types of reference maps of the natural and human-made features found on the
Earth’s surface.

Photogrammetry is useful in various fields including topographic mapping,

architecture, engineering, manufacturing, quality control, police investigation,
and geology. Archeologists use photogrammetry to produce plans of large or
complex sites. Meteorologists use it to determine the actual wind speed of a
tornado in places where objective weather data cannot be obtained. In movie
production, photogrammetry is used to combine live action with computer
generated imagery.
Check Your Progress I
1) What is the difference between geographic information and spatial Spend
5 mins
information?
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Overview of Geoinformatics 2) What is Cartography?
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You will study in detail 1.3.5 Remote Sensing

about remote sensing and
its various aspects in Remote sensing is the collection of data about an object from a distance.
Blocks 1 and 2 in MGY- Scientists use the technique of remote sensing to monitor or measure
002 Remote Sensing and phenomena found in the Earth’s lithosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, and
Image Interpretation.
atmosphere. Humans and many other types of animals accomplish this task
The data collected by with aid of eyes or by the sense of smell or hearing. Remote sensing is usually
the remote sensing and done with the help of mechanical device known as remote sensor. This device
photogrammetry has greatly improved ability to receive and record information about an object
is also known as without having any physical contact with them. Often, these sensors are
geoimagery. It includes
satellite
positioned away from the object of interest by using helicopters, planes, and
images and aerial satellites. Most remote sensing devices record information about an object by
photographs. measuring an object’s transmission of electromagnetic energy from reflecting
and radiating surfaces.
The simplest form of remote sensing uses photographic cameras to record
information from visible or near infrared wavelengths of the electromagnetic
spectrum. Concept of remote sensing is diagrammatically shown in Fig. 1.5,
You will study about wherein you can see that Sun is the principal source of energy. When the
electromagnetic radiation energy (in the form of electromagnetic radiation) reaches the Earth’s
and its interaction with atmosphere, it undergoes the process of reflection, absorption and
atmosphere and Earth
transmission. Earth’s surface consists of different natural and man-made
surface in Block -1,
Introduction to Remote features which reflect, absorb, store and emit Earth’s radiation at different
Sensing of MGY-002, wavelengths in different percentages, depending upon their physical and
Remote Sensing and chemical properties.
Image Interpretation.

14 Fig. 1.5: Concept of remote sensing

Remote sensing sensors record different amount of radiation that is reflected Geoinformatics: An
Introduction
or emitted from different earth surface features and reproduce it in form of an
image. Remote sensing provides synoptic view of the earth surface by virtue
of recording interactions of Earth surface features with electromagnetic
radiation. These interactions are recorded in remote sensing images in the
form of some numerical information. When the remote sensing data is
generated employing Sun’s energy it is known as passive remote sensing. In
the other type i.e. active remote sensing, remote sensors, such as radars, send
radiation themselves and collect the signal returned back to them from Earth
surface features. Based on the factors, such as portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum used and the number of bands, sensors are generally categorised into
optical and microwave:
• Optical sensors: These operate in the region between 0.3 and 15 μm of You will study in detail
the electromagnetic spectrum. about the types of optical
and microwave remote
• Microwave sensors: These operate in the microwave region of the sensing in Unit 2 Recent
electromagnetic spectrum (EMS). Optical remote sensing is further Trends of Geoinformatics.
classified as panchromatic RS, multispectral RS, superspectral RS,
hyperspectral RS and thermal RS. We will discuss about them in the next
unit.
Remote sensing imagery has many applications in mapping land-use and land
cover, agriculture, soil mapping, forestry, city planning, archaeological
investigations, military observation, and geomorphological surveying, mineral
exploration, among other uses. One of the common examples of the use of
remote sensing is the weather maps which you see in the news channels
providing forecast of weather conditions.
Two man-made features i.e. Lotus Temple located in New Delhi and Taj
Mahal in Agra, India are shown in Fig. 1.6 (a) and (b), respectively.

Fig. 1.6(a)

15
Overview of Geoinformatics

(b)
Fig. 1.6: (a) A multispectral remote sensing image showing Lotus Temple located in New
Delhi, India. The central dome like object in bright color is surrounded by small
symmetrical pools of water appearing in cyan blue color; (b) Image of Taj
Mahal appearing as bright white object. Dark coloured object in extreme left is
a river and plants are green and reddish in colour (source: www.earth.google.com)

More recently, laser scanning systems have come up which have the ability to
produce complete information with high precision and automation.
Remote sensing has following advantages over other forms of data collection
methods:
• synoptic coverage and wide area coverage – regional, national and global
• repeatability – satellites can revisit the same area at regular intervals and
record data, enabling monitoring events and phenomena, and change
detection analysis
• all weather capability – active remote sensing, like RADAR could be used
in spite of cloud cover and during night
• it can provide data of inaccessible areas.

1.3.6 Global Positioning System

You will study in detail Global Positioning System (GPS) is a constellation of about 24 satellites
about GPS in Block 1 which are orbiting the Earth every 12 hours at an altitude of ~20,200 km, as
Global Navigation shown in Fig. 1.7. These satellites broadcast signals, which are used to derive
Satellite System of MGY- precise timing, location, and velocity information. The derived information
003, Global Navigation
can then be clubbed with other systems, such as communication devices,
Satellite System and
Geographic Information computers, and software to perform a variety of functions. With equipment
System. ranging from hand-held receivers to rack-mounted electronics, the signals of
GPS can be used by anyone, anytime, anywhere in the world.
GPS technology consisting of space, control and user segments enables people
to precisely know where they are on the surface of the Earth. Prior to GPS,
positions were being established by complex procedure of relative and
16 absolute measurements of directions and distances.
 Geoinformatics: An
Introduction

Fig. 1.7: Global Positioning System (source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/

commons/9/9c/ConstellationGPS.gif)

Real world applications of GPS fall into following five broad categories:
• Location: determining a basic position
• Navigation: getting from one location to another
• Tracking: monitoring the movement of people, animals and goods
• Mapping: creating maps of the world
One of the applications of GPS gaining momentum is the Location Based
Services (LBS). LBS are geoinformation services that can provide location-
aware information based on the user’s current position. LBS are primarily
used in emergency services. However, these are also used to provide
information on nearby public resources (such as fuel stations, bus stops, ATM
machines, etc.), for map and navigation services (such as in vehicles), and
even for locating friends though your mobiles.
GAGAN (GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation or GPS and Geo
Augmented Navigation system) is a planned implementation of a You will read more about
GAGAN, in Unit 1
regional Satellite Based Augmentation System (SBAS) by the Indian
Introduction to GNSS of
government. The project is being implemented by the Airport Authority of MGY-003.
India with the help of the Indian Space Research Organisation’s (ISRO)
technology and space support. Its aim is to provide navigation system for all
phases of flight over the Indian airspace and in the adjoining area

1.3.7 Geographic Information System

Geographic Information System (GIS) integrates hardware, software, and
You will study in detail
data for capturing, managing, analysing, and displaying all forms of about GIS in Blocks 2, 3
geographically referenced information. GIS has been defined based on its and 4 of MGY-003,
different aspects i.e. the tools, the organisation and the spatial database. Global Navigation
Satellite System and
GIS allows us to view, understand, question, interpret, and visualise data in Geographic Information
many ways that reveal relationships, patterns, and trends in the form of maps, System.
globes, reports, and charts. A GIS helps you answer questions and solve
problems by looking at your data in a way that is quickly understood and
easily shared.
17
Overview of Geoinformatics The components of GIS include: the computer systems, the software, spatial
data, data management and analysis procedures, and the people to operate the
GIS (Fig. 1.8). Data forms the major component of GIS. With recent
developments in remote sensing and GPS technologies, large volume of high
resolution data is widely available at affordable cost. The remote sensing data
and GPS data are used as input in GIS. Computer hardware and software
components are required for data entry, data storage, data processing, and
analysis and also for producing outputs. GIS is of no use if people and the
organisations in which they work are not properly oriented towards GIS.

Finally, the information generated in GIS is communicated through network.

GIS has been traditionally used as a tool for generating outputs helping in
decision making process for urban planning, management of natural resources,
natural hazard assessment and management, environmental management and
many more. Recently, GIS has been used for emergency planning, logistics
and transportation related analysis, crime analysis, business and service
planning, government and public services, analysis of genome sequences on
DNA, etc. Internet has also been exploited to disseminate geographic
information to the general public resulting into a new breed of specialised GIS
generally known as Web GIS.
Web GIS is capable of
dynamically generating
digital map products from DATA
geospatial data and with it
internet has now become
core to many aspects of
GIS application.
GEOGRAPHICAL
HARWARE SOFTWARE
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS

METHOD PEOPLE

Fig. 1.8: Components of GIS.

More recently, capability of GIS has increased with its integration with GPS
and has introduced exciting new applications, such as in-car navigation
systems, precision farming, mobile mapping, LBS, etc. Applications of GIS
are believed to become more imaginative with its wider public reach.
With time GIS has evolved from a data analysis tool to a Spatial Decision
Support System (SDSS) and Virtual GIS (VGIS) or Expert System (ES).
SDSS can be considered as a tool coordinating between different professionals
and making the decision processes interactive. It consists of processing tools
which are able to answer the question what is going to happen if…? VGIS is
characterised by the simplified user interfaces which allow management of
analysis functions in a complex GIS even by non-qualified personals.
Open GIS and interoperability are the recent keywords in GIS world. Open
GIS stands for open source coding. Interoperability aims to increase
interaction between different software packages for easy data transfer and
18 processing from one package to another and vice versa.
Check Your Progress II Geoinformatics: An
Introduction
1) List the segments of GPS. Spend
5 mins
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
2) List the components of Geographic Information System.
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
3) List some of the real time application areas of GPS and GIS.
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................

1.4 ADVANTAGES
The understanding of Earth as a complex system of various interrelated
processes and mechanisms had been realised by scientists. Despite the
availability of huge amount of data and technological advancements, the
amount of information available and the existing level of techniques are often
inadequate to understand the Earth and its complex functions. Major problem
lies in the fact that the availability of the huge amount of data lies improperly
managed and there is lack of information product in a form that can be directly
utilised by the end users i.e. policy/decision makers and managers.
The power of geoinformatics is its ability to acquire spatial data, integrate
spatial data with non-spatial data (i.e. descriptive information about the spatial
data), analyse them, create and visualise different scenarios and produce
outputs which can be used for understanding processes and management and
decision making.
You may be aware that Sanjay Gandhi National Park (SGNP) is situated in the
vicinity of Mumbai. Its close proximity to the most populous city puts
tremendous pressure on the forest ecosystem and monitoring of the entire park
poses greater challenges to the forest officials. So, the park authorities decided
to use geoinformatics techniques to map and monitor the park for initiating
19
Overview of Geoinformatics various conservation measures. With the above brief introduction on the real
time need for spatial technology, let us discuss on the innumerable benefits
derived out of using satellite remote sensing. Some of the advantages of
geoinformatics are listed below:
• can acquire geospatial data in time and cost effective manner
• can provide synoptic view and multi date information of an area in
different parts of electromagnetic spectrum
• it helps in collecting data of an area without disturbing or destroying it
• it can answer where, when, what and why scenarios which is not possible
with any other software system
• it assists in predicting events/outcomes based on multi-criteria analyses
• it helps in visualising the scenarios under a given situation, and its
consequences. Such scenarios greatly assist disaster managers to plan for
future and save human lives
• it helps to create a comprehensive solution to a problem in hand
particularly assisting the decision and policy makers to arrive at an
appropriate decision/solution
• it assists in planning strategies and is especially useful in cases where
disastrous events demand quick decision making.

1.5 EVOLUTION OF GEOINFORMATICS AS A

MULTIDISCIPLINARY DISCIPLINE
You have learnt in the earlier sections how geoinformatics was earlier
considered primarily as a tool which was being applied in numerous
application areas related to various disciplines. Perception about the
geoinformatics has more or less changed from being a tool to a science.
Geospatial information has now been recognised as an essential informational
requirement for decision makers and planners. With the technological
advancements and related developments, geoinformatics is emerging as a new
scientific discipline and this emergence is being recognised by the scientific
community.
It is believed that to be a discipline, a subject should have certain elements
such as text books, academic programmes in universities, scientific
conferences and related journals, academic societies, etc. All these elements
exist with geoinformatics which qualify it to be a discipline. Moreover,
geoinformatics as a discipline has been accepted by people from academia and
industry.
Geoinformatics is multidisciplinary by nature. You have already read that it
integrates methodologies from computer science, geodesy, geography,
cartography, remote sensing, GIS, GPS, digital image processing, artificial
intelligence, cognitive psychology, etc., in order to understand Earth features
and processes and solve its problems. Using geoinformatics, we can study
about Earth’s surface features, such as human settlement, road network, water
body, forest, wildlife and demography, etc.
After reading the above sections, you shall agree that the complexity of the
20 technologies in geoinformatics is dependent on skills of other disciplines.
Therefore, geoinformatics application specialists need to have a sound Geoinformatics: An
Introduction
knowledge of the theoretical aspects and practical approaches to integrate
many resources of information that address different applications. Further,
scientists, planners or engineers interested in these technologies should be
familiar with past, present and future satellite systems, their appropriate usage,
suitable data acquisition methods for problem at hand and be able to handle
and integrate with other data sources.
By understanding its multidisciplinary nature, any person can get interested
into geoinformatics and learn to quickly adapt to the need based on his/her
prior experience with the real world. It is even very essential that every
Government Department and IT professional realise the power of
geoinformatics as a decision support system.

1.6 APPLICATIONS
In about last four decades, geoinformatics has grown as a major tool for
collecting information on almost every aspect on the Earth. In fact, with the You will study in detail
about different
availability of very high spatial resolution satellites in the recent years,
applications of
applications of geoinformatics have increased multifold for a range of geoinformatics in Block 4
applications related to emergency services, public health and epidemiology, of MGY-001 Overview of
transportation and infrastructure, mineral exploration, urban planning and land Geoinformatics.
use management, in-car navigation systems, environmental modelling and
analysis, military, agriculture, meteorology, climate change, oceanography and
coupled ocean and atmosphere modelling, business location planning,
telecommunications, crime mapping, etc.
In India, remote sensing has been used for various applications and has
contributed significantly towards planning and development. Geoinformatics
has facilitated mapping, inventorying and monitoring of various natural
resources, like forests, minerals, soil, water, agriculture, etc., which has further
helped in conservation and also towards decision making for resources
management. It has also helped in monitoring of natural hazards and prepare
action plan for disaster preparedness and management.
Geoinformation is helping thousands of organisations around the world. It is
being used by the transmission and distribution companies for route
alignment, asset mapping to reduce the transmission loss, check outage and
theft. Route alignment for new transmission lines take critical geographic
factors to avoid human settlement, forest areas, water bodies, existing mining
areas and prohibited areas through geoinformatics. Ministry of Environment
and Forests prepares, maintains and updates the Coastal Regulation Zone
(CRZ) maps across the entire coast of India to check the human land use
practices and preserve ecologically sensitive zone where corals and mangrove
forests are found.
Now many of the city Municipal Corporations maintain extensive database at
ward level in GIS environment for better governance in times of emergency
situation, relief distribution, land ownership, civic amenities, urban forestry,
etc. State run water authorities use geoinformatics to plan for water
distribution, laying of new water connection, leakage detection and perform
hydraulic analysis to ensure enough pressure is maintained for water to travel
upstream in hilly terrain.
21
Overview of Geoinformatics Crime department analyses the historic crime pattern in GIS environment to
map the crime hot spots for better policing. Forest Department is increasingly
relying on geoinformatics derived maps to improve the forest cover at state
level. Zoo authority is no exception. Animal migration, habitat destruction and
biodiversity hot spots are studied through geoinformatics for preserving the
last surviving wilderness in India. Applications of geoinformatics are
unlimited and it is in the hands of the user to derive the results to the best
advantage.
Now, with this background, can you the list the geoinformatics applications
wherein you can make use of in daily life?

1.7 GEOINFORMATICS PRODUCTS

You will study in detail Geoinformatics encompasses a broad range of applications, mapping agencies,
about different satellite images, service providers and all of which involve use of some
geoinformatics products in combination of digital maps and georeferenced data. Results of geospatial
the Block 4 GIS Analysis, analysis are presented in different forms, which are known as geoinformatics
Output and Project
products. The products include tabular text data, thematic maps, animations,
Design of MGY-003,
GNSS and GIS. information systems, spatial decision support systems, etc. (Figs. 1.9 and
1.10).

(a)

(b)
Fig. 1.9: Examples of cartographic outputs showing (a) Multi-layered display; (b) A
thematic output with symbols (source: (a & b) TN Forest Department,
www.forests.tn.nic.in/ indexb.html)
22
The geoinformatics products can be categorised into the following: Geoinformatics: An
Introduction
• Cartographic products
• Non-cartographic products
Cartographic outputs include both hard and soft copy maps which are
prepared adhering to the cartographic conventions as shown in Fig.1.9. The
hard copy maps can be taken as printouts from GIS system using a simple
printing machine or a complex system like a plotter.
Non cartographic outputs include map models such as Digital Elevation
Models (DEM) and information system which are primarily used for
visualisation purposes (Fig. 1.10). DEM allows versatile displays of
topographic data showing additional landscape attributes. An Information
system is a set of written, electronic, or graphical method of communicating
information.

(a) (b)

(c)
Fig. 1.10: Examples of non-cartographic outputs showing (a) A shaded relief map; (b) A
remote sensing image draped over a digital elevation mode (DEM); (c)
internet usage of GIS (source: (a & b) www.reliefshading.com/cartographers/
imhof. html) and (c) TN Forest Department) 23
Overview of Geoinformatics The basis of an information system is the sharing and processing of
information and ideas. Computers and telecommunication technologies have
become essential information system components. Non-cartographic outputs
also include texts, graphic outputs, and digital data and hardcopy outputs.
Tables may include attribute data of objects in GIS or it may contain the
driving directions to tourists or a list of hospitals located in a city or a list of
temples in a village.

Geoinformatics products also include Decision Support Systems (DSS), which

serve the management, operations, and planning levels of an organisation and
help to make decisions. A properly designed DSS is an interactive software
based system intended to help decision makers compile useful information
from a combination of raw data, documents, personal knowledge, or business
models to identify and solve problems and make decisions.

1.8 ACTIVITY
1) Visit Google Earth website (www.earth.google.com) and zoom to city/
village of your residence. You can visualise how your city/village appears
in a remote sensing image.
2) If there are historical images of the city/village, you can try to see how
with time the place has changed.

1.9 SUMMARY
In the present unit you have been introduced to the concept of geoinformatics,
its components and different application potential. Let us now summarise
what we have studied in the unit:
• Geoinformatics is the union of Earth Sciences and Informatics.
• Components of geoinformatics include Computer science, Geodesy,
Cartography, Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing, Global Positioning
System and Geographical Information System.
• Geoinformatics data acquisition, processing, product generation, data
visualisation and dissemination depend on the application and usage of
computer science.
• Geodesy defines the shape and dimensions of the Earth through its two
branches: gravimetry and positioning astronomy.
• Cartography deals with the conception, production, dissemination and
study of maps.
• Photogrammetry is concerned with the making measurements about
position and shapes of objects with the help of photographs.
• Remote sensing is the collection of data about an object from a distance.
• Global Positioning System (GPS) broadcasts signals, which enables
people to precisely know, where they are on the surface of the Earth.
• Geographic Information System (GIS) integrates hardware, software, and
data for capturing, managing, analysing, and displaying all forms of
geographically referenced information.
24
• Understanding of Earth as a complex system and its various interrelated Geoinformatics: An
Introduction
processes and mechanisms have been made possible by geoinformatics.
Geoinformatics is particularly useful in mapping, monitoring and
management of natural resources and disasters.

Spend
1.10 UNIT END QUESTIONS 30 mins
1) Differentiate between Geoinformatics and Geomatics.
2) Briefly discuss about the multidisciplinary nature of geoinformatics.
3) List out the advantages of geoinformatics.
4) What are the different geoinformatics products?

1.11 REFERENCES
• http://tnmaps.tn.nic.in.
• http://tnmaps.tn.nic.in/district.php.
• http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/
ConstellationGPS.gif
• Jachimski, J. (2001), Dyskusja panelowa poswiecona zagadnieniom
terminologicznym geoinformatyki [Panel discussion devoted to matters
of terminology in geoinformatics; in Polish], Geoinformatyka Polonica,
Kraków, No. 3, pp.57-79. Crossreferenced from Oledzki, J. R. (2004).
• Michalak, J. (2000), Geomatyka (geoinformatyka) – czy nowa
dyscyplina? [Geomatics (geoinformatics) - Is it a new discipline?; in
Polish], Przeglad Geoogicjny (Geology Renew), vol 48, no.8, NetGIS.
Crossreferenced from Oledzki, J. R. (2004).
• Oledzki, J. R. (2004), An integrated spatial research tool geoinformatics -
An integrated spatial research tool. Miscellania Geographica vol.11,
pp.323-331. English translation by J. M. Kwiatowska (www.wgsr.uw.edu.
pl/pub/uploads/mcg04/35oledzki.pdf).
• www.earth.google.com.
• www.forests.tn.nic.in/indexb.html.
• www.reliefshading.com/cartographers/imhof.html.
The data from all the above web sites was retrieved between 10th and 20th May,
2011.

1.13 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READING

• Gomarasca, M. A. (2009), Basics of Geomatics, Springer, 656 p.

1.14 ANSWERS
Check Your Progress I
1) Geographic information refers to the Earth’s surface and near surface
whereas spatial information is broad term which refers to any space and
not only the space of Earth’s surface. Spatial may refer to space of other
planets, cosmos and even the space of human body captured on medical
images. 25
Overview of Geoinformatics 2) Refer to paragraph 1 of sub-section 1.3.3

Check Your Progress II

1) Space segment, control segment, user segment.
2) Computer Hardware Module, Computer Software Module, Data, People
and Method
3) Real-world applications of GPS are location, navigation, monitoring the
movement of people, animal and material, mapping and precise timing.

Unit End Questions

1) Refer to section 1.2
2) Refer to section 1.5
3) Refer to sub-section 1.4
4) Refer to section. 1.7

26
 Geoinformatics: An
UNIT 2 RECENT TRENDS IN Introduction

GEOINFORMATICS

Structure
2.1 Introduction
Objectives
2.2 Trends in Remote Sensing
Optical Remote Sensing
Microwave Remote Sensing
Thermal Remote Sensing
2.3 Trends in Photogrammetry
2.4 Trends in GIS
3D GIS
Web GIS
Location Based Services (LBS)
Mobile GIS
Enterprise GIS
GIS Customisation and Software Automation
2.5 Trends in GPS
2.6 Trends in Geoinformatics Education
2.7 Future Trends and Challenges
2.8 Activity
2.9 Summary
2.10 Unit End Questions
2.11 References
2.12 Further/Suggested Reading
2.13 Answers

2.1 INTRODUCTION
You have been introduced to the concepts of geoinformatics and its
components in Unit 1. Now, you have got an idea of its diverse applications
and potential. Though geoinformatics has been in use since long in the areas
of forestry, agriculture, utilities, urban planning, mining, etc., it was restricted
to selected government departments, space research centres and universities.
Geoinformatics technology is now beginning to pervade all aspects of our
daily life, and there is a perceptible change in the way we look at the
technology as we are beginning to come to terms with it and understand its
vast potential. Its value and potential is now being appreciated even by every
person. Technology is gaining ground because of the huge benefits it offers,
particularly, in terms of time and cost effectiveness. However, with the spread
of the technology in a variety of application areas, the related technologies are
constantly evolving and a variety of developments are taking place.
In this unit, you will study about recent trends and developments taking place
in various fields of geoinformatics at the global level. 27
Overview of Geoinformatics
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
• discuss about developments in the fields of remote sensing;
• list out the advancements in the field of photogrammetry;
• point out recent developments and trends in the field of GIS;
• list out the recent developments and trends in the field of GPS; and
• elaborate upon the recent trends in geoinformatics education.

2.2 TRENDS IN REMOTE SENSING

In this section, you will be introduced to the developments and recent trends in
the field of remote sensing. Remote sensing methods had been in use in some
form or other since long but with the launch of Sputnik in 1957 by Russia,
research and development activities in the field got a boost. Since then, there
have been a number of significant developments in this field.

Remote sensing data are the main source of geospatial data and input to
Geographic Information System. Recent developments in remote sensing
technology have enhanced our data acquisition capability in several aspects.
Some of the notable developments are as following:
• enhanced capability to acquire information of smaller objects (i.e. spatial
resolution)
• enhanced capability to acquire information in different wavelengths and
in many number of bands (spectral resolution)
• increased capability to acquire data for a variety of parameters and
spheres of the Earth system such as atmosphere, hydrosphere and
lithosphere
• enhanced capability to extract information more accurately from variety
of remote sensing data using automated or semi-automated methods.
• increased capability to apply the derived information for a variety of
applications for the biosphere
• from multipurpose satellite mission to application specific sensors and
satellites.

Developments in remote sensing can broadly be categorised into technology

and application domains. The technological developments can again be
classified into the areas of data acquisition and data interpretation techniques.
One good example is the acquisition of remote sensing data from space
shuttles. USA based Johnson Space Centre maintains a database of large
amount of data acquired during the manned space shuttle flights. Because of
the developments in data acquisition technologies, remote sensing data are
now available in volumes larger than what is actually being analyzed by data
analysts.

28
Developments in computing technologies have enabled data accessibility and Recent Trends in
Geoinformatics
availability to a large number of researchers and users. This has also resulted
in development of algorithms which are able to derive information from a
variety of remote sensing data acquired from different data acquisition
platforms without much human interaction and intervention. This information
is also becoming more accurate. Increased number of parameters, which we
can derive from remote sensing data has also enabled us to apply it in a variety
of application areas.

In the initial years, there were satellites, the data from which were used for
land, coastal areas and ocean. In the recent times, application specific missions
are being launched. One of the examples is the GRACE (Gravity Recovery
and Climate Experiment) gravity gradient sensor mission that measures
minute changes in Earth’s gravity field to pinpoint localised variations in the
planet’s density. The GRACE mission is being executed by NASA (National
Aeronautics and Space Agency) of USA in collaboration with Germany.
Another example is the Jason mission by NASA in partnership with France,
which employs a radar altimeter to measure sea surface height to a global
average of within 5 cm of its actual value.

You have read in Unit 1 (subsection 1.3.5) that remote sensors are classified as LIDAR is an optical
optical microwave sensors because their detection mechanisms are quite remote sensing technology
different. These are further subdivided into passive or active types. These are that can measure a
distance to or other
further subdivided into optical and microwave sensors. The active or passive
properties of a target by
sensors could be categorised as either imaging, like the camera, or non- illuminating the target with
imaging, like the radiometer. Examples of optical sensors are photographic light often uses pulses
cameras, Multi-Spectral Scanners (MSS), Linear Imaging Self Scanning from a laser.
(LISS) sensors, etc., in passive category and LIDAR (Light Detecting and
Ranging) in active category. Active microwave sensors are Synthetic Aperture Infrared (IR) light
Radar (SAR), Side Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR), Radar Altimeter, etc., is electromagnetic
radiation with
and the passive instruments are called Microwave Radiometers.
a wavelength longer than
that of visible light,
Developments in remote sensing technologies have resulted in different kinds measured from 0.74 μm,
of data acquisition methodologies which are known as panchromatic remote and extending upto to
sensing, multispectral remote sensing, hyperspectral remote sensing, etc. In the 300 μm.
following sub-sections, we will discuss about the kinds of remote sensing and Shortwave refers to
their related developments. upper medium frequency
and the entire high
2.2.1 Optical Remote Sensing frequency portion of
the radio spectrum,
Let us now look at the different types of remote sensing in more detail! between 1,800–
30,000 kHz.
Optical remote sensing makes use of visible, near infrared and short-wave Spectral band is the finite
infrared sensors to form images of the Earth’s surface by detecting the solar segment of wavelengths in
radiation reflected from targets on the ground. Optical remote sensing systems electromagnetic spectrum.
are classified into the following types, depending on the number of spectral You will study about many
bands used in the imaging process. of the satellites and
sensors mentioned in the
Panchromatic imaging systems: This sensor is a single channel detector text in Unit 6 Major Space
sensitive to radiation within a broad wavelength range resulting into a black Programmes of MGY-002
and white image (Fig. 2.1). The physical quantity being measured is the Remote Sensing and
Image Interpretation.
apparent brightness of the targets. The spectral information of the target is lost.

29
Overview of Geoinformatics

Fig. 2.1: A panchromatic image of a part of Allahabad acquired by Cartosat 2B PAN

sensor (source: www.nrsc.gov.in/imagegallery.html)
Examples of satellites carrying panchromatic imaging systems are as follows:
• Cartosat
• QuickBird
• WorldView
• GeoEye
Multi-spectral imaging systems: This kind of sensor is a multi-channel
detector with a more than one spectral band and generally 3 to 7 bands. The
resulting image is a multi-layer image which contains both the brightness and
spectral information of the targets observed (Fig. 2.2). Examples of multi-
spectral systems are:
• QuickBird MSS
• GeoEye MSS
• IKONOS MSS

Fig. 2.2: A multispectral image of part of Riyadh as acquired by Quick bird satellite
30 (source: www.satimageingcorp.com)
Superspectral imaging systems: Superspectral imaging sensor has many Recent Trends in
Geoinformatics
more spectral channels (typically >10) than a multi-spectral sensor. The bands
have narrower bandwidths, enabling the finer spectral characteristics of the
targets to be captured by the sensor (Fig. 2.3). Examples of superspectral
systems are:
• MODIS
• MERIS

Fig. 2.3: Image of hurricane from a super-spectral imaging system (source: http://
disc.sci. gsfc.nasa.gov/hurricane/additional/image-gallery/archive/2008/
Hurr_Gustav_ 2008-08-31-MODIS.gif)

Hyperspectral imaging systems: A hyperspectral imaging system is also

known as an “imaging spectrometer”. It acquires images in about a hundred
or more contiguous spectral bands (Fig. 2.4). The precise spectral information
contained in a hyperspectral image enables better characterisation and
identification of targets. Hyperspectral images have potential applications in
fields such as precision agriculture (e.g. monitoring the types, health, moisture
status and maturity of crops), coastal management (e.g. monitoring of
phytoplanktons, pollution, bathymetry changes).

Fig. 2.4: Concept of hyperspectral remote sensing 31

Overview of Geoinformatics Hyperspectral remote sensing, also known as imaging spectroscopy, is
relatively a new technology that is currently being investigated by researchers
and scientists with regard to the detection and identification of minerals,
terrestrial vegetation, and man-made materials and backgrounds.
Imaging spectroscopy has been used in the laboratory by physicists and
chemists for over 100 years for identification of materials and their
composition. Recently, with advancing technology, imaging spectroscopy has
begun to focus on the Earth. The concept of hyperspectral remote sensing
began in mid eighties and since then it has been used most widely by
geologists for the mapping of minerals. Hyperspectral remote sensing
combines imaging and spectroscopy in a single system which often includes
large data sets and requires new processing methods (Fig. 2.5).
There are many applications which can take advantage of increased spectral
information provided by hyperspectral remote sensing.
• Atmosphere: water vapor, cloud properties, aerosols
• Ecology: chlorophyll, leaf water, cellulose, pigments, lignin
• Geology: mineral and soil types
• Coastal Waters: chlorophyll, phytoplankton, dissolved organic materials,
suspended sediments
• Snow/Ice: snow cover fraction, grain size, melting
• Biomass Burning: sub pixel temperatures, smoke
• Commercial: mineral exploration, agriculture and forest production.

Fig. 2.5: Image data cube and spectral response pattern of different materials as
obtained from a hyperspectral remote sensing image (source:
www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~small/Urban/UrbanHyperspectral.htm)

Microwave radiometer is 2.2.2 Microwave Remote Sensing

such a device, which
responds to the extremely You have already read that microwave portion of the spectrum i.e. 1cm to 1 m
low levels of microwave in wavelength is used to acquire the remote sensing information. Longer
energy emitted and/or
wavelength microwave radiation can penetrate through cloud cover, haze,
reflected from ambient
sources (such as the sun) dust, etc. This property allows detection of microwave energy under almost all
by terrain features. weather and environmental conditions so that data can be collected at any
time.
32
Passive microwave sensing is similar in concept to thermal remote sensing. A Recent Trends in
Geoinformatics
passive microwave sensor detects the naturally emitted microwave energy
within its field of view. Applications of passive microwave remote sensing are
used in the fields of meteorology, hydrology, and oceanography.

Active microwave sensors provide their own source of microwave radiation to You will study about many
illuminate the target. Active microwave sensors are generally divided into two of the satellites and
distinct categories: imaging and non-imaging. The most common form of sensors mentioned in the
imaging active microwave sensors is RADAR. RADAR is an acronym for text in Unit 6 Major Space
Programmes of MGY-002
Radio Detection And Ranging, which essentially characterizes the function Remote Sensing and
and operation of a radar sensor (Fig. 2.6). This image shows RADARSAT’s Image Interpretation.
ability to distinguish different types of bedrock. The light shades on this image
(C) represent areas of limestone, while the darker regions (B) are composed of
sedimentary siltstone. The very dark area marked A is Bracebridge Inlet which
joins the Arctic Ocean.

Fig. 2.6: Radarsat image acquired on March 21, 1996, over Bathurst Island in Nunavut,
Canada (source: www.racurs.ru/?page=151)

Non-imaging microwave sensors include altimeters and scatterometers. Nadir is the direction
Generally, altimeters look straight down at nadir below the platform, and thus pointing directly below a
measure height or elevation. Scatterometers are used to make precise particular location
quantitative measurements of the amount of energy backscattered from targets.
Seasat-1, ERS-1, ERS-2, ENVISAT-1, JERS-1, RADARSAT-1, etc. are the
examples of satellites carrying microwave sensors.

Another development is the Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) imaging, in

which microwave pulses are transmitted by an antenna towards the Earth
surface. The microwave energy scattered back to the spacecraft is measured
(Fig. 2.7). The SAR makes use of the radar principle to form an image by
utilising the time delay of the backscattered signals.

33
Overview of Geoinformatics

(a) (b)
Fig. 2.7: Illustration showing the concept of SAR imaging; a) A radar pulse is
transmitted from the antenna to the ground, b) The radar pulse is scattered by
the ground targets back to the antenna

2.2.3 Thermal Remote Sensing

Thermal remote sensing is the branch of remote sensing that deals with the
acquisition, processing and interpretation of data acquired primarily in the
thermal infrared (TIR) region of the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum. In
thermal remote sensing, we measure the radiations ‘emitted’ from the surface
of the target, as opposed to optical remote sensing where we measure the
radiations ‘reflected’ by the target under consideration. Thermal remote
sensing, in principle, is different from remote sensing in the optical and
microwave region. In practice, thermal data prove to be complementary to
other remote sensing data. It is unique in helping to identify surface materials
and features, such as rock types, soil moisture, geothermal anomalies‚ etc. The
ability to record variations in infrared radiation has advantage in extending our
observation of many types of phenomena in which minor temperature
variations may be significant in understanding our environment.
There are limitations of thermal imagery. It can be very expensive to acquire
and process thermal data as most thermal imaging systems have strict
operational/technical parameters, such as detector materials. Thermal infrared
imaging systems are difficult to calibrate because temperature differences can
be very subtle and interactions with atmospheric moisture are unpredictable.
Thermal images of water measure only the very top layer of the water surface
because those wavelengths are attenuated/absorbed very rapidly, especially in
water.

Spend Check Your Progress I

5 mins
1) Optical remote sensing systems are classified on the basis of the number
of .................................................................. used in the imaging process.
2) What are the different types of optical remote sensing systems?
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
3) Microwave remote sensing has been divided into .............................. and
....................................................... remote sensing.
34
 Recent Trends in
2.3 TRENDS IN PHOTOGRAMMETRY Geoinformatics

We introduced the term photogrammetry in Unit 1, which is a technique of

making measurements, such as coordinates, distance, area or volume, etc. with
the help of photographs. In some cases, photogrammetric techniques are the
only possible way of such measurements. Photogrammetry has proved to be a You will read about
cost-effective and better method for mapping a large area than surveying on orthophotos in detail in
the ground. It enables the users to capture elevation information from stereo- Unit 6 Remote Sensing
pairs of aerial photographs/ satellite images and generate orthophotos/images Data and Formats of
(vertical photographs/ images) and thematic maps. MGY-001

Photogrammetry is connected with photography, aviation and computers.

Advancements in high precision optics and mechanics, usage of large film
format, to receive a good ground resolution in the photos, availability of high
end computer systems, etc. have resulted in the development of
photogrammetry.
We can summarise some of the notable developments in the field of
photogrammetry as given below:
• development from analogue technique to digital techniques
• recording, acquisition and analysis of data digitally as a result of transition
from glass or film to digital cameras due to change from opto-mechanical
equipments to digital systems
• availability of high-end computers with peripherals including storage
devices, monitors, faster data transfer, and compression/decompression
techniques
• coming up of new fields of applications, such as stereo photogrammetry
using high resolution satellite images
• digital cameras have now become available at lower prices than earlier
enabling wider use in close-range applications
• ease in handling as it has now became easier to handle and use for non-
photogrammetrists
• integration of digital photogrammetry applications into GIS databases has
now become offered new possibilities for the end-users
• development and availability of digital photogrammetry workstations has
made the work flow fully digital having the capability to provide
stereoscopic viewing and enabling precise 3D measurements and editing
of 3D data.
One of the examples of 3D data is the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission SRTM refers to Shuttle
Radar Topography
(SRTM), a joint project of National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA) Mission. You can get more
and National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) of USA, which information about it from
has produced topographic maps for 80 per cent of the Earth’s land surface the website
through the development of DEM from the stereo-pairs of satellite images. www2.jpl.nasa.gov/srtm/
mission.htm and also in
Unit 5 Data Types and
2.4 TRENDS IN GIS Sources of MGY-001
Introduction to
In the 1960s, computer based GIS concepts began to be explored in North Geoinformatics.
America and today numerous and considerable technological and
35
Overview of Geoinformatics methodological developments have taken place in the field of GIS. The main
advancements are a result of the use of computing techniques and this would
continue to affect the future advancements also.
Some of the important developments in GIS methodology are listed below:
• GIS has evolved from the earlier use in mainframe computers to personal
computers to now in mobile devices, facilitating the growth of GIS usage
and research
• application of computer based technology to handle numerical census data
for deriving useful information
• introduction of topological data structures to store and analyse map data
DBMS, which refers to • relational database technology becoming standard and integral part of GIS
Database Management for handling spatial/aspatial data with the development of spatial database
Systems, is a software
management systems (SDBMS)
package which is capable
of creating, maintaining • standardisation of data quality norms and accuracy standards
and use of a database i.e.
records of data. DBMS • developments in the field of object orientation in system and database
allows concurrent access design
to data and can perform
queries on large datasets • advent of internet and subsequent developments of GIS tools in World
such as listing out the Wide Web leading to development of new internet protocols, easy to use
names of all schools. GIS interfaces (browsers), tools and programming languages, Web GIS,
uses SDBMS to store, OPEN GIS, etc
search, query and share
large spatial data sets. • evolution of GIS from a mere powerful spatial technological tool to a
SDBMS is capable of spatial science
performing spatial queries
such as listing out the • it was earlier required to have all the parts at one place for any GIS
names of all schools implementation; whereas its now possible to access data and software
within 5 kms of IGNOU remotely and implement
campus.
• its applications have expanded from mapping and resource management
to utilities, market analysis, location based service and data browsing
• use of GIS has now opened up for general public from the earlier
restricted use in only government sectors
• focus has changed from earlier system centric approach to service
oriented approach
As you have studied in the previous section about recent trends in the field of
remote sensing, there are many developments taking place in the field of GIS.
We will now study about recent trends and developments in GIS in the
following subsections.

2.4.1 3D GIS
The land surface has been the object of mapping for hundreds of years and the
terrain with its undulating, continuous land surface is a familiar phenomenon
to GIS users. Mapmakers have introduced various techniques for displaying 3-
dimensional Earth into 2-dimensional maps and GIS outputs which has made
it easier to incorporate terrain mapping and analysis into applications ranging
from wildlife habitat analysis to hydrologic modelling. Use of 3D in GIS
began around a decade back. Now most of the GIS software has the capability
to create 3D visualisation complete with landscape objects such as buildings,
36
trees, etc. Fig. 2.8 displays the capability of 3D GIS in visualisation of Recent Trends in
Geoinformatics
features. At present, the 3D research area is concerned with issues of 3D
structuring and 3D topology.

Fig. 2.8: 3D GIS showing realistic landscape objects (source: www.esri.com/

mapmuseum/mapbook_gallery/volume24/engineering1.html)

2.4.2 Web GIS

You have been introduced to Web GIS in Unit 1. The advent of web mapping
can be regarded as a major new trend. Earlier, cartography was restricted as it
required expensive and complex hardware and software, as well as skilled
cartographers and geoinformatics engineers. With web mapping, freely
available mapping technologies and geodata potentially allow every skilled
person to produce web maps.

Web mapping is the process of designing, implementing, generating and

delivering maps on the World Wide Web and its products. While web mapping
primarily deals with technological issues, web cartography additionally
includes theoretic aspects: the use of web maps, the evaluation and
optimisation of techniques and workflows, the usability of web maps, social
aspects, and more. Web GIS is similar to web mapping but with an emphasis
on analysis, processing of project specific geodata and exploratory aspects
(Fig. 2.9).

Often the terms web GIS and web mapping are used synonymously, even if
they don’t mean exactly the same. In fact, the border between web maps and
web GIS is blurry. Web maps are often a presentation media in web GIS and
web maps are increasingly gaining analytical capabilities. A special case of
web maps are mobile maps, displayed on mobile computing devices, such as
37
Overview of Geoinformatics mobile phones, smart phones, PDAs, GPS and other devices. If the maps on
these devices are displayed by a mobile web browser or web user agent, they
PDA refers to Personal
Digital Assistant which can be regarded as mobile web maps.
came into existence in
1968. It is an electronic
devise which assist us in
information management.
It is also known as
palmtop computer
or personal data assistant.
Some of the PDAs can be
used as mobile phone,
media player and can also
connect to Internet.

Fig. 2.9: Concept of WebGIS (source: www.esri.com/news/arcnews/winter0809 articles/

gis-geography-in-action.html)

There are various types of web maps, such as analytic, animated,

collaborative, customised, distributed, hyper maps, interactive maps, etc. Out
of which collaborative web map projects appear to be more popular, such as
Google Map Maker, OpenStreetMap, WikiMapia, etc.
There are several advantages of web maps. We will mention here about some
of them:
• easy delivery of up to date information- when the maps are generated
automatically from databases, they can display information in almost real-
time for example, a map displaying the traffic situation near real-time by
using traffic data collected by sensor networks or a map showing
locations of vehicles
• availability of software and hardware infrastructure at low cost
The first consumer LBS- • easy distribution of product updates
capable mobile web
device was the Palm VII, • webmaps work across browsers and operating systems
released in 1999. Two of • capability to combine distributed data sources
the in-the-box applications
made use of the ZIP code-
• web maps allow for personalisation
level positioning • web maps enable collaborative mapping
information and share the
• web maps support hyperlinking to other information on the web
title for first consumer
LBS application: the • easy to integrate multimedia with web maps.
Weather.com app from
The Weather Channel, and 2.4.3 Location Based Services (LBS)
the TrafficTouch app from
Convergence of different technologies, such as wireless networks, internet,
Sony-Etak / Metro Traffic.
GIS and GPS have introduced a new type of information technology, called
38 Location Based Services (LBS). It is developing rapidly in the mobile and IT
fields. Advancement of LBS is governed by increased demand and interest in Recent Trends in
Geoinformatics
utilising geospatial information through wireless networks. LBS is an
information or entertainment service, accessible with mobile devices through
the mobile network utilising the ability to make use of the geographical
position of the mobile device (Fig. 2.10). LBS can be used in a variety of
contexts, such as health, indoor object search, entertainment, work, personal
life, etc.
LBS include services to identify a location of a person or object, such as
discovering the nearest banking cash machine or the whereabouts of a friend
or employee. LBS include parcel tracking and vehicle tracking services. LBS
can include mobile commerce when taking the form of coupons or advertising
directed at customers based on their current location. They include
personalised weather services and even location-based games. They are an
example of telecommunication convergence. LBS applications are useful for
the following tasks:
• recommending social events in a city
• requesting the nearest business or service, such as an ATM or restaurant
• turn by turn navigation to any address
• locating people on a map displayed on the mobile phone
• receiving alerts, such as notification of a sale on gas or warning of a
traffic jam
• location-based mobile advertising
• games where your location is part of the game play, for example your
movements during your day make your avatar move in the game or your
position unlocks content.
• real-time questions and answers revolving around restaurants, services,
and other venues.

Fig. 2.10: An illustration of the concept of LBS (source:www.bsmart-solutions.com/

services-inV-whatis.asp)
39
Overview of Geoinformatics Mobile messaging plays an essential role in LBS. Messaging, especially SMS,
has been used in combination with various LBS applications, such as location-
based mobile advertising. SMS is still the main technology carrying mobile
advertising/marketing campaigns to mobile phones. A classic example of LBS
applications using SMS is the delivery of mobile coupons or discounts to
mobile subscribers who are near advertising restaurants, cafes, movie theatres.
The Singaporean mobile operator MobileOne carried out such an initiative in
2007 that involved many local marketers, which was reported to be a huge
success in terms of subscriber acceptance.

2.4.4 Mobile GIS

GIS is rapidly extending into the mobile environment also which is now
known as Mobile GIS. Mobile GIS is the use of geographic data in the field
on mobile devices. It integrates three essential components; Global Navigation
Satellite Systems (GNSS), rugged handheld computers, and GIS software.
Bringing these three technologies together make the enterprise database
directly accessible to field personnel whenever and wherever it is required.
Mobile GIS has an advantage over LBS. Location based systems require either
you or at least your phone to be there to get location but it is difficult in some
cases. Mobile GIS is useful in such cases.
Mobile GIS is a mapping technology for resource managers and other field
workers to visualise and improve their field-based management and research
tasks. With mobile GIS, field workers may capture spatial data directly in the
field and, with access to a wireless communication network; the data can then
be remotely transferred in real time to the central database back at the
company office. Mobile GIS is especially important in emergency situations
and natural disasters when emergency workers, such as fire-fighters (Fig.
2.11), need to have access to the most current and accurate information in
order to make decisions about people’s lives and the health of the
environment.

Fig. 2.11: Illustration of the concept of Mobile GIS (source: www.map.sdsu.edu/

fireweb/mobileGIS.htm)

2.4.5 Enterprise GIS

Enterprise GIS is a geographic information system that is integrated through
an entire organisation so that a large number of users can manage, share, and
use spatial data and related information to address a variety of needs,
including data creation, modification, visualisation, analysis, and
dissemination. Concept and capabilities of Enterprise GIS is shown in
Fig. 2.12.
40
 Recent Trends in
Geoinformatics

Fig. 2.12: Capabilities of Enterprise Geodatabase

Enterprise GIS has evolved over a period of time and especially during last
five-six years. Most of the leading GIS vendors have had components that
constitute an Enterprise GIS for long time but the efforts to have them all
packaged together and provide an end-to-end solution picked up fast pace in
the recent times. To put it in simpler terms, an Enterprise GIS should be
capable of:
• supporting huge number of simultaneous transactions
• integrating with other Enterprise Systems (such as SAP, Billing Systems)
• comply with Open Geospatial Consortiums (OGC) Standards to enable
easier integration with other systems
• displaying data in the same way (styles/symbols) for Desktop, Web and
Mobile users
• preferred reusable functionality across Desktop, Web and Mobile
platforms.
Some of the applications of Enterprise GIS are the following as shown in Fig.
2.13:
• increased communication and encouragement of collaboration among
various organisational departments in support of better decision making
• lower cost of software ownership and increased return on investments
through single, focused GIS applications (such as Web applications) that
scale to support many users
• integration of GIS functionality with other enterprise systems in an effort
to better manage resources and assets.

41
Overview of Geoinformatics

Fig. 2.13: Applications of Enterprise GIS (source: www.proceedings.esri.com/library/

userconf/proc98/proceed/TO400/PAP363/P363.HTM)

2.4.6 GIS Customisation and Software Automation

With the advent of web applications/client server concept, several organisation
are opting for software customisation to make it more user friendly for their
clients/customers. Client/customer would be more happy to get the results or
output at the click of the button rather than bother about the long and tedious
back end process. In the current scenario, GIS customisation has got numerous
benefits as mentioned below:
• it reduces the cycle time of certain project processes
• manual intervention could be greatly minimised
• human induced errors are significantly reduced as the process is
automated
• with little modification of the custom built application, the same tool or
scripts could be reused in other applications as well.
Most of the customisation is being carried out to create Spatial Decision
Support Systems (SDSS), which use inherent capabilities of GIS and provides
better analytic capabilities and visualisation in the form of tailor-made maps.
This facilitates decision making to a great extent (Fig. 2.14). In a typical SDSS
for forest management, the vision/need comes from the forestry experts, which
ultimately gets transformed into a database. The efficient use of this dataset
through GIS and IT can be extremely helpful in deriving the most meaningful
information necessary for better governance. Another important benefit of
SDSS is that it can even be used by the people who do not have any specific
background related to GIS and IT. SDSS named ‘Aranya’ has been developed
by Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC) for forest
department, ‘Bodoland Territorial Areas District’ (BTAD), Assam, under the
Government of India initiative for promoting IT-based services in Northeast
42
India. Aranya has been developed using open source tools including Quantum Recent Trends in
Geoinformatics
GIS (QGIS), Python, PyQt, C and C++ to ensure its wider dissemination.

Fig. 2.14: Illustration showing function of SDSS (source: http://isferea.jrc.ec.europa.eu /

Activities/Technologies/Pages/Spatial DecisionSupportSystems.aspx)

QGIS is a GIS package having compatibility with GRASS (a comprehensive

open source image processing and GIS software) and can be customised using
Python language. Python is an easy to use and robust scripting language, and
can be integrated with C, C++, Fortran and Java. Further, QGIS works in plug-
in mode which provides the flexibility to invoke or revoke a particular
module. Plug-ins are programs (dynamically linked libraries) responsible to
carry out specific tasks, and can be called in QGIS in runtime environment;
even different modules of GRASS can be called as plug-ins. Further, Python
can effectively be used with both grid (raster) and vector formats. PyQT is a
Python binding for Nokia’s QT application framework and runs on the
windows.
Aranya is aimed at providing the flexibility to forest managers and planners to
do various analyses in GIS. It has different modules relevant to forest
departments in India. These include territorial forestry, joint forest
management, and wildlife, working plan and research and development.
Check Your Progress II
Spend
1) What is digital photogrammetry? 5 mins
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................... 43
Overview of Geoinformatics 2) List some of the latest developments of GIS tools in World Wide Web.,
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
3) Define LBS.
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................

2.5 TRENDS IN GPS

Cellular telephony enables You have learnt in the first unit that Global Positioning System provides
time transfer, which is
critical for synchronising
reliable positioning and navigation services on a worldwide basis at any point
its spreading codes with of time. GPS, which was earlier used exclusively by military, has made
other base stations to impacts into the lives of common man. It is a revolutionary tool, which
facilitate inter-cell handoff provides unequalled accuracy and flexibility of positioning for navigation,
and support hybrid GPS/ surveying and Geographic Information System data capture. Growing use in
cellular position detection
for mobile emergency
automotive and consumer applications is propelling the market for mobile
calls and other location technologies. Although standalone products are quite popular, the
applications. most common applications are built around Portable Navigation Devices
(PNDs), mobile phones, or car navigation systems. As per World GPS Market
Forecast, the technology is fast gaining acceptance worldwide, as it is
Geofencing refers to penetrating into previously untapped areas.
locating vehicles, person
or pet, when GPS devices Some of the notable trends and advancements in the field of GPS are listed
are attached to them. The below:
application provides
continuous tracking and
• introduction of GPS in civilian domain
mobile or internet updates • developments of methods and techniques to improve accuracy for civil
if the target leaves a
applications, which has widened GPS applications in various land, water,
designated area.
air and space applications, including cellular telephony, geofencing,
Geotagging refers to geotagging, etc.
applying location
coordinates to digital • the first handsets with integrated GPS were launched in the late 1990s.
objects such as Disaster relief/emergency services depend upon GPS for location and
photographs and other timing capabilities
documents for purposes
such as creating map • in military, the GPS technology is utilised from reconnaissance to target
overlays. tracking to missile and projectile guidance purposes. GPS satellites which
carry a set of nuclear detonation detectors form a major portion of the
United States Nuclear Detonation Detection System
• enhancement in global coverage for GPS signals
44
• possibility of precise measurements with introduction of differential GPS Recent Trends in
Geoinformatics
• availability of wide range of GPS receivers with varying capabilities and
processing speeds
• availability of range of GPS receivers at reduced size and cost
• greater real time applications
• development and availability of improved user friendly software for GPS
receivers.

2.6 TRENDS IN GEOINFORMATICS EDUCATION

You have studied in the previous sections of this unit about the recent trends
and developments taking place in various components of the geoinformatics.
The recent trends and developments have brought markable changes in
structure and format of University curricula and also in delivery mechanisms
of geoinformatics related educational programs. This revolution is necessary
to keep pace with the latest technologies and to develop knowledgeable and
skilled manpower in different employment sectors.
Some of the developments and trends observed currently at Indian and global
levels are listed below:
• training and education in geoinformatics were earlier restricted to few
selected disciplines and were later included in many other disciplines. It
has now been realised that multidisciplinary education in information
technologies, management, and space technology can increase
employment opportunities
• earlier, there were only few institutes and universities, which were
offering educational and training programmes related to geoinformatics.
Now many universities and institutes are offering such programmes
• the range of programmes being offered vary from appreciation level (from
few days to few weeks duration) to certificate levels (from few weeks to
few months duration) to diploma (of few months) to masters (from ~one
year to ~three years) to doctoral levels
• in comparison to the past, there are many choices one can make with
regards to the level of programmes, depending upon the preference of
learners with regard to location of institute, cost of programme, level and
mode of programme, etc.
• focus has shifted from just developing professional and technical skills of
learners to expose learners to modern tools and technologies and also to
update their knowledge in specific application areas and domains
• education and training is now also being imparted by adopting other
modes, such as open and distance learning including e-Learning with
interactive lecture/education materials and hands on exercises along with
the use of internet medium to conduct online test and examinations. The
use of e-Learning enables enrollment of working professionals as their
time and possibility of attending courses are limited
• due to the above efforts, geoinformatics technicians and professionals are
comparatively more readily available in the market in comparison to the
past. 45
Overview of Geoinformatics
2.7 FUTURE TRENDS AND CHALLENGES
You have studied in previous sections, about the trends and advancement in
different components of geoinformatics viz. remote sensing, GIS,
photogrammetry, GPS and geoinformatics education. The technologies utilised
in geoinformatics are advancing at an extraordinary rate due to changes in user
needs and advances in computing technologies, which is continuously
increasing its potential to utilise it in different sectors. The advancement in
technology and applications is further expected to grow and have a major
impact on our daily lives.
Some of the important points related to future trends and developments in the
field of geoinformatics are given below:
• launch of more sophisticated and specialised application specific sensors
with reduced size, weight and cost
• improved methodologies and techniques for faster and more accurate
geoinformation retrieval
• GIS is expected to be interoperable, fully web based and become more
dynamic and maps to become interactive
• further improvement in availability, reliability, usability, accuracy and
interoperability of GNSS
• development of receiver independent GPS software
• methods to improve usability of GNSS in situations such as indoor,
underwater, inside tunnel, etc.
• improved new methodologies and techniques for faster and reliable
geospatial data acquisition, storage, processing, transfer and retrieval, and
also for remote sensing, GIS and GPS data integration
• development of innovative data fusion approaches to synthesise and
analyse extensive and diverse data sets and to create new information
products
• developments of new methods and approaches for much wider
applications of geoinformatics to make it become part of daily life
• Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) is expected to grow faster and richer,
and with it the use of open source geoinformatics software
• newer or improved educational models for geoinformatics education to
fulfill the demands of changing education, industry and market scenario
• greater role of geoinformatics to facilitate multidisciplinary research to
enhance our understanding of the Earth system processes for its
sustainable management.
However, the growth and trends may be affected by the many issues. Some of
the issues are mentioned here:
• geospatial data, which were earlier either absent or lacking, are now
available from numerous sources at larger volumes and faster rates
however, at times the quality data is absent and if available, it is either in
46
 incompatible formats or there is ownership issue. It also requires regular Recent Trends in
Geoinformatics
updation and maintenance. Further, the available data is liable to be
misused.
• many mainstream IT companies have now entered in the GIS related
business bringing along with them overwhelming and excessive
information about their products and capabilities resulting into creating
confusion among the ordinary users.
• newer and improved methods for improving interoperability at different
levels are required.

2.8 ACTIVITY
1) If you are living in a metro city then you know that traffic congestion is
the biggest transportation issues facing cities. If you have won a project to
use the high resolution satellite imagery and GIS to identify the
bottleneck areas and come out with a comprehensive traffic management
plan. Here, you have a task to prepare entire road network, bridges,
median, traffic island, signals, pedestrian crossing, accident spots, bus
terminal, bus stops, etc. How do you plan to do this?

2) Government is on a massive drive against encroachment of settlements

on lakes and rivers. In this connection, they are planning a demolition
drive based on the individual house level details overlaid on high
resolution satellite imagery. Here, how would you differentiate the
buildings which are legal and illegal? Apply your real world knowledge
and demonstrate.

2.9 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have studied about the recent trends in different components
of geoinformatics. Let us now summarise what we have studied:
Remote sensing sensors broadly cover optical, hyperspectral, microwave and
thermal sensors. The data collected using the above mentioned sensors
become an input for various GIS mapping and customisation. Every sensor is
unique in its application where they are put in to best use to most of the Earth
resource applications.
On the other hand, GIS in its advanced stage, and day-to-day utility, like 3D
GIS, Web GIS, Mobile GIS, LBS, Enterprise GIS, and GIS customisation have
been briefly elaborated to give the learner a flavour for the subject with some
practical applications to try out as part of their on-going project.
Global Positioning System (GPS) provides reliable positioning and navigation
services on a worldwide basis at any point of time. GPS has undergone many
notable developments in this field. There are many issues and challenges in
the field of geoinformatics.
It is high time that mankind should make use of sustainable space technologies
to the very survival and to take it forward to our future generations. You have
also learnt about potential applications of space technologies through
integrated approach, such as GIS & RS in combination with GPS.
47
Overview of Geoinformatics

Spend
2.10 UNIT END QUESTIONS
30 mins
1) Discuss in brief some of the notable developments in remote sensing
satellites.
2) What are the applications which can take advantage of hyperspectral
remote sensing?
3) How Web Mapping is useful during natural disaster?
4) Discuss some of the notable trends and advancements in the field of GPS.

2.11 REFERENCES
• www.racurs.ru/?page=151.
• http://disc.sci.gsfc.nasa.gov/hurricane/additional/image-gallery/archive/
2008/Hurr_ Gustav_ 2008-08-31-MODIS.gif.
• http://isferea.jrc.ec.europa.eu /Activities/Technologies/Pages/Spatial
DecisionSupportSystems.aspx.
• www.bsmart-solutions.com/services-inV-whatis.asp.
• www.esri.com/mapmuseum/mapbook_gallery/volume24/
engineering1.htm.
• www.esri.com/news/arcnews/winter0809 articles/gis-geography-in-
action.html.
• www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~small/ Urban/UrbanHyperspectral.htm.
• www.map.sdsu.edu/fireweb/mobileGIS.htm.
• www.nrsc.gov.in/imagegallery.html.
• www.proceedings.esri.com/library/userconf/proc98/proceed/TO400/
PAP363/P363.HTM
• www.satimageingcorp.com.
Data from above links was retrieved between 1st to 15th May 2011.

2.12 FURTHER / SUGGESTED READING

• Gomarasca, M. A. (2009), Basics of Geomatics, Springer, 656 p.
• Yang, C., Wong, D., Miao, Q. and Yang. R. (2011), Advanced
Geoinformation Science, CRC Press, 485 p.

2.13 ANSWERS
Check Your Progress I
1) Spectral bands
2) Panchromatic imaging systems, Multi-spectral imaging systems
Superspectral Imaging Systems, Hyperspectral Imaging Systems.
3) Passive and active sensors.

48
Check Your Progress II Recent Trends in
Geoinformatics
1) Digital photogrammetry is characterised with the use of digital images or
scanned photographs as input data, correlation techniques, and
availability of digital cameras, satellite imagery, and automation of some
processes performed by operators.

2) Web GIS, Open GIS, 3D GIS.

3) Location Based Services (LBS) is an information or entertainment

service, accessible with mobile devices through the mobile network
utilising the ability to make use of the geographical position of the mobile
device

Unit End Questions

1) Refer to section 2.2 for trends in remote sensing.
2) Elaborate on Atmosphere, Ecology, Geology, Coastal Waters, Snow/Ice,
Biomass Burning and Commercial.
3) Refer to subsection 2.4.2 on Web GIS.
4) Refer to section 2.5 on GPS.

49
Overview of Geoinformatics

50
 Recent Trends in
UNIT 3 INDIAN SCENARIO IN Geoinformatics

GEOINFORMATICS

Structure
3.1 Introduction
Objectives
3.2 Geoinformatics in India
Growth of Geoinformatics Industry
Challenges to Geoinformatics Industry
Looking Ahead
3.3 National Agencies
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)
Department of Science and Technology (DST)
Geological Survey of India (GSI)
Defence Research & Development Organisation (DRDO)
National Informatics Centre (NIC)
Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC)
National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning (NBSS & LUP)
Town and Country Planning Organisation (TCPO)
National Capital Region Planning Board (NCRPB)
Other Organisation/Agencies
3.4 National Initiatives
Village Resource Centre (VRC)
National Natural Resource Management System (NNRMS)
Natural Resources Census (NRC)
National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI)
Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojna (PMGSY)
Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission (RGNDWM)
Crop Acreage and Production Estimation (CAPE)
Telemedicine Programme
Potential Fishing Zone (PFZ) Forecast
Biodiversity Information System (BIS)
Other Programmes
3.5 Career Options and Preparation
Career Options
Educational Programmes
3.6 Activity
3.7 Summary
3.8 Unit End Questions
3.9 References
3.10 Further/Suggested Reading
3.11 Answers

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 1, you have been introduced to geoinformatics and its various
components. In Unit 2, you have studied about the trends and developments
taking place in different fields of geoinformatics, globally. You have also been 51
Overview of Geoinformatics introduced to the expected future trends in geoinformatics in global
perspectives.
You now know that geoinformatics is a synergism of various disciplines and
because of its applications being oriented mainly to the real-world problems of
management of natural and man-made environment, its presence is expanding
at a rapid rate. There are various institutes and organisations which have
contributed significantly to the growth of geoinformatics in India. Government
of India has now included geoinformatics technology in many of its national
level programmes. It is important for you to know about them. Hence this unit
is particularly related to the Indian scenario in geoinformatics. In this unit, you
shall study about major agencies, which have played significant role in
shaping the present geoinformatics industry in India. You shall also study
about major national initiatives involving geoinformatics, and the universities
and institutes involved in geoinformatics education. This would give you an
idea about the market potential of the geoinformatics technology and career
prospects in this area.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
• list the national agencies and organisations which have shaped the Indian
geoinformatics industry;
• elucidate about the major national initiatives involving geoinformatics
component;
• discuss career options in the field of geoinformatics; and
• discuss about education scenario in the field of geoinformatics.

3.2 GEOINFORMATICS IN INDIA

Geoinformatics is fast expanding its presence in India. It has become an
important component of planning and decision making in diverse sectors, such
as urban planning, ascertaining natural resources, social forestry or location-
based services. Public perception towards geoinformatics industry has also
changed. What was once considered an impenetrable domain is now easily
understood by the common man. The emergence of Web 2.0 with the power of
mapping and collaborative initiatives has helped change the way people look
at geospatial industry. Geoinformatics tools and technologies have empowered
us to generate maps, create interactive queries, analyse information with its
different attributes and use the outputs for decision making purposes. There
GDP (Gross Domestic are many resource planning and business activities now, which are
Product) is an indicator unimaginable without input from geoinformatics.
which is used to gauge the
health of a country’s 3.2.1 Growth of Geoinformatics Industry
economy. GDP represents
market value of all goods Recent surveys suggest that the Indian geoinformatics industry is witnessing
and services produced higher growth rate than the average global growth rate of any other nation. The
over a specific time period significant rise in demand for geospatial information is likely to give it more
within a country. GDP per weightage in both public and private planning across sectors. Fig. 3.1 shows
capita is used as an
indicator of a country’s
the percentage growth for the Indian geoinformatics industry vis-a-vis
standard of living. worldwide growth. It is expected that like India’s GDP, the growth of India’s
geospatial market will outpace growth rate for geospatial markets in the rest of
52 the world.
 Indian Scenario in
Geoinformatics

Fig. 3.1: Percentage growth of the Indian geoinformatics industry vis-a-vis worldwide
(source: Geospatial World, Sep. 2010)

3.2.2 Challenges to Geoinformatics Industry

The efforts in geoinformatics and its allied fields are concentrated amongst a
limited number of government agencies and a smaller number of the private
sector agencies. Some of the common problems faced by the industry are:
• non-availability of quality and standardised data
• lack of adequate resources to collect and maintain data
• lack or absence of regular updation of available data
• data ownership issues
• issues with responsible processing of data
• cost (both software and hardware)
• gap between the expectations of the customers and the performance of the
industry
• data safety and security issues.
It is felt that a good geographic framework for our country is needed. The time
is not far when these issues would be addressed effectively to meet the
challenges of the industry. It is often discussed and debated in different forums
that the time is ripe to shed licence raj and secrecy policy because denial of
data may stunt the industry’s growth. The denial of data will dampen research
spirit, competitiveness, talent, innovation, scientific and technical skills and
above all stagnate the industry’s growth. Limiting access to data can have far-
reaching consequences, which could cripple the industry. In this direction,
organisation, such as Survey of India having vast resources of spatial data, can
play a pivotal role in generating and providing current, accurate and reliable
framework of spatial data to other agencies for value addition. However, this
is not achievable in the absence of a regulatory authority, which is required to
put in place a framework where the industry can collaborate with the national
mapping and survey agencies. Fig. 3.2 gives you an idea of the multiple tasks
of geospatial authority.
53
Overview of Geoinformatics
Transparency
Simplify
Promoting
process to
fair
access data
competition
GEOSPATIAL
DATA
Time Limit Clear rules
for for
data delivery Inclusion of security issues
private sector
for value
addition
Fig. 3.2: Multiple tasks of geospatial authority (source: www.geospatialtoday.com)

3.2.3 Looking Ahead

With the objective of unrestricted production, maintenance and dissemination
of spatial data, a new map policy (NMP) has been declared by the National
Topographic Database of the Survey of India (SOI). This is an outcome of the
consistent demand from several quarters, including the geoinformatics
industry to consider the topographic database as a national asset and to make it
available without much restriction. Keeping in view the national security
objectives, two series of maps have been proposed in the policy, namely
defence series map (DSM) and open series map (OSM). The DSM would cater
to defence and national security requirements, whereas the OSM would cater
to common civilian use.
The old remote sensing data policy was framed in 2001. According to the old
policy, it was mandated that ISRO (Indian Space Research Organisation) could
release data of up to 5.8 meter resolution. All other better resolution data were
strictly controlled by the government. Recently, when a Comptroller and
Auditor General of India (CAG) report found that about 80% of images of
ISRO were not being used adequately, Government of India announced its
new data sharing policy for India’s remote sensing satellites. Under this policy,
all remote sensing imagery and data up to 1 meter resolution will be made
freely available without restriction, which is a quantum jump from the past.
However, release of data less than one meter in resolution will still be under
concerned control by the authorities. It is expected that this step would very
much ease infrastructure development in urban areas and sectors, such as
telecom, roads and housing could benefit greatly.

3.3 NATIONAL AGENCIES

There are some agencies in India which have played significant role in the
development of geoinformatics technologies, development of methods and
approaches for different applications, establishing geoinformatics industry and
also imparting quality education in the field. In this section, we will discuss
about some of the important national agencies, their role and contribution. List
54 of these agencies is given in Table 3.1.
 Indian Scenario in
Table 3.1: List of some of the national agencies with their details Geoinformatics

No Agency Website Year of Location

Inception
1 Indian Space Research www.isro.org 1960 Bangalore
Organisation (ISRO)
2 Vikram Sarabhai Space www.vssc.gov.in 1963 Thiruvananth-
Centre apuram
3 National Remote Sensing www.nrsc.gov.in 2008 Hyderabad
Centre (NRSC)
4 Sathish Dawan Space www.shar.gov.in 2002 Sriharikota
Centre (SDSC)
5 Space Applications Centre www.sac.gov.in 1972 Ahmedabad
(SAC)
6 Regional Remote Sensing www.isro.gov.in/isrocentres/ - Kolkata,
Centre (RRSCs) rrssc.aspx Dehradun,
Jodhpur,
Bangalore,
Nagpur

7 Department of Science & www.dst.gov.in 1971 New Delhi

Technology (DST)
8 National Atlas & Thematic http://natmo.gov.in 1956
Kolkatta
Mapping Organisation
(NATMO)
9 Survey of India (SOI) www.surveyofindia.gov.in 1767 Dehradun

10 Geological Survey of www.portal.gsi.gov.in/ 1851 Kolkata

India (GSI) portal/page?_pageid=
108,717695 &_dad =
portal&_ schema=PORTAL

11 Defence Research & http://drdo.gov.in/drdo/ 1958 New Delhi

Development Organisation English/index.jsp?pg=
(DRDO) homebody.jsp

12 Defence Terrain Research www.drdo.gov.in/drdo/labs/ 1988 New Delhi

Laboratory (DTRL) DTRL/English/index.jsp?pg
=homebody.jsp

13 National Informatics www.nic.in 1976 New Delhi

Centre (NIC)
14 Centre for Development www.cdac.in 1988 Pune
of Advanced Computing
(C-DAC)
15 National Bureau of Soil www.nbsslup.in 1956 Nagpur
Survey and Land Use
Planning
16 Town and Country www.urbanindia.nic.in/ 1962 New Delhi
Planning Organisation theministry/subordinateoff/
(TCPO) tcpo/tcpo.htm

17 National Capital Region http://ncrpb.nic.in 1985 New Delhi

Planning Board (NCRPB)

55
Overview of Geoinformatics
3.3.1 Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)
The objective of ISRO is to develop space technology and its application to
various national tasks. ISRO has established two major series of satellite
systems, INSAT (Indian National Satellites) system for communication,
television broadcasting and meteorological services, and IRS (Indian Remote
Sensing) system for natural resources monitoring and management. Satellites
built by India are primarily designed to meet a national need first. Space
activities in the country have concentrated on achieving self-reliance and
developing capability to build and launch communication satellites for
television broadcast, telecommunications and meteorological applications; and
remote sensing satellites for management of natural resources.

The Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellite system is one of the largest
constellations of remote sensing satellites in operation in the world today.
From the first experimental remote sensing Satellite built in India i.e.
Bhaskara-I to the recent Resourcesat-2, India’s technological capability has
increased manifold along with its coverage and value-added products. You
will see a list of ten satellites in Table 3.2, which continue to provide
imageries in a variety of resolutions.
Table 3.2: Recently launched important Indian satellites
No. Name of the Satellite Launch date and vehicle used for launching
1 RESOURCESAT-2 April 20, 2011 by PSLV-C16
2 CARTOSAT-2B July 12, 2010 by PSLV-C15
3 OCEANSAT-2 Sept 23, 2009 by PSLV-C14
4 RISAT-2 Apr 20, 2009 by PSLV-C12
5 CARTOSAT-2A Apr 28, 2008 by PSLV-C9
6 IMS-1 Apr 28, 2008 by PSLV-C9
7 CARTOSAT – 2 Jan 10, 2007 by PSLV-C7
8 CARTOSAT-1 May 05, 2005 by PSLV-C6
9 RESOURCESAT-1 Oct 17, 2003 by PSLV-C5
10 TES Oct 22, 2001 by PSLV-C3

Images taken by Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellite system have found
application in diverse fields. Some of them are listed below:
• crop health monitoring, crop yield estimation and drought assessment are
the significant areas of application in the agriculture and the allied fields
• natural resource monitoring, management and its judicious combination
with socio-economic data
• ground water potential zone mapping and mineral targeting
• ocean applications including potential fishing zone identification and
coastal zone mapping
• forest cover mapping, biodiversity characterisation and monitoring of
forest fire
• timely assessment of damages caused by flood and earthquake and
56 providing the necessary supportive strength to disaster management, and
• soil mapping at different scales and in the field of archaeological survey. Indian Scenario in
Geoinformatics
There are different centres of ISRO located at different places in India, which
are entrusted with and are responsible for specific tasks. Some of these centres
are briefly mentioned here:

a) Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC)

VSSC, located at Thiruvananthapuram, is the major centre of ISRO,
where the design and development activities of satellite launch vehicles
and sounding rockets are carried out and made ready for launch
operations. The major programmes include launch vehicle projects of
Polar Satellite Launch Vehicles (PSLV), Geosynchronous Satellite
Launch Vehicles (GSLV Mark II and Mark III), Rohini Sounding Rockets,
Space-capsule Recovery Experiments, Reusable Launch Vehicles (RLV)
and Air Breathing Propulsion for Advanced Reusable Launch Vehicles
(ARLV).

b) National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC)

NRSC, located at Hyderabad, has been recently converted into a full-
fledged centre of ISRO. The Centre is responsible for remote sensing
satellite data acquisition and processing, data dissemination, aerial remote
sensing and decision support for disaster management. NRSC has set up
data reception station at Shadnagar near Hyderabad for acquiring data We will discuss about
from Indian remote sensing satellites as well as others. The Centre is also different kinds of data
engaged in executing remote sensing application projects in collaboration products available to users
in Unit 6 in Remote
with the users. Currently NRSC is supplying data from CartoSat-1, 2, 2A Sensing Data Products
& 2B, ResourceSat-1 & 2, OceanSat, TES, IRS-1D and IMS-1 to the and Formats of MGY-001.
users listed in Table 3.1.

c) Satish Dawan Space Centre – Sriharikota (SDSC SHAR)

SDSC SHAR, located in north of Chennai, has the necessary
infrastructure for launching satellites into low Earth orbit, polar orbit and
geostationary transfer orbit. Apart from these, it also has facilities for
launching sounding rockets meant for studying the Earth’s atmosphere.

d) Space Applications Centre (SAC)

SAC is one of the major centres of the Indian Space Research
Organisation (ISRO). SAC is responsible for realising the application
oriented programmes of ISRO in the areas of Satellite Communications,
Navigation and Remote Sensing, and is also responsible for design and
development of space-borne instruments and payloads for
communications and remote sensing satellites for ISRO missions.

e) Regional Remote Sensing Centres (RRSCs)

Under the National Natural Resources Management System (NNRMS) by
Department of Space (DOS), five Regional Remote Sensing Service
Centres (RRSSCs) have been established at Bangalore, Jodhpur,
Kharagpur (recently relocated to Kolkata), Dehradun and Nagpur. The
centres have been integrated with NRSC, and renamed as Regional
Remote Sensing Centres (RRSCs) South, West, East, North and Central,
respectively.
57
Overview of Geoinformatics RRSCs support various geoinformatics related tasks specific to their regions
as well as at the national level. RRSCs are carrying out application projects
encompassing all the fields of natural resources, like agriculture and soils,
water resources, forestry, oceanography, geology, environment and urban
planning. They are also involved in software development and customisation
as per user requirements and conducting training programmes.

3.3.2 Department of Science and Technology (DST)

DST located in New Delhi, plays the role of a nodal department for
organising, coordinating and promoting scientific and technological activities
in the country. DST has also supported the development of indigenous
geoinformatics software and its promotion. Scientific services of DST include
matters concerning the Survey of India and the National Atlas and Thematic
Mapping Organisation, which are involved in applying geoinformatics
technologies in their work.

a) National Atlas and Thematic Mapping Organisation (NATMO)

NATMO is at present having 15 divisions spread out into 4 different units
located in Kolkata and New Delhi. Major functions of the NATMO are
listed below:
• compilation of the National Atlas of India and its preparation in
regional languages
• installation of automated mapping system for increasing speed and
efficiency in mapping
• cartography for the visually impaired
• capacity and infrastructure building of NATMO to convert/to
upgrade in digital mode.
b) Survey of India (SOI)
Survey of India, the national survey and mapping organisation of the
country under the DST, has it’s headquarter at Dehradun. It is the oldest
scientific department of the government of India. SOI, in its assigned role
as the nation’s principal mapping agency, bears a special responsibility to
ensure that the country’s domain is explored and mapped. It provides base
maps for expeditious and integrated development and ensures that all
resources contribute with their full measure to the sustainable progress,
prosperity and security of our country.
Vision of the SOI is the advancement of theory, practice, collection and
applications of geospatial data. It promotes an active exchange of
information, ideas, and technological innovations amongst the data
producers and users.

3.3.3 Geological Survey of India (GSI)

GSI located in Kolkata, is more than 150 years old organisation. GSI is
responsible for providing technical consultancy, data and services to
prospective investors and agencies, both national and multinational.
Responsibilities of GSI include systematic geological, geotechnical,
geophysical, geochemical and geoenvironmental mapping and studies in India.
It is involved in development and dissemination of geo-scientific databases,
58 human resource development, information services and education.
3.3.4 Defence Research & Development Organisation (DRDO) Indian Scenario in
Geoinformatics
DRDO, located in New Delhi, has been involved in the research and
development activities to support and meet the requirement of the defence
forces. Though there are many laboratories which are involved in deriving
intelligence information from geospatial data, we will briefly discuss here
about two laboratories namely, Defence Terrain Research Laboratory (DTRL)
and Defence Electronics Applications Laboratory (DEAL).
a) Defence Terrain Research Laboratory (DTRL)
Primary responsibility of DTRL includes research and development of
techniques to evaluate various types of terrains and assess vehicle
mobility potential of inaccessible areas. Major achievements of DTRL
include use of satellite data for preparation of different thematic maps and
generating terrain information, development of software for extracting
terrain parameters, generation and regular updation of road mobility maps
for vehicles incorporating artificial intelligence techniques, and
development of Landslide Information System (LIS) for some of the
north-eastern states.
b) Defence Electronics Applications Laboratory (DEAL)
DEAL, established in 1959, is entrusted with the responsibility of
providing required resources, infrastructure and an effective and efficient
quality management system for timely completion of the design and
development of the products. Some of the major achievements of DEAL
in the field of geoinformatics include development of multispectral image
classification system, microwave data processing software, and
development of ship detection software package, etc.

3.3.5 National Informatics Centre (NIC)

Established in 1976, and located in New Delhi, NIC is providing state-of-art
solutions for information management and decision support in government
and corporate sector. Some of the significant works of NIC in the field of
geoinformatics include creation of digital data of different thematic layers, use
of GIS for decision support and e-governance.

3.3.6 Centre for Development of Advanced Computing

(C-DAC)
C-DAC, located in Pune, is primarily an R&D institution involved in the
design, development and deployment of advanced information technology
products and solutions. It is also involved in geoinformatics software
development/ customisation and training. Development of Decision Support
Systems based on geoinformatics is its niche area. Some of the achievements
of C-DAC include: Digital Elevation Model (DEM) generation for lunar
surface, development of GIS-enabled Road Information Management &
Monitoring System (GRIMMS) for PMGSY (Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak
Yojna) initiative of the Government of India, development of mobile GIS
software ‘SAARTHY’ for navigation solutions, development of vehicle
management & information system and land management system, generation
of thematic layers, and development of spatial decision support systems for
natural hazards, and contribution in the web-based National Geospatial Data
Clearinghouse initiative, etc.
59
Overview of Geoinformatics
3.3.7 National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning
(NBSS & LUP)
The NBSS & LUP, located at Nagpur, under the Indian Council of Agricultural
Research (ICAR), is involved in applied and basic research in application of
remote sensing in soils and agriculture along with imparting training in soils
and agriculture.

3.3.8 Town and Country Planning Organisation (TCPO)

TCPO, the technical arm of the Ministry of Urban Development, Government
of India, located in New Delhi,is an apex technical advisory and consultant
organisation on matters concerning urban and regional planning strategies,
research, appraisal, and monitoring of central government schemes and
development policies. One of the important works of TCPO in the field of
geoinformatics is development of National Urban Information System (NUIS)
to develop attribute as well as spatial database for various levels of urban
planning using remote sensing data.

3.3.9 National Capital Region Planning Board (NCRPB)

NCRPB, located in New Delhi, deals with the problems of land, housing,
transportation and management of essential infrastructure, like water supply
and sewerage in the National Capital Region. It uses geoinformatics
technology for generation of spatial data and for planning purposes.

3.3.10 Other Organisations/Agencies

There are many other agencies and organisations in India, which are actively
involved in utilising the benefits of geoinformatics technology in a variety of
fields and application areas. Besides, there are numerous educational
institutes, universities, National Institutes of Technology (NITs) and Indian
Institute of Technologies (IITs), which are involved in providing research
input for solving problems, development and promotion of the technology, and
also in developing human resources. Some of the agencies are listed below:
• Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi
• National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research (NCAOR), Goa
• National Institute of Oceanography (NIO), Goa
• Bombay Metropolitan Region Development Authority (BMRDA),
Mumbai
• All India Soils and Land Use Survey (AISLUS), Bangalore
• Various state departments and organisations, private sector agencies.
Spend Check Your Progress I
5 mins 1) What do ISRO, NRSC, C-DAC and NCAOR stand for?
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60 ......................................................................................................................
2) Name few satellites data which are being provided by NRSC, Hyderabad. Indian Scenario in
Geoinformatics
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3.4 NATIONAL INITIATIVES

There are a number of initiatives of the Government of India (GOI) that have a
significant geoinformatics component. Use of geoinformatics data and
technologies is supported to a large extent by such initiatives of the
government through its ministries and various departments. As shown in Fig.
3.3, in the 11th Five Year Plan, majority of the sectors have emphasised on the
usage of geoinformatics data in their current functioning and launched various
new schemes which mandate the use of geoinformatics technology. Table 3.3
will give you an overview of national initiatives in the geoinformatics.

Now, let us discuss briefly about some of the national initiatives in which
geoinformatics technologies have been used either as a major source of data or
as a planning tool.

Fig. 3.3: Allocation of budget in 11th Five Year Plan (2007-2012) for different projects
involving geoinformatics technologies (source: Geospatial World, Sep. 2010)

61
Overview of Geoinformatics Table 3.3: List of some national initiatives
No. Initiative/Sector Website Geography
1 Village Resource Centre http://www.nrsc.gov.in/rsgisweb/ Andhra Pradesh
vrc/vrc1.htm & Orissa
2 National Natural Resource http://www.nnrms.gov.in/ Pan India
Management System index.htm
(NNRMS)
3 Natural Resources Census - Pan India
(NRC)
4 National Spatial Data http://www.nsdiindia.gov.in/ Pan India
Infrastructure (NSDI) nsdi/nsdiportal/index.jsp
5 Pradhan Mantri Gram http://pmgsy.nic.in/ Pan India
Sadak Yojna
6 Rajiv Gandhi National http://ddws.nic.in/popups/ Pan India
Drinking Water Mission RuralDrinkingWater_2nd
April.pdf
7 Crop Acreage and -
Production Estimation
8 Telemedicine Programme http://www.telemedindia.org/ Pan India
9 Biodiversity Information http://www.bisindia.org/ Pan India
System
10 Potential Fishing Zone http://www.incois.gov.in Indian Coast

3.4.1 Village Resource Centre (VRC)

VRCs are envisaged as the single window delivery mechanism for a variety of
space-enabled services and deliverables, such as telemedicine; tele-education;
information on natural resources for planning and development at local level;
interactive advisories on agriculture, fisheries, land and water resources
management; livestock management; interactive vocational training towards
skill improvement, alternate livelihood; e-governance services; weather
information and many more.

3.4.2 National Natural Resource Management System

(NNRMS)
Major activities of NNRMS include determining user/application needs for
remote sensing; conceptualisation and implementing remote sensing space
segments with necessary ground-based data reception, processing and
interpretation facilities; establishing utilisation systems for using remote
sensing images and conventional data for various applications and resource
management activities. A standardised GIS database of all space based spatial
information generated under the NNRMS programme would be maintained. A
large volume of thematic layers have already been organised as per NNRMS
standards and populated in the database named as Natural Resources Database
(NRDB) to serve the needs of different users coming from government,
business and citizens at large. Master node and regional nodes for this purpose
have been set up.

62
3.4.3 Natural Resources Census (NRC) Indian Scenario in
Geoinformatics
NRC aims to provide the nation a ‘snap-shot’ of the country’s status of natural
resources by systematic inventory and creation of standardised GIS database in
every 5 years for the land use/land cover, land degradation, vegetation,
wetlands, geomorphological and lineament mapping, etc. A major portion of
the database has been created and remaining work would soon be completed.
Embedded in the NR Census programme is the ability to spot areas requiring Natural resources census
immediate attention due to distinct changes detected and undertaking a more is the census of land,
water, soils, forests and
detailed inventory for those areas.
other elements conducted
in a systematic manner and
3.4.4 National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI) with a repeat cycle to
depict changes.
DST had set up a task force for preparing strategy for National Spatial Data
Infrastructure (NSDI) for the availability of and access to organised spatial
data and use of this infrastructure at community, local, state, regional and
national level towards sustainable economic growth. The NSDI involves 16
agencies in the country, with an objective to provide gateway for
dissemination of spatial data, being generated by different government
agencies. As a part of NSDI, digital databases of different natural resources
created under NRDB will cater to the needs of user communities in the
country.

3.4.5 Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojna (PMGSY)

PMGSY – Prime Minister’s Rural Roads Programme aims at connecting all
habitations above 500 population with all-weather roads. The main goal of the
geoinformatics component of the project is to develop and operationalise a
computerised database for rural roads in GIS environment. Web GIS version
of the software developed under the programme provides user-friendly access
to PMGSY for online dissemination of selected information, maps and
reports.

3.4.6 Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission

(RGNDWM)
Earlier, hydrogeomorphic maps showing groundwater prospect areas at
1:250000 scale were prepared for the entire country. Under the RGNDWM,
scientific source finding of drinking water for all the problem habitation areas
using high resolution satellite data and ground data is being carried out. The
ground water prospect maps are being prepared based on the spatial analysis
of a number of information such as lithology, geological structures,
hydrogeomorphology, landuse/landcover, etc. Outcome of the project are
ground water prospect maps at 1:50000 scale for priority states.

3.4.7 Crop Acreage and Production Estimation (CAPE)

Under the CAPE project, pre-harvest district level crop area estimation and
yield forecasting for six crops in 15 states has been developed utilising the
characteristics of IRS satellites data, crop discrimination analysis, crop growth
pattern and other parameters.
Another programme, named as FASAL (Forecasting Agriculture using Space,
Agrometeorology and Landbased observations), has been institutionalised. Its
efforts are towards sustainable agriculture by way of integrated watershed
development. 63
Overview of Geoinformatics
3.4.8 Telemedicine Programme
ISRO’s telemedicine pilot project was started in the year 2001 with the aim of
introducing the telemedicine facility to the grass root level population as a part
of proof of concept technology demonstration. Presently, ISRO’s Telemedicine
Network has enabled 382 hospitals with the telemedicine facility. 306 Remote/
Rural/District Hospital/Health Centres and 16 Mobile Telemedicine units are
connected to 60 Super Speciality Hospitals located in major cities. The mobile
vans are extensively used for tele-ophthalmology, diabetic screening,
mammography, childcare and community health.

3.4.9 Potential Fishing Zone (PFZ) Forecast

Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) provides
forecast of potential fishing zone (PFZ) up to 2 to 3 days in advance. The
technique utilises and combines chlorophyll information derived from
Oceansat data with the Sea Surface Temperature (SST) information derived
from NOAA-AVHRR data to identify potential fishing zones. This
information is used by fishermen to select their fishing sites.

3.4.10 Biodiversity Information System (BIS)

Departments of Space and Biotechnology have developed biodiversity related
database of India. Under this, remote sensing data based vegetation type map
were prepared in association with ground based field samples of key
community characteristics. The entire spatial and non-spatial data on Indian
plant biodiversity has been organised and made available in BIS, with its four
major components i.e. BIOSPATIAL (Biodiversity spatial query shell),
PHYTOSIS (Plant information system), FRIS (Forest Resource Information
System), BIOSPEC (Biodiversity Conservation Spatial Decision Support
System). Most of the data is accessible through authentic username and
password.

3.4.11 Other Programmes

It is difficult to list here all the programmes because there are many national
and state level initiatives which either has geoinformatics as the main
component or utilises some amount of input derived from geospatial data. Two
of the recently launched programmes are Re-structured Accelerated Power
Development & Reform Programme (R-APDRP) and National Land Records
Modernisation Programme (NLRMP). Under the R-APDRP programme, it is
envisaged to develop a system for automatic data logging for all distribution
transformers and feeders and supervisory control and data acquisition/
document management system. Under the NLRMP programme, creation and
updation of cadastral records, computerisation of land records,
computerisation of registration and its integration with land records
maintenance system is envisioned to usher in the system of conclusive titling.

Besides the above initiatives, there are various other schemes which are not
essentially geospatial but use geoinformatics tools and technologies as an aid,
such as schemes for construction and maintenance of roads, railways and
waterways, civil aviation, public utility services, education, command area
development, flood control and management programme and urban planning.

64
Check Your Progress II Spend Indian Scenario in
5 mins Geoinformatics
1) List out some of the national initiatives utilising geoinformatics input.
......................................................................................................................
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2) What is the aim of the telemedicine programme?
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3) In what way PMGSY and RGNDWM programmes are benefitting from
geoinformatics technology?
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3.5 CAREER OPTIONS AND PREPARATIONS

In this section we would discuss about the career options and education
scenario in India in the field of geoinformatics.

3.5.1 Career Options

We shall first discuss about the kinds of employment available in the field.
Spanning a period of more than three decades, the usage of geoinformatics
technology in India has come a long way as evident in the 11th five year plan.
Having realised the potential of the technology, Government of India has
initiated the extensive use of it in all possible fields, which in turn, has opened
the avenues for large scale employment opportunity to geoinformatics
professionals.
The jobs available in the industry may be broadly categorised into the
followings:
• data generation involving data conversion, digitising and processing
• involving software product marketing
• involving data analysis and data management
• software development related (involves writing codes and testing
software)
• involves imparting trainings and teaching to educators. 65
Overview of Geoinformatics Though, geoinformatics professionals come from a variety of backgrounds,
most common among them are from the following background:
• Geography
• Geology
• Environmental science
• Botany
• Mathematics
• Physics
• Chemistry
• Zoology
• Engineering
• Agriculture
• Computer Science
In India, government agencies are the major employer of geoinformatics
professionals in almost all categories of employment. However, there are
many private sector companies, non-governmental organisations and
consulting firms which hire geoinformatics professionals. Majority of the
employment in the private sector are related to data generation, marketing and
software development. There are also the consulting firms which hire people
at the senior level for a specialised application or task.

3.5.2 Educational Programmes

We will now discuss about the geoinformatics education scenario in India.
There are varieties of courses and programmes across India in the field
ranging from certificate level to masters to doctoral level, from a few days to
2-3 years and in regular to open and distance learning programmes. The
programmes can be broadly categorised into two types namely, training and
education progammes. The training programmes are generally offered and
conducted by software companies with emphasis on use of a particular
software, whereas the education programmes are mostly offered and
conducted by universities with more emphasis on underlying fundamental
principles. If you are a new comer in the field and wish to apply this
technology in your domain, it would be suitable to undergo some kind of
formal education, such as a certificate or diploma programme. For people who
already have some prior experience in this field, a specialised educational
programme such as specific theme based training or certificates may be
helpful.

Besides the Indian Institutes of Technologies (IITs) and Indian Institutes of

Information Technologies (IIITs), an indicative list of universities who are
offering courses on geoinformatics at different levels are alphabetically listed
below as per the place names:
• CEPT University, Ahmedabad
• MDS University, Ajmer
• Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh
• Allahabad Agriculture University, Allahabad
66
• Kumaun University, Almora Indian Scenario in
Geoinformatics
• Sri Krishnadevaya University, Anantpur
• Annamalai University, Annamalai
• Bangalore University, Bangalore
• The University of Burdwan, Bardhaman
• North Orissa University, Baripada
• Barakatullah University, Bhopal
• Utkal University, Bhubaneswar
• Punjab University, Chandigarh
• University of Madras, Chennai
• Anna University, Chennai
• Mahatma Gandhi Chitrakoot Gramodaya Viswavidyalaya, Chitrakoot
• Bharathiar University, Coimbatore
• Yogi Vemana University, Cuddapah
• University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun
• Jamia Millia Islamia, Delhi
• TERI University, Delhi
• University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Delhi
• Jiwaji University, Gwalior
• Guru Jambeshwar University, Hissar
• JNT University, Hyderabad
• Osmania University, Hyderabad
• Devi Ahilya University, Indore
• Manipur University, Imphal
• University of Jammu, Jammu
• Bundelkhand University, Jhansi
• SRM University, Chennai
• Jadavpur University, Kolkata
• University of Kota, Kota
• University of Lucknow, Lucknow
• Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai
• Mangalore University, Mangalore
• Vidyasagar Univesity, Midnapore
• University of Mysore, Mysore
• Nalanda Open University, Nalanda
• Patan University, Patan
• Bharati Vidyapeeth University, Pune
• University of Pune, Pune
• Symbiosis University, Pune
• Adikavi Nannaya University, Rajahmundry
67
Overview of Geoinformatics • Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur
• Birla Institute of Technology, Ranchi
• Dr. H.S Gaur University, Sagar
• Sambalpur University, Sambalpur
• North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong
• Solapur University, Solapur
• Kashmir University, Srinagar
• Bharatidasan University, Tiruchirapalli
• Indian Institute of Space Technology, Thiruvananthapuram
• Mohanlal Sukhadia University, Udaipur
• Rajasthan Vidyapeeth, Udaipur
• Vikram University, Ujjain
• Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi
• Andhra University College of Engineering, Vishakhapatnam.
Apart from the separate programme on geoinformatics, there are many
universities which are offering this component as a part of different
programmes on geography, geology, botany, ecology, environmental science,
civil engineering, electronics, computer science, etc.
Besides the above mentioned universities, there are many other institutes and
organisations which are offering geoinformatics related programmes. An
indicative list is provided below:
• Shri Shivaji College, Akola
• Karnataka State Remote Sensing Applications Centre, Bangalore
• School of Planning and Architecture, Bhopal
• All India Institute of Local Self Government, Cochin & Delhi
• Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS), Dehradun
• Chaudhary Charan Singh Polytechnic Institute, Delhi
• Cotton College, Guwahati
• National Power Training Institute, Faridabad
• Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC), Pune &
Noida
• Indian Institute of Surveying and Mapping (Survey of India), Hyderabad
• Institute of Science and Technology, Hyderabad
• Survey Training Institute, Hyderabad, Thiruvananthapuram, and
Bhubaneswar
• IIRMR, Jaipur
• Institute of Geoinformatics & Remote Sensing, Kolkata
• UNIGIS at different universities in India
• Geological Survey of India Training Institute (GSITI) at different
locations.
68
Apart from the above mentioned institutes and organisations, there are many Indian Scenario in
Geoinformatics
private institutes which are offering training and educational programmes.
The effective introduction of GIS into the education process is complicated by
the high cost of hardware, software and the teaching material. It is felt that the
institutes along with industry should build ‘centres of excellence’ in
geoinformatics to create intellectual property, which can generate income for
the institution. Also institutions need to build a skillset database of their
alumni who can be motivated to guide teams/projects.
Further, the government should have high level national GIS academy having
a wide network of universities, industry partners and private GIS institutes.
This network can also be utilised to the maximum extent possible for
education in geoinformatics. Learning and web-based programme can be
organised with state remote sensing service centers acting as practical
laboratories.
With rise in demand of geoinformatics professionals and prospective future of
geospatial technology, career options have widened and now many universities
have initiated such course as part of science or at engineering level attached to
civil engineering or as a special course, like geoinformatics. In the recent past,
open and distance education centres have initiated course at graduate and post-
graduate levels. Recently, the subject has also been introduced at the higher
secondary level by CBSE board. The basic concepts of geoinformatics have
been incorporated in the geography books published by NCERT, New Delhi.

3.6 ACTIVITY
Career options are very bright in recent times and with the technology taking
its route practically to every geography related issues, finding a good job is not
very difficult. With a science degree or engineering degree and some
experience in geoinformatics technology could land you in government sector
and IT companies as well. Find out your prospects through GIS job profile in
popular job search engines. List those out according to your qualifications.

3.7 SUMMARY
In this unit you have learnt:
• In India, geoinformatics is fast expanding its presence and has become an
important component of planning and decision making.
• Growth of geoinformatics industry has created immense opportunity to
thousands of young aspirants aiming to make a difference in their chosen
field.
• There are number of national agencies who have given life to the
geospatial industry and their pioneering work has contributed towards
sustainable growth and there are other agencies who are contributing to
the growth and promotion of geoinformatics in India.
• At the national level, many programmes are being executed which derive
some input from the geoinformatics technologies.
• There are number of institutes, organisations and universities offering
training and educational programmes on geoinformatics at different levels
ranging from certificate to doctoral level. 69
Overview of Geoinformatics
Spend 3.8 UNIT END QUESTIONS
30 mins
1) Explain about the recently launched remote sensing satellite of India, its salient
features and application potential.
2) What do you think are the challenges facing geoinformatics?
3) Discuss in brief two national agencies you think are impacting.

3.9 REFERENCES
1) www.geospatialworld.net/images/magazines/GW_sept10_18-
28CoverStory.pdf or www.gisdevelopment.net/magazine/global/2010/
September/18-india-on-a-roll.htm.
2) www.geospatialtoday.com.
The data/information from all the above websites was retrieved between 10th and
15th July 2011.

3.10 FURTHER / SUGGESTED READING

Yang, C., Wong, D., Miao, Q. and Yang. R. (2011), Advanced Geoinformation
Science, CRC Press, 485 p.

3.11 ANSWERS
Check Your Progress I
1) Indian Space Research Organisation, National Remote Sensing Centre,
Center for Development of Advanced Computing, National Centre for
Antarctic and Ocean Research.
2) CartoSat - 1, 2, 2A & 2B, ResourceSat - 1 & 2, OceanSat, TES, IRS - 1D
and IMS - 1
Check Your Progress II
1) Refer to Table 3.3
2) Refer to sub-section 3.4.8
3) Refer to sub-sections 3.4.5 and 3.4.6.

Unit End Questions

1) Refer to Table 3.1 for satellites. Further you are required to elaborate on
following:
Images from the satellite system have found application in crop health
monitoring, soil mapping, natural resources mapping and monitoring,
identifying ground water potential zones, ocean applications, forest cover
mapping, biodiversity characterisation and monitoring of forest fire,
providing timely inputs to natural disasters and also in the field of
archaeological survey.
2) Refer to sub-section 3.2.2.
3) Refer to section 3.3.
70
 Indian Scenario in
GLOSSARY Geoinformatics

• Active remote sensing : Remote sensing methods that provide their own
source of electromagnetic radiation to illuminate the terrain. Radar is one
example.

• Band or spectral band : A range of wavelengths of electromagnetic

radiation. Remote sensing devices commonly collect images in discrete
bands, such as visible red, green, and blue, and the invisible near-infrared.

• Bandwidth : It refers to the highest signal frequency a monitor’s circuit

can display. The higher the bandwidth, the higher resolution and the
sharper the image will be.

• Base data : Basic level of map data on which other information is placed
for purposes of comparison or geographical correlation.

• Cartography : The art or science of making maps.

• CARTOSAT-2B : It is an Earth observation satellite in a sun-

synchronous orbit carrying sensor designed for the purpose of
cartographic applications. The satellite is the seventeenth satellite in
the Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellite series to be built by the Indian
Space Research Organisation

• GeoEye : It is a series of commercial Earth imaging satellites providing

very high resolution panchromatic and multispectral images.

• Geographic Information System : It is a computer system designed to

allow users to collect, manage, and analyse large volumes of spatially
referenced and associated attribute data.

• Global Positioning System : It is a network of radio-emitting satellites

deployed by the U.S. Department of Defense.

• Hardware : The physical components of a GIS - the computer, plotters,

printers, CRTs, and soon.

• IKONOS : It is a commercial earth observation satellite, and was the first

to collect publicly available high-resolution imagery at 1 and 4 meter
resolution. It offers multispectral (MS) and panchromatic (PAN) imagery.

• MERIS (Medium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer) : It is one of the

main instruments on board the European Space Agency (ESA)’s Envisat
platform.

• MODIS (Moderate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) : It is

a payload scientific instrument launched into Earth orbit by NASA in
1999.

• Photogrammetry : Obtaining precise measurements from images.

• QuickBird : It is a high-resolution commercial Earth observation satellite

owned by Digital Globe and launched in 2001. 71
Overview of Geoinformatics • Radar : Acronym for radio detection and ranging. Radar is an active form of
remote sensing that operates in the microwave and radio wavelength regions.

• Remote sensing : The act of detection and/or identification of an object without

having the sensor in direct contact with the object. It includes satellite imagery
and aerial photography.

• WorldView : It is a series of Earth imaging satellites of Digital Globe

providing high-resolution commercial images.

72
 Indian Scenario in
ABBREVIATIONS Geoinformatics

AISLUS : All India Soils and Land Use Survey

ARLV : Air Breathing Propulsion for Advanced Reusable
Launch Vehicles
ASPRS : American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote
Sensing
BIOSPATIAL : Biodiversity Spatial Query Shell
BIOSPEC : Biodiversity Conservation Spatial Decision Support
System
BIS : Biodiversity Information System
BMRDA : Bombay Metropolitan Region Development Authority
BTAD : Bodoland Territorial Areas District
CAG : Comptroller and Auditor General of India
CAPE : Crop Acreage and Production Estimation
C-DAC : Centre for Development of Advanced Computing
CRZ : Coastal Regulation Zone
DEAL : Defence Electronics Applications Laboratory
DEM : Digital Elevation Model
DOS : Department of Space
DRDO : Defence Research & Development Organisation
DST : Department of Science and Technology
DTRL : Defence Terrain Research Laboratory
EMS : Electromagnetic Spectrum
ES : Expert System
FRIS : Forest Resource Information System
GAGAN : GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation or GPS and
Geo Augmented Navigation system
GDP : Gross Domestic Product
GIAC : Geomatics Industry Association of Canada
GIS : Geographic Information System
GNSS : Global Navigation Satellite Systems
GPS : Global Positioning System
GRACE : Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment
GRIMMS : GIS-enabled Road Information Management &
Monitoring System
GSI : Geological Survey of India
GSLV : Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicles
73
Overview of Geoinformatics ICAR : Indian Council of Agricultural Research
INSAT : Indian National Satellites
IRS : Indian Remote Sensing
ISRO : Indian Space Research Organisation
ITC : International Institute for Aerospace Survey
LBS : Location Based Services
LIDAR : Light Detecting and Ranging
LIS : Landslide Information System
LISS : Linear Imaging Self Scanning
MODIS : Moderate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer
MSS : Multispectral Scanners System
NASA : National Aeronautics and Space Agency
NATMO : National Atlas and Thematic Mapping Organisation
NBSS & LUP : National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning
NCAOR : National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research
NCRPB : National Capital Region Planning Board
NGA : National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
NIC : National Informatics Centre
NIO : National Institute of Oceanography
NLRMP : National Land Records Modernisation Programme
NMP : New Map Policy
NNRMS : National Natural Resources Management System
NRC : Natural Resources Census
NRDB : Natural Resources Database
NRSC : National Remote Sensing Centre
OGC : Open Geospatial Consortiums
PFZ : Potential Fishing Zone
PHYTOSIS : Plant information system
PMGSY : Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojna
PND : Portable Navigation Devices
PSLV : Polar Satellite Launch Vehicles
QGIS : Quantum GIS
RADAR : Radio Detection And Ranging
Radsat : Radar Satellite
R-APDRP : Re-structured Accelerated Power Development & Reform
Programme
RGNDWM : Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission
74
RLV : Reusable Launch Vehicles Indian Scenario in
Geoinformatics
RRSC : Regional Remote Sensing Centres
RRSSC : Regional Remote Sensing Service Centres
RS : Remote Sensing
SAC : Space Applications Centre
SAR : Synthetic Aperture Radar
SBAS : Satellite Based Augmentation System
SDBMS : Spatial Database Management Systems
SDSC SHAR : Satish Dawan Space Centre – Sriharikota
SDSS : Spatial Decision Support System
SLAR : Side Looking Airborne Radar
SOI : Survey of India
SRTM : Shuttle Radar Topography Mission
TCPO : Town and Country Planning Organisation
TIR : Thermal Infrared
VGIS : Virtual GIS
VRC : Village Resource Centre
VSSC : Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre

75
· SOS-IGNOU I P.O. 1T I January 2012

ISBN-978-81-266-5844-2