Nursing Practice I - V ●​ Blocking

PALMR -​ Threatening somebody to damage his opportunity for

Comprehensive Phase advancement or not being friendly to another person until
he grants the request
-​ AKA ‘blackmail’
MANAGEMENT ●​ Exchange
-​Art of getting things done with and through the people so that -​ Reminding somebody of a previous favor or return of

💡 the GOALS of the organization can be achieved

Management = GOALS
favors
-​ AKA utang na loob
●​ Sanction
LEADERSHIP -​ Either giving or preventing incentives, benefits or
-​ Use of one skill to influence other to perform to the best of their promotions
ability -​ Could be positive or negative
-​ A good leader can motivate their followers to follow and to work
through the use of different influence TYPES OF LEADERS
-​ Leadership skills can be taught but not everyone can be a good ●​ Formal
leader -​ Holds the position in the organization
“Some are good leaders, some are good followers” ​
3 Levels of Formal Leaders
LEADERSHIP TACTICS ●​ Top level
-​ Focuses on the entire organization
●​ Assertiveness 💡
-​ Can be used consciously or unconsciously

-​ Sending direct messages, standing up for your own

Ex: Chief nurse, Nursing directors, Assistant chief
nurse
rights without stepping the rights of others ●​ Middle level
-​ Say what they want to say but in consideration for the -​ Coordinates with the top level leaders and the first
feelings of their members — THERAPEUTIC level leaders
-​ Assertiveness is different from aggressive -​ All transactions ay dumadaan sa kanila
●​ Ingratiation Ex: Coordinators, Supervisors, Department
-​ Making others feel good or look good before making a leaders
request ●​ First level
-​ Uto or bola first before asking for a favor -​ Focuses on the operations (work)
●​ Rationality Ex: Head nurses/unit managers
-​ Relying on a detailed planned, reason, or logic
-​ Use of reasoning to motivate a member ●​ Informal
●​ Coalition -​ People who do not hold a position in the organization
-​ Backing up a request together with your co-member but they can motivate members to perform
●​ Upward appeal Ex: Senior staff (no position but with long clinical
-​ Using the name of a superior formally or informally exposure) can motivate/or makenovice staff to follow her

STYLES OF LEADERSHIP
Airah B. Bolinbough, RN
 ●​ Autocratic -​ Legitimate right to give command
-​ Leader-focused; final say depends to them -​ Officially sanctioned responsibility
-​ Members have no voice in decision making -​ Officially appointed or elected
-​ Best to use during emergency -​ Must have position — formal leaders have the authority
In an ‘E’ members’ level of anxiety ranges only
from severe to panic level making them incapable POWER
of problem solving or decision making therefore -​ Ability to obtain, retain, and motivate people to perform
the leader decides for them -​ All leaders have power but not authority
●​ Democratic SOURCES OF POWER
-​ Members have a voice in decision making — can give ●​ Legitimate power
suggestions and opinions -​ People who hold a position in the organization
-​ Leader act as facilitator -​ Formal leaders
-​ Leader decides the final decision but it base on the ●​ Reward power
decision of the members -​ Ability to give incentives and benefits
-​ Best to use when the leader needs the compliance of the -​ Benefits → motivates members to follow
members ●​ Coercive power
If a member feels involved in decision making, -​ Ability to give fear and punishment
they will be a higher level of motivation and higher -​ Punishment → follows the leader
chance of cooperation ●​ Connection power
●​ Laissez-Faire
-​ Member-focused
-​ People you know
-​ More people you know → more connection =
●​ Referent power
⬆️
power
-​ “Leader is just a decoration” -​ “Charisma” = Power
-​ Leader actually act as “monitor” not “decoration” ●​ Information power
because leaders will just point out discrepancies but will
allow you to correct it on your own
-​ Best time to use when the members are matured enough
-​ ⬆️
-​ People who knows
Knowledge →
●​ Expert power
⬆️
power
– have initiative, self-directed -​ People with special skills and abilities
-​ Also happens when the manager is new in the unit ●​ Self power
-​ Power that emanates from self due to maturity,
●​ Bureaucratic experience, or gender
-​ Not commonly used as it focuses more on the rules and -​ Self confidence/self-esteem/self-trust
regulations

CONTINGENCY THEORY ⭐ ”Good leader in management is not enough, you have to also be good
manager”
-​ A leadership style may or may not be effective depending on the
Good manager ≠ good leader
-​ ⭐
situation
There is NO BEST LEADERSHIP STYLE

AUTHORITY FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT

Airah B. Bolinbough, RN
A. PLANNING -​ Guide to create a good plan
-​ 1st function of management -​ Involves sequence
-​ Knowing where you are and where you want to be ●​ Mission & Vision
-​ Like doing the NCP — you assess (knowing where you are) and ○​ Mission
creating goals of care (where you want to be)
○​ Vision
💡
-​ Reason for existence
Meason = Reason
2 Types of Planning
●​ Strategic -​ What the agency wants to achieve
-​ Long term planning -​ Futuristic
-​ Implemented 3-5 years because it benefits the -​ Haven’t reached yet but aims to reach
organization (huge) -​ Can be change if not reached
-​ Should not exceed the 5 years because the stakeholders
(beneficiaries) may leave the organization
-​ Done by top level leaders 💡
●​ Philosophy
Believe = Philosophy
-​ Statement of beliefs, values, and principles
●​ Operational -​ Value-centered
-​ Short term planning -​ Core values are part of philosophy
-​ Plans that are usually exchanged annually because it
benefits the operation (day to day work) ●​ Goal
-​ Annual but can be changed monthly, quarterly weekly, -​ General statements of aims and purposes
daily -​ Focus of management
-​ Done by the first level leaders
●​ Objectives
Activities in Planning -​ Specific statements of aims and purposes that are used
a.​ SWOT Analysis to carry out the goals
●​ Strengths
●​ Weaknesses ●​ Policies
●​ Opportunities -​ Plans reduced to statements that helps the organization in
●​ Threat decision making
Ex: Theoretical and RLE fail grade → NCM grade fail →
b.​ Planning Formula Irregular student (decision to mark a fail grade is based
-​ Not only used in an organization, it can be used for day to from the policy of NCM grading system not the professor)

⭐ day basis
Meeting = Planning
1.​ What action is necessary?
●​ Procedures
-​ Step by step instructions
2.​ Where will it take place? -​ Must be in sequence; cannot skip a step
3.​ When will it take place? Ex: Scrubbing → gowning → gloving
4.​ Who will do it?
5.​ How will it be done? ●​ Rules
-​ Guidelines for action and non-action
c. Tools in Planning/Hierarchy of planning -​ Rules must be followed because in certain rules there is
certain regulation
Airah B. Bolinbough, RN
 Ex: Electricity bill, equipment maintenance, repair +
maintenance, consumable material
POLICIES RULES
●​ Personnel
-​ Used for decision -​ Subject to regulations
-​ Salary of full-time employees or full-time
making -​ Specific application
equivalent
-​ Not followed = No (directed to the
-​ Full time employees are those who work for 8
regulations (suspension, employees)
hours, 5x a week
warn, termination)
-​ Full-time employees’ schedule are predictable so
-​ General application
personal budget must be prepared ahead of time
(everybody are affected)
but will only be available on the day of salary

⭐ Utilizing all the activities in planning ensures a good plan but not an
assurance for an effective plan
●​ Cash
-​ Available all the time for emergency purpose

⭐ Effectiveness of plan depends on the IMPLEMENTATION

(unpredictable)
-​ AKA emergency fund, cash on hand, petty cash

💡
d. Budget ⭐ ​ ​ Ex: Repair of equipment

❗ Budget = Revenue and Expenses/Income and Cost

Should be revenue + expenses or income + cost, if only 1 it is
wrong
B. ORGANIZING
💡Purpose: Work distribution
-​ Systematic way of meeting with the expenses -​ 2nd function of management
-​ Systematic because it involves the past, present, and -​ Establish a formal structure of an organization and create the job
future expenses qualification and job description
​

💡
4 Types of Budget Elements of Organizational Structure
Is it for long term use? If yes, capital. If no, other type of ●​ Levels of Authority (Top, Middle, First)
budget -​ Number of authority depends on the size of
●​ Capital organization
-​ Usually expensive -​ There must be ‘boss’; boss are those who are involved in
-​ Huge expense = capital your organization (Chief RN, Supervisor RN, Head RN)
-​ Long term use
​ ​ Ex: Medical equipments (ECG, X-ray, MRI) ●​ Lines of communication
○​ Solid line
●​ Operational
-​ Day to day expense to operate relationship → ✔️
-​ Direct relationship → superior-subordinate
utos
-​ Salary of part-time employees
They were used for day to day operation
○​ Broken line

❌
-​ Indirect relationship →
relationship → utos
❌
superior-subordinate
but their salary are not prepared ahead of
time d/t unpredictable schedule -​ Coordinated relationship (collaborative working
-​ Salary of both part-time + full-time employees relationship)

Airah B. Bolinbough, RN
 Ex: MD are not part of nurse’s organization — not RN’s -​ No need for approval of other people​
boss Disadvantages
RN will only follow MD’s order pertaining to ●​ If an organization gets larger, the manager’s span of control will
patient care (collaborative intervention) be larger as well and monitoring or being hands on on everything
might be impossible
Unity of Command ●​ Responsibility might be diluted because bulk of responsibility is
-​ One of the principles of management within only 1 person’s hand
-​ One person could give orders which is the IMMEDIATE ●​ Cannot obtain quick decision because if the decision fails, the
SUPERIOR blame is only to 1 person
●​ Not readily adapt to change because she is used to be within a
Scalar Chain centralized organizational structure
-​ Must follow the hierarchy of command
-​ Reporting relationship Decentralized
-​ Should never bypass your immediate superior -​ Precipatory approach
Ex: Staff nurse reports to head nurse to supervisor to chief -​ Bigger organization is broken down into smaller units and the
nurse responsibility for decision making is delegated to the one nearest
to the majority of the worker
PNLE: You are the staff nurse and you were evaluated by the -​ Several boss = several decision makers
head nurse, you failed and think that you are unfairly evaluated. Advantages

bypass)
⭐
To whom you will report?
HEAD NURSE (still the immediate superior; do not
●​ Better interpersonal relationship
●​ Staff nurses have a voice in decision making d/t better
interpersonal relationship
●​ More idea sources = better creativity, imagination for problem
If you will address a complain, you address it to the immediate solving
superior of the person you are complaining to. ●​ Communication departmentally and interdepartmentally
Ex: Ward problem raised by the staff nurses → Head RN

💡
●​ Span of Control
-​ Number of workers that
superior
💡directly report to a
and staff RN tries to solve but not successful → Head RN
can ask problem solution to co-head RNs during meeting
with the supervisors → supervisor can ask problem
-​ Number of workers that a superior handles solution with co-supervisor during meeting with chief RN
-​ Limited to what they can control Disadvantages
●​ Not cost effective
Major Forms of the Organizational Structure -​ Organization has several people to give high salary, will
●​ Centralized attend workshops, trainings, and seminar
-​ ‘Central’ = center (1 person) ●​ Danger of breakdown in communication due to several levels of
-​ There is only 1 person who has the responsibility for hierarchy
decision making Ex: Chief RN give memo → Supervisor → conflict between
​ Advantages supervisor and head RN → Staff RN may or may not
●​ Highly cost effective receive the memo
-​ Organization has only one person with high salary, ●​ Role of communication due to having the same position + staff
will attend workshops, trainings, and seminar doesn’t know the principle of unity of command
●​ Management easier to manage
Airah B. Bolinbough, RN
 Ex: Pedia Head RN gave an order to Pedia staff RN. OR -​ Incompetence is the unreasonable lack of skill but this is NOT A
and OB Head RN also gave an order to the same pedia GROUND FOR REVOCATION OR SUSPENSION OF LICENSE
staff RN who doesn't know unity of command. Staff RN do
not know which order to follow first because all the orders Malpractice is also Negligence
came from Head RN (same position) -​ Criminal negligence

JOB DESCRIPTION/PERFORMANCE RESPONSIBILITY STAFFING PROCESS

-​ Spells out precise job content
-​ Exact work is the only thing written
4 METHODS
●​ Conventional - oldest method of staffing process
-​ Manager can use centralized or decentralized
💡
Purposes of Job Description
Work Questions = Job description
●​ Prevents malpractice
Centralized: Only 1 makes the schedule, does not
follow any system — based only on the manager’s
●​ Basis of delegation decision (ex: chief nurse)
●​ Basis of evaluation Decentralized: Several number of persom makes
●​ Staffing - assigning of competent people to fill the roles of schedule (ex: head nurses)
organization
●​ Cyclic - Schedule repeat itself; cycle
Negligence - commission or omission of an act -​ Manager will create base schedule
Elements of Negligence Ex baseline schedule: 7 weeks then at 8th week, 1st
●​ Existence of Duty week is repeated
●​ Failure to meet standard -​ Staff can predict their own schedule
●​ Foreseeability of harm/Proximate cause
●​ Injury ●​ ⭐40-​ HOURS - 8 hours/day, 5 days/week with 2 days off

-​ Supported by labor code of the PH (PD 442⭐)

-​ Most material element: Essence of injury Mandated by law in the Philippines
-​ Everybody can commit negligence because everyone have
existence of duty -​ Applicable for healthcare workers (nurses, medtechs,
radtechs) working in a hospitals with 100 bed capacity
Malpractice - professional negligence ​
-​ Can only be committed by professionals or those with license ●​ Mandatory day off is 24 hours/week, but in PD 442,

❗ ❗
-​ Uses the same elements of negligence healthcare workers are given 42 hours/week day off (2
-​ If licensed, check the relatedness of the profession (existence of days)
duty) ●​ Overtimes are allowed for as long as it is PAID (+30%
-​ Stepping beyond one’s authority as a nurse (doing job outside of hourly wage)
job description or outside the scope of nursing)
-​ Improper or the unskillful care to the patient ●​ ⭐
●​ If shift is 12 hours/day, 3 days off must be given

⭐
If you were asked to duty at your day off, you can
decline because it is your right
●​ If exigencies (pandemic, calamities, etc) arrived, it is
mandatory for you to work for 6 days but paid as
Gross Incompetence overtime
-​ Revocation or suspension of license due to violation of code of ●​ Duty + Legal holiday (all red in the calendar) except
ethics under article III Sunday, it should be double pay (200%)
Airah B. Bolinbough, RN
 ●​ Special non-working holiday (+25%) Ex: In RLE, group of SN assigned to group of
●​ Day off + special non-working holiday: 100% patient with 1 team leader (CI)
●​ Duty + special non-working holiday: 200% -​ Usually used in pedia ward
●​
●​
Legal holiday + Day off + Duty: 200% + 30%
Double holiday + Duty: 300%
Ex: April 9 (legal holiday) + Maundy Thursday
●​ Primary Nursing ⭐⭐⭐
-​ 24 hour continuous coordinated comprehensive nursing

⭐
●​ Night shift: +10%
Labor code is applicable for private
companies, government employees are under
service of 5-6 patients from admission to discharge
-​ Same set of nurses from admission to discharge =
Continuity of care
Civil Service Code ​ Ratio: 1 nurse : 5 patients
1 nurse : 6 patients
●​ Seven days - Minimum of 10 hours/day for 7 days/week -​ Ideal ratio but not common practice
followed by 7 days off -​ 1 nurse/shift but with NA or Midwife
-​ Nearest method used during pandemic but it is made as If 30 px, there are 6 nurses, each are assigned to
14 days work and 14 days off (for quarantine) 5 patients
-​ Prior to pandemic this is not used in the Philippines It can be 1-4 patients depending on the severity
-​ Usually used for security guards -​ Usually used in the hospital wards (St. Luke's)
-​ Used by hospitals with less employee ​
​ ❗ Admission starts at ward not on the ER❗
Primary Nurse: To whom the px is endorsed from ER to ward
NURSING CARE SYSTEM
💡
💡 System that is used to deliver nursing care
Reword: Modalities of Nursing Care
-​
-​
Responsible to create NCP
NCP made by the primary nurse will be used by
​ Patterns of Nursing Care all associate nurses

Associate Primary Nurse: Shifts with the primary nurse at

DIFFERENT NURSING CARE SYSTEM the end of his/her shift or day off
●​ Case Nursing - oldest method General Rule: Associate Primary Nurse cannot
-​ Total care nursing (from start to end) change the NCP
Ratio: 1 nurse : 1 patient Exception to the rule: NCP may be changed if
-​ Used in private duty nursing there are changes in the patient’s condition
-​ Ideal to be used in ICU but not the common practice

●​ Functional Nursing - task are delegated among the staff

⭐ provided he will REPORT it to the Primary Nurse

⭐
1 nurse can be associate to 1 patient but can be a
primary nurse to another patient
-​ There is assigned task for every team member
​ ​ Ex: Medication nurse — Administration of meds ●​ Modular Nursing - combination of Team Nursing and
​ ​ TPR nurse — VS task Primary Nursing
-​ Group of nurses assigned to group of patients +
●​ Team Nursing - group of nurses assigned to a group of Responsible for 24 hour care
patients wherein there is a team leader -​ Geographical assignments of nurses to take care of the
-​ Multiple nurse + multiple patients + 1 team leader but sick, case research, or take care of the patients with
everyone has the same goal and is helping each other same disease condition
-​ Used during calamities, disaster, pandemic etc.
Airah B. Bolinbough, RN
 Ex: Red cross send healthcare workers to Tacloban ○​ Materials
during Yolanda because of insufficient healthcare ○​ Task
workers ○​ Equipments
Ex: Spike of COVID cases in Manila leading to ○​ Procedures
insufficient healthcare workers, DOH gathered
healthcare workers from Visayas and Mindanao ●​ Interpersonal
and they were sent to Manila to take care of
COVID patients (same disease condition) 💡
Problem: Burn out, stubborn, resistant staff
Verbalization of feelings or Talk to the staff
○​ Attitudes
●​ Case management - utilizing the healthcare delivery systems ○​ Behaviors
wherein the goals are to deliver quality care, to promote the ○​ Styles of Directions giving
quality of life, to decrease fragmentation, and to contain
costs
Ex: Nursing Homes - care guven to hospitals are also
💡
-​ How the command will be given
Assertiveness

given at nursing homes (I&O,VS, meds) What and Who of delegation?

Ex: Music and arts therapy – not used in hospital but is Ano ang idedelegate?
used in nursing homes to promote quality of life, and Kanino idedelegate?
preventing complication by ensuring px will engage in
their ADLs)
-​ Used for those that requires long term care like nursing homes,
⭐4 POINTERS OF DELEGATION
●​ Position of staff – know if licensed or unlicensed
rehab and psych hospitals ●​ Ward – know from what ward and to what ward will be
-​ Decreasing fragmentation transferred
-​ ‘fragments’ means ‘small piece’ that are isolated from the ●​ Capabilities of staff – Capabilities depends on position &
whole’ ward
-​ In case manager, the aim is to decrease isolation unlike ○​ Unlicensed: Simple and skip the ward
in hospitals where px is more isolated ○​ Licensed: Recall the ward where the staff came from, the
-​ It is more expensive in hospital compared to long term type of px he/she handles from his/her previous ward is
treatment facilities but the care provided is same the same patient condition that must be delegated to
him/her
●​ Condition of Patient
C. DIRECTING
-​ Issuance of orders, assignments and instructions 💡 PNLE Qs: A telemetry nurse is asked to float in the pediatric ward.
What task can be assigned to the floating nurse?
-​ Giving tasks, commands, instructions therefore
DELEGATION Position of staff: Licensed
Ward: Telemetry → Pediatric ward
2 ASPECTS OF DIRECTING Capabilities: “Tele” means monitor; “metry” means measure
●​ Technical -​ Telemetry nurse reads cardiac monitor and ECGs
Problem: Staff who always commit errors, no experience, does -​ Can be assigned to pedia patients with cardiac
problems
💡
ot know what to do
Show, Teach, Demonstrate, Supervise, Do or performing with
the nurse ​ ​ ❌
Condition of patient:
Gastritis (GIT)

Airah B. Bolinbough, RN
​ ​ ❌
✔️ Dermatitis (skin) Echolalia – repeating of what is heared from
​ ​
​ ✔️
✔️
Rheumatic fever (Compli: Rheumatic heart disease)
Kawasaki
other
Verbigeration – repetition of words

​
​
​ ✔️Tetralogy
VSD
of Fallot – parroting
Echopraxia – repeating the action of others
– mirroring
COMMUNICATION Perseveration – repeating the same idea
-​ Vital part of delegation -​ First question will be answered correctly but
-​ Sending of messages from sender to receiver and vice versa the succeeding questions will be answered
and hoping what is being sent is understood the same
-​ It will not occur without the elements of communications
●​ Semantic – misinterpretation of signs and symbols
-​ “Semantic” means “symbols”

❗ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
❗
Sender and receiver are not an element because they are the people
-​ Usually happens with the road signs which may lead to
accidents

⭐
involved in communication

⭐
Elements are those between the sender and receiver that they
need for an effective communication
-​ Deaf and mute px uses sign language which may lead to
miscommunication if you cannot understand them

●​ Message – information to be sent

GRAPEVINE COMMUNICATION
●​ Encoding – typing the message -​ AKA chismis
●​ Transmitting – sending the message via channels of -​ Language of marites; Basta may tao may chismis
communication (AKA mode of transmission) -​ 75% accurate because the thought is there but there are
●​ Decoding – reading the message changes from the original information
-​ Trying to put meaning to the message
●​ Feedback/Action – will always vary depending on the receiver
-​
⭐
Not totally harmful because it is beneficial
Problems are normal in an organization therefore as a
-​ You may send the same message but different feedbacks
IMMEDIATELY ⭐
manager you must prioritize to solve the problem

Ex: Problem → chismis → problem reached the manager

BARRIERS IN COMMUNICATION ASAP → opportunity to solve problem immediately
-​
Hindrance from an effective communication between
sender and receiver
●​ Physical CONFLICT
-​ Usually environmental factor -​ Misunderstanding or disagreement between 2 or more
○​ Noise – most common barrier persons, agencies or organization
○​ Distance
CONFLICT-RESOLUTION STRATEGIES
●​ Socio-Psychological -​ Usual styles or techniques used by managers to solve a problem
-​ “socio” means “social”
-​ “psychologic” means “state of the mind” ●​ Avoidance
○​ Lack of trust – without trust you will not try to “Let us not talk about it”
understand the message -​ Not facing the problem, ignoring it
○​ Autistic – very unresponsive or will do echolalia
Airah B. Bolinbough, RN
 ●​ Dominance and Suppression ●​ Win-Lose Approach
“I am the manager here, you have no choice” -​ Able to solve the problems under the expense of others
-​ Manager is the one to be followed -​ Same with dominance and suppression
-​ Staff has no voice ●​ Lose-Win Approach
-​ Perceived as negative by the staff -​ Able to solve the problem at you own expense
-​ Manager sacrifice
●​ Restriction/Power -​ Restriction/Power
“I am the manager here, I will do what is best for everybody” ●​ Lose-Lose Approach
-​ The one with the power is the one who sacrifice for the -​ Problem is solved but no one benefit
good of everyone -​ Both parties sacrifice in the solution of the problem
-​ Perceived as positive by the staff ●​ Win-Win Approach
-​ Problem is solved, no one sacrificed
●​ Majority Rule -​ Both parties benefit from the solution of the problem
“Let us divide the house” — voting happens -​ Collaboration, Majority Rule
-​ Commonly used
-​ Majority of votes wins ⭐ Any approach, manager solves the problem
We’re just looking who benefit and who sacrificed
●​ Smoothing ​ 1st part: Manager or me
“The unacceptable appears to be acceptable” ​ 2nd part: Members of the team
Ex: 3 days night shift, 3 days puyat → pipilitin ng head
nurse kasi it is her problem kapag walang NOD → staff CHANGE MANAGEMENT
complain → bargaining (pipilitin ni head nurse si staff
nurse na mag duty kahit umidlip si nurse sa ward =
smoothing)
💡CHANGE
-​ Any alteration (change) in the status quo (present situation)
PROCESS
1.​ Perceive the need to change
-​ You know there is problem but you do not know the exact
●​ Compromise problem so you perceive, distinguish, determine or
“Meeting halfway” identify
-​ Both have loss and sacrifice = Problem solved -​ If the problem is already indicated in the situation, skip
-​ Usually used by couple this process
●​ Collaboration
“Working hand in hand in solving the problem”
2.​ ⭐Initiate a group interaction
-​ Bring the group together = meeting/conference
-​ Everyone gives suggestions and chooses the best solution -​ This is the key to problem solving so it is the best thing
-​ Brainstorming where everybody gives suggestions/ideas that you need to do
​ Rule: All ideas are welcome ​ Key: Group - Manager waits for approval/support of the group
❗ In problem solving, REPORTING is always wrong choice because
-​ If the problem concerns the group, you confront as a
group
not sure about the information reported by the staff❗
manager is not included (nag wait lang sya ng report ng staff) and is -​ If individual staff is the concern, do not confront as a
group it must be private and confidential
-​ Frequent answer in the board exam
4 APPROACHES IN PROBLEM SOLVING
Airah B. Bolinbough, RN
 3.​ Implement the plan one step at a time 2. Determine compliance to standards and criteria
-​ Implement the plan gradually to prevent resistance -​ Already an evaluation
(status quo is nakasanayan na kaya mahirap baguhin)
2 TYPES OF EVALUATION
4.​ Evaluate the overall result
-​ Look if the plan has been effective → if not effective, go
back to 2 ASPECTS
​ ⭐
●​ Nursing Audit
Patient-focused - patient is being evaluated
○​ Concurrent — ‘Current’ means ‘present’
-​ Already entering the CONTROLLING -​ Evaluate as the care is given
-​ Evaluate immediately right after the care is given
D. CONTROLLING Ex: Px with fever → given meds → check
-​What is planned is done temperature right after the intervention
-​At the end of NCP there is evaluation (labelled as goal met or
goal unmet) ○​ Retrospective — ‘Retro’ means ‘past’
Reword: Evaluating/Reviewing/Checking/Determining/ Ex: Patient is already discharged (past) → follow
Comparing up check up → checking chart of patient
(patient-centered)
💡💡💡4 BASIC STEPS
1. Develop Standards and Criteria
Ex: Patient still admitted → gives meds → after 4
hours assessment (retro)
-​ Source of evaluation is the patient’s chart
-​ Standard is the predetermined level of care -​ Patient chart is co-owned
-​ Criteria are characteristics used to meet the level of care ●​ Document – owned by hospital
💡
-​ Establishing basis for evaluation (Standards and Criteria)
Controlling questions = STANDARDS
●​ Information – owned by patient that’s
why it must be protected and not be

⭐3 TYPES OF STANDARDS⭐ divulge

●​ S - Structure
○​ Facilities
○​ Equipments
​
​
⭐
●​ Performance Appraisal
Staff-focused - staff is being evaluated

○​ Materials ​ 2 TYPES OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL

○​ Management system ●​ Informal – incidental performance appraisal
●​ P - Process -​ No plans of performing an evaluation but d/t
○​ Plans incident that happened evaluation is performed
○​ Procedure Ex: Cannot reach the IV stand → use footstool →
●​ O - Outcome slip and nabitawan ang babasaging IV bottle →
○​ Results napadaan head nurse → on the spot evaluation

a.​ Look for result first = OUTCOME ●​ Formal – systematically done and usually ends in a
b.​ If no result, look if there is something being done and who's review session
doing it -​ Scheduled, staff knows when they will be
If nurse is the one who's doing it: PROCESS evaluated
If manager is the one whose doing it: STRUCTURE Ex: Evaluation of CI → Use of ranking device →
review session (reveal evaluation result)
Airah B. Bolinbough, RN
 ⭐ Reveal the good news first → ⬆️
self-esteem → reveal weaknesses → easier
acceptance so there will be room for
improvements
-​ Good and bad news must be revealed

3. Identify strength and weaknesses

❗
-​ Concentrate on both strength and weakness

❗
In PNLE, if only one between strength and weaknesses is in
choices, it is incorrect because it must be BOTH
-​ In delegation, strength and weakness must be delegated
because if weaknesses are not delegated there will be no room
for improvement

4. Act to reinforce the strengths and take corrective actions for

the weaknesses
-​ Support the strength and correct the weaknesses → 2
ASPECT

Nursing Practice I - V
RESEARCH
Comprehensive Phase

Scientific Method
-​ Different from research
-​ Informal way to discover new things
-​ Done for a couple of hours or days at the laboratory or at
home
-​ Involves 5 steps

Airah B. Bolinbough, RN
Research -​ Stories that has been passed from one generation to
-​ More formal, intensive and comprehensive method for the another
discovery of new knowledge ●​ Authority
-​ 5 major steps but there are minor steps under these and may -​ Considered as experts
lead up to 18 steps ●​ Logical Reasoning
-​ Done within months or years ●​ Experience and Trial and Error
“We learn from our mistakes”
2 TYPES OF NURSING “Try and try until you succeed”
●​ Nursing Research ●​ Scientific methods
-​ Deals with clinical problems/area -​ Also known as “experiment” where you are able to
-​ More common because it deals with clinical problems discover new things/knowledge on your own
​ Ex: Care of diabetic foot Ex: Monggo seed experiment → toge

●​ Research in Nursing 5 MAJOR STEPS OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS

-​ More broader study of nursing and the profession because Phase I: CONCEPTUAL PHASE
it focuses on issues that could affect the nursing -​ Look for appropriate topic for your research
profession 1.​ Formulating & delimiting the problem
​ Ex: Ethical issues, Historical issues

EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE 💡Purpose:

2.​ Reviewing Related Literature (RRL)
TO GET AN IDEA/BACKGROUND ABOUT THE STUDY
-​ Synthesis (pinagsama-sama) of previous studies
💡Reword:
-​ Use of the current best evidence
Latest findings -​ Related to the problem of interest

IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH -​ ⭐
For you to know what was already made and what is not
Copy paste ONLY IF it is vital to your research but give
credits and give quotation marks
1. Professionalism – to enhance profession
2. Accountability – to know how far nursing could go
3. Social relevance – we wanted to contribute something
4. Research and decision making – new discoveries to come up with
💡Purpose:
3.​ Undertaking a clinical fieldwork
TO GET AN IDEA/BACKGROUND ABOUT THE STUDY
-​ Defining framework & conceptual definitions
best decision -​ Graphical representation of concepts and relationships
ULTIMATE GOAL OF RESEARCH: TO IMPROVE THE
PRACTICE OF THE PROFESSION
💡
💡
Reword: TO IMPROVE CLIENT CARE/PATIENT CARE/HEALTH
-​
-​
between concepts

❗
Use of flowchart that contains concepts from RRL
Findings should not be included in framework ❗
CARE/NURSING CARE
-​ “Ultimate” means “highest” 2 TYPES OF FRAMEWORK
-​ Shared among different profession ●​ Conceptual Framework
-​ Usually the first question in research topic in PNLE -​ Focus is topic; relate the concept to topics
-​ Covers all the importance of research (umbrella term) ●​ Theoretical Framework
-​ Focus is theory; relate concepts to theories
SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE which can be an existing theory or your
●​ Tradition own theory (what ifs)
Airah B. Bolinbough, RN
 -​ Variables are being defined by utilizing operational a.​ Bioethical Principles
💡
-​ Right of respondents are ETHICS

definitions
●​ OPERATIONAL DEFINITION 11.​Reviewing & finalizing the plan
-​ Defines variables based on how they were
used on the study Phase III: EMPIRICAL PHASE
●​ CONCEPTUAL DEFINITIONS -​ Longest phase
-​ Used for highly technical term -​ Segregation of data
-​ Found in resource materials
12.​ Collecting the data
4.​ Formulating the hypothesis 13.​ Preparing the data for analysis

Phase II: DESIGN AND PLANNING PHASE Phase IV: ANALYTIC PHASE
-​ Most rigorous part of research 14.​ Analyzing the data
-​ Phase that researchers spend most of their time 15.​ Interpreting the result

5.​ Selecting the research design Phase V: DISSEMINATING PHASE

A.​ Different types of research 16.​ Communicating the findings
6.​ Developing protocols for the intervention 17.​Utilizing the findings into practice = Evidence-based
-​ Optional step because this is usually used for Practice (use of latest findings)
experimental research (only type of research that has
intervention, manipulation)
-​ Protocol will be followed by all the researcher before,
during and after giving the intervention

7.​ Identifying the population to be studied

8.​ Designing the sampling plan

a.​ 2 TYPES OF SAMPLING RESEARCH PROBLEM
●​ Non-Probability SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEM
●​ Probability ●​ Nursing Literature
-​ Problems extracted from journals, magazine,
9.​ Specifying the method on how to measure research newspapers, or any reading materials
variables
-​ Methods are the tools/instruments for data collection ●​ Ideas from external sources
a.​ Different tools for data collection -​ Suggestion from other people

rights 💡
10.​ Developing a method on how to safeguard human/animal

-​ Research concept that is always in PNLE

●​ Theory
-​ Could be existing or own theory

Airah B. Bolinbough, RN
 ●​ Experience and clinical fieldwork 💡
-​ Richest in information because it is own experience
-​ Consider the timeframe given to finish the research
Ex: Alcoholism, you wanted to know if alcohol intake
-​ This is why Nursing Research is commonly used because increases or decreases with age — this cannot be done
it deals with clinical problems which are own experiences within 3 months (usual timeframe in college)
of researchers
5. Limitation of tools
●​ Social Issues -​ Instrument used for data collection
-​ Topics that could affect the nursing profession
Ex: Asperger’s syndrome (autism) no typical symptoms of MAJOR FORMS OF DATA COLLECTION
autism and are very intelligent; usually not aware of their ●​ Use of existing data
condition as they appears to be normal -​ Use of data that are already available
Ex: Alcohol, Drug addiction Ex: graphs, census, px charts

●​ Scientific Research
-​ Previous researches that are being continued because
●​ ⭐Self reports
-​ Interviews and questionnaires
there may be modifications or innovations -​ Most widely used form of data collection because it can
-​ Least used, do not use in PNLE gather information that cannot be gathered by other
Ex: Moderna vaccines reached 3rd trial → continued research up methods
to 4th trial d/t modifications and innovations -​ You can gather data orally or written
-​ OPINIONS can be gathered which cannot be gathered in
CRITERIA OF GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM an existing data, gadgets and equipments
1. Significance of Study -​ Most direct because the researchers are the one who
-​ Easy to create but not the soul criteria of the research formulate the tool
-​ Addresses the significance to: -​ Most flexible because you can jump from one question to
●​ People - target population of the study another
​ ​ Ex: HTN topic → HTN patients
●​ Society – not the target population but may know
someone affected/possess the topic of the study
-​
⭐
Most vital form of data but embodied disadvantages
VALIDITY AND ACCURACY – most crucial
disadvantages
Ex: Not hypertensive patients but married to an Ex: Interview about # of sexual partners →
HTN patient subject said 2 instead of 6 = INACCURATE
●​ Profession – Nursing Ex: Subject skipped multiple questions in
questionnaire = INVALID
2. Availability of the Subjects
-​ Information is gathered from subjects ●​ Observations
No subject = Not good research -​ Researcher can either be a participant or a

3. Limitation of Subject
-​ Subjects can be available but limited
​ 💡 non-participant
Best for assessing FEELINGS AND EMOTIONS
●​ Participant
​ Ex: Mute, deaf, Illiterate -​ Researcher gives the intervention and
then observes
4. Time Allotment and Research Ability

Airah B. Bolinbough, RN
 -​
Or the researcher can disguise as one of -​ Measurements performed directly on the
the subject to prevent Hawthorne effect subject
●​ Non-participant -​ While the equipment/gadget is attached to
-​ Researcher will not do anything but to the subject, the researcher assess the
plainly observe measurement

PHENOMEN IN OBSERVATION ●​ In vitro

a.​ Characteristics and condition of the subjects -​ Measurement is performed outside
Ex: Newborns with ABO Incompatibility have jaundice → -​ Gather specimen first then send to
no response (cry) but you can observe the skin color laboratory where measurement happens

b.​ Activities and behavior of the subjects CRITERIA TO KNOW THE EFFECTIVITY OF THE TOOL
Ex: Autism having temper tantrums (NI: Ignore but -​ 3 criteria met = Effective tool
provide safety helmet) → No response but temper -​ 3 criteria not met = Combine the use tools

⭐
tantrums (behavior) can be observed
Autism have stereotyped behaviors: Tip toe,
rocking, clapping, hitting head, covering ears,
a.​ Validity
-​ Measure what is supposed to be measured
head bumping -​ Anything that you are looking for should be
measured by your instrument
c.​ Skill attainment and performance (Performance Ex: Questionnaires should include questions
Appraisal) answering the things you wanted to know
Ex: Retdems → perform the skill → CI observes
b.​ Reliability
d.​ Environmental characteristics -​ Despite how many times you give the instrument,
Ex: PAG-ASA cannot interview the weather but they you should get the same result
observe the weather o gather information
c.​ Sensitivity
e.​ Verbal communication -​ Tool must detect small variations or find
-​ As the researcher gather verbal information, she differences
can also observe how the subject answers the ​
questions (tone) 6. Interest of the Researcher

f.​ Non-verbal communication 7. Novelty

-​ Researcher can observe the facial expressions, -​ Newness and freshness of the idea (bago at hindi pa
posture, gestures nagagawa)
-​ That is why the scientific research is the least used source
g.​ Biophysical measurements of research problem as it just a continuation of the
-​ There is a need to use equipments or gadget previous study

2 TYPES OF MEASUREMENTS HYPOTHESIS

●​ In vivo -​ Tentative prediction of the relationship between variables
Airah B. Bolinbough, RN
 -​ At the end you will either reject or approve your hypothesis
“Depressed patients who are living with significant others have
4 PARTS OF HYPOTHESIS lesser chance of commiting suicide than those depressed
●​ Independent variable – Cause, fixed patients who are living alone”
​
​ 💡
●​ Dependent variable – Effect, vary
ICDeffect Population:
Depressed patients + significant others
●​ Relationship
●​ Population 💡
-​ The subject, to which the study is applied ​
Depressed patients + alone
Difference of charac: Living condition = INDEPENDENT V.
-​ The one that is being studied Varies on population: Chances of committing suidicide =
-​ Most neglected part of research title in identifying the DEPENDENT V.
dependent and independent variable
1 SET OF POPULATION:
💡1st: “Older
Identify the population; include all of their characteristics
patients are more at risk to fall than the younger
“Educational attainment is not related to the compliance of PTB
patients”
patients”

⭐
Population: PTB patient
1 set of population, characteristics have no sense
⭐
2nd: Identify the set of population
If 2 or more set of populations: Concentrate on the
characteristics of the population
Eliminate the characteristics in choices: PTB

Older patients What is being studied?

Younger patients ​ Fixed: Educational attainment = INDEPENDENT V.
Difference: Age = INDEPENDENT VARIABLE ​ Vary: Compliance = DEPENDENT V.
Independent variable are fixed variables by researcher
Older patient = 60-65 y/o 💡 If research is experimental there is always MANIPULATION

MANIPULATION = INDEPENDENT VARIABLE⭐⭐⭐

Younger patient = 0-5 y/o (anything that is given)

Risk to fall = DEPENDENT VARIABLE — varies depending on

population MUSIC THERAPY (manipulation, independent variable) DECREASES
THE LEVELS OF ANXIETY (dependent variable) AMONG CANCER
“Girls are less sexually active than boys” PATIENTS
Population: Girls and Boys
Difference of characteristics: Gender = INDEPENDENT V.
Varies on population: Sexually active = DEPENDENT V.
DESIGN AND PLANNING
TYPES OF RESEARCH
“Full term infants who are breastfed weigh more than preterm I. RESEARCH ACCORDING TO MOTIVE
infants who are mixed fed” a.​ Pure/Basic – motive is to increase/gain new knowledge
​ b.​ Applied – motive is able to use the knowledge into practice
Population: Full term breastfed and Preterm mixed fed

💡 💡
II. RESEARCH ACCORDING TO LEVELS OF INVESTIGATION
​ Difference of charac: Term & Feeding = INDEPENDENT V.
Varies on population: Weight = DEPENDENT V. 3 LEVELS OF INVESTIGATIONS
Airah B. Bolinbough, RN
Level I: EXPLORATORY
-​
-​
Wanted to identify the variables
You have no knowledge yet but you want to gain knowledge ✔️
2nd: Look for MANIPULATION → EXPERIMENTAL

✔️
Experimental
Quasi
💡💡💡-​ OPINION

●​ QUALITY 3rd: If no opinion and manipulation → DESCRIPTIVE

●​ CENSUS (frequency) ●​ Historical
●​ Survey
Level II: DESCRIPTIVE ●​ Case Study
-​ Wanted to know whether the variables are associated or ●​ Methodological
●​ Analytical
💡💡💡 related

●​ DESCRIBE III. RESEARCH ACCORDING TO APPROACH/DESIGN

●​ RELATIONSHIP (Descriptive Correlational) A. NON-EXPERIMENTAL – without manipulation
●​ SIMILARITIES/DIFFERENCES (Descriptive Comparative) ●​ Historical
●​ FACTS & ISSUES -​ ‘History’ means ‘past’ thus it is a study of the past
●​ STUDY -​ Studying about the issues that happened in the past
●​ ANALYSIS ●​ Survey
-​ Use of interviews and questionnaires to gather public
1. DESCRIPTIVE opinion
-​ Plain descriptive research ●​ Case study
-​ Plainly describes the variables as it is -​ In depth or in detailed study of persons or entities
●​ Methodological
2. DESCRIPTIVE CORRELATIONAL -​ Set of methods, tests and procedures
-​ Describes the relationship of the variables to each other -​ Study of methods and procedure
●​ Analytical
3. DESCRIPTIVE COMPARATIVE -​ Further analysis of issues and events
-​ Compares the variables to each other by description but more -​ Study of present issues
of comparison
B. EXPERIMENTAL – with manipulation
Level III: EXPERIMENTAL ●​ True experiment
-​ Finding out the cause and effect of the variables to each other -​ Strict control over the variables

💡💡💡-​ In terms of motive, you wanted to apply your findings

✔️
-​ Also called as ‘Experimental’
Randomization is present
-​ Done 3 times
●​ EFFECT
●​ MANIPULATION
ELEMENTS OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
💡💡💡PROCESS OF ELIMINATION💡💡💡
1st: Look if the situation is looking for OPINION or look for
○​ Randomization – researcher has no idea who will be the
subject
EXPLORATORY in the choices ○​ Manipulation – true or quasi design there are always:
●​ Survey
Airah B. Bolinbough, RN
 -​ Entire (all) aggregate of cases that the researcher would like to
EXPERIMENTAL GROUP CONTROL GROUP
study
Manipulation is given Placebo – without
ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA
therapeutic effect
-​ Exact criteria that the researchers would use to decide who will
-​ Best time to give is
be included in the population
when there is no
comparison
ACCESSIBLE POPULATION
-​ Entire aggregate of cases that is within the reach of the
Give something that you Others — best time to give
researcher
wanted to study if there is comparison

○​ Control – to compare the result of experimental group to

control group
💡
TARGET POPULATION
Reword: Universe
-​ Entire aggregate of cases that the researcher would like to make

⭐Blind experiment
-​ Subjects do not know into which group they belong
generalization
-​ The population that the researcher wants to focus

⭐Double experiment
-​ Researcher and subject do not know into which group
they belong
-​ Conducted to prevent bias

C. QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL

✔️
-​ 'Quasi' means ‘just like’ — just like a true experiment

✔️
Manipulation is present

❌
Control overcomes the variables
Lacks randomization — may lead to bias thus it SAMPLING
overcomes the variable -​
💡
Process used to get a representative of the population
Representatives = Samples
IV. RESEARCH ACCORDING TO TIME FRAME
A. CROSS SECTIONAL
-​
REPRESENTATION 💡
#1 characteristics of a sample: REPRESENTATIVENESS/

-​ One time study and you can already have the result
B. LONGITUDINAL NON-PROBABILITY PROBABILITY
-​ Repetitive studies to establish the result
C. RETROSPECTIVE Non-random (subj have idea) Random (without idea)
-​ Study of the past to explain the present
D. PROSPECTIVE STUDIES Not everyone have the chance Everyone have the chance to be
-​ Study of the present to predict the future to be a sample a sample

1. CONVENIENCE/ 1. SIMPLE RANDOM

POPULATION
Airah B. Bolinbough, RN
 ACCIDENTAL -​ All target sample have the N
-​ Samples are readily chance to be selected as n = —-------------
available
-​ Kung sino nandyan, sya
ang subject kaya
sample

❌
-​ Random selection
-​ Grouping
💡 1 + Ne2
Isa kasama ni Nene
1st: e2 (multiply to self)
convenient kay researcher ●​ Draw lots 2nd: e2 answer x N
●​ Bingo 3rd: add to 1
2. QUOTA ●​ Fishbowl 4th: N divided by 1+Ne2 answer
-​ Get a proportion of a
population 2. STRATIFIED RANDOM MORE ACCURATE BECAUSE NO
-​ Limit is present (20% of -​ Population is divided into BIAS, EVERYONE HAS THE
1000 = 200 sample) subgroups then get a CHANCE
-​ Once limit is reached, data representative from each
gathering stop subgroup
-​ Group with characteristic 4 BASIC RIGHTS OF RESEARCH SUBJECTS
3. PURPOSIVE Population: TRA → TRA branches ●​ Right not to be harmed
-​ AKA ‘Judgmental → 25 Toprankers from each -​ Researchers must protect the subjects
○​ Beneficence: TO DO
sampling’
-​ Samples are handpicked
by the researchers based
branch
✔️
Grouping -​ May ginawa ka for benefit of your patient
-​ Angel researcher
on her judgment 3. CLUSTER Ex: Patient w/ fever → TSB provided by RN
-​ Regardless of distance -​ Get a group from the
from the sample, population ○​ Non-maleficence: TO PREVENT or TO PROTECT
ppuntahan pa rin -​ Group without Ex: Inquire the MD about high dosage of meds
characteristic before administration
4. SNOWBALL Population: TRA → TRA branches
-​ Networking or referral ●​ Right to full disclosure – VERACITY (truth telling)
system 4. SYSTEMATIC -​ Researchers cannot always protect the subject from harm
-​ Socially unacceptable -​ Get the kth of the list so subjects must be aware of benefits, risks, procedures,
topics etc.
Formula -​ Researcher is responsible to explain everything to the
N subjects
K = —---------- -​ Contacts of researcher must be also disclose
n
N = population size ●​ Right to self-determination – AUTONOMY
n = sample size -​ Right to make his/her own decision
-​ If subject back out from your study, it is okay, you just
-​ Random start then every
computed kth ❗⭐ have to accept

⭐
Waivers and explanation are not nurse’s responsibility but the MD
Nurse’s responsibility is to document then inform the MD
❗
SLOVIN’S FORMULA 2nd prio: Explain the consequences of the refusal

Airah B. Bolinbough, RN
 ​ Interval: 10
●​ Right to anonymity, confidentiality, and privacy ​ 0 has value = DEAD/COLD
○​ Anonymity – ‘anonymous’ ​ There is (-) temperature = COLD
-​ Do not disclose the name of the subject to protect
the subject’s identity ●​ RATIO - numerical
-​ 0 is absolute
○​ Confidentiality – Do not disclose the any information or -​ 0 means 0, nothing, absence
the case of the subjects -​ Not possible to have (-) value, 0 is the last value
-​ The only people who should know the case of the ​ ​ Ex: Weight, Height
patient are those who are said to be professionally
and directly involved or if it is required by law 2 TYPES OF ANALYSIS
I. Descriptive analysis
○​ Privacy - Includes private moments, private parts, and -​ Summarizes the data but it will not prove the hypothesis
private property
-​ Regardless of the researchers relationship with the ●​ Frequency of distribution
patient, relationship is disregard and must be
changed to nurse-patient relationship at the
hospital
⭐
-​ Use of tables and graphs
Tables and graphs are the one that communicates to
the readers

LEVELS OF MEASUREMENTS ●​ Measures of central tendency

-​ Assignment of numbers according to rules ○​ Mean
-​ Average
4 TYPES OF DATA -​ Add then divide to number of population
●​ NOMINAL - categorical ○​ Median
-​ Name the category -​ Middle value
-​ It doesn’t have any numerical value -​ Arrange from smallest to highest then get the
Ex: Gender (male and female) middle value
-​ If even, add then divide by 2
●​ ORDINAL - categorical ○​ Mode
-​ Show ranking of events -​ Value that frequently appears
-​ Highest to lowest but you cannot measure the difference
between ●​ Measures of variability
Ex: Good Better Best -​ Simple rank, range, variants, standard deviation (distance
from the mean)
●​ INTERVAL - numerical
-​ Ranking of events but with equal intervals and the 0 is
not absolute 💡
II. Inferential Analysis
Population = Set
●​ ANOVA – 3 or more sets of population compared to 1 variable
-​ 0 doesn't mean 0, absence, or nothing
-​ 0 has value “Level of anxiety among Asian, Hispanics, Caucasian, Africans”
-​ Possible to have (-) value
Ex: Temperature 37 - 38 - 39 - 40
Airah B. Bolinbough, RN
 ●​ Chi-square – 1 set of population + 2 or more variables that is
focused on FREQUENCY
“Educational attainment is not related to compliance (frequency)
of PTB patients”

Pearson-R – 1 population + 2 or more variables but the focus is

INTERVAL/RATIO

●​ T test
○​ Student – 2 set of population + 1 variable
-​ Like ANOVA but only 2 population

○​ Paired – 1 set of population + dependent groups

-​ Cannot stand alone without the result of the others
-​ Result is before and after (pre and post)
“Average blood pressure of women before and
after menstruation”

SUMMARY
💡 Population
3 or more set = ANOVA
2 set = STUDENT T-TEST
1 set → Look for before and after = PAIRED T-TEST
→ Look for number = PEARSON-R
→ No before and after and number = CHI-SQUARE

DISSEMINATING
-​ Utilizing the latest findings = EBP

Airah B. Bolinbough, RN