PNLE Review

Professional Adjustment, Leadership and Management, and Research

A.M.M|August 10-12 2023 | Atty. Arlene Capili

Management  They do not hold a position in the organization but


O
is an art of getting things done with and through
the people so that the goals of the organization
can be achieved.

they can motivate the members to perform.
Example: Senior staff nurse, charge nurse



All about achievement of goals.
O
Tip: Any option in the board exam that talks about Styles of Leadership
the goals is the BEST ANSWER. Goals
 There 4 styles of leadership but there are only 3
commonly used leadership style
Leadership  Bureaucratic Style - focus on the rules and
 Use of one’s skill to influence others to perform to regulations, leaders who are by the book.
the best of their ability.
 These leaders uses different influence tactics. 3 Common Styles of Leadership
1. Autocratic
AIRCUBES  Leader focused
 Assertiveness 2. Democratic
 sending direct messages, standing up for 3. Members have a voice in decision making and the
your own rights without stepping the rights of leader acts as a facilitator.
others. 4. Laissez Faire
 Ingratiation  Member focused
 Making others feel good or look good before  Leader actually acts as a monitor instead of
making a request. being a decoration.
 Rationality
 Relying on a detailed plan, reason or logic.  Is there a best style in leadership?
 Coalition  Contingency Theory - a leadership style may
 Backing up a request together with your co- or may not be effective depending on the
members. situation.
 Upward Appeal  When is the best time to use autocratic?
 Using the name of a superior, formally or
informally. O
 During emergency because anxiety ranges
from severe to panic making the staff not
 Blocking (Blackmail) capable of decision making, hence, staffs
 Threatening somebody to damage his needs supervision.
opportunity for advancement or not being  There are 4 levels of anxiety: mild, moderate,
friendly to another person until he grants the severe, panic
request.  When is the best time to use democratic?
 Exchange  When the compliance of the members is
 Reminding somebody of a previous favor or needed.
return of favors.  When is the best time to use laissez faire?
 Sanction
 Either giving or preventing incentives, e
 When the members are matured enough.
 It also happens when the manager is new in
benefits or promotions. the unit. usedtoobserve unit
the
Types of Leadership Authority Formalleaders
 A legitimate right to give command.
1. Formal
 Officially sanctioned responsibility.
 These are the people who hold a position in the
organization.
Power Formal a informalleaden
 Three levels of formal leaders:
 The ability to obtain, retain and motivate other
 Top Level - focus on the organization,
people to perform.
 Example: President, Vice president,
board of directors, COO, Chairman
 NSG Org: Chief Nurse, Asst. Chief What are the sources of power? LRC 2RIES
Nurse, Nursing Directors 1. Legitimate Power
 Middle Level - coordinates with the top and  These are the people who hold a position in the
first level leaders organization.
 Example: Supervisors, coordinators, 2. Reward Power
department heads
 First Level - focuses on the operations o o
 The ability to give incentives and benefits.
3. Coercive Power
 Example: Head nurses
mmmm
o e
 The ability to give fear and punishment.
4. Connection Power
 Tip: BON may not use head nurse instead they  Are the people you know. backer
may use Unit Managers. 5. Referent Power
 Pertains to the charisma.
6. Information Power
Pma aiamininemeng
D
2. Informal Leadership  People who knows
knowledge
 PNLE Review
Professional Adjustment, Leadership and Management, and Research
A.M.M|August 10-12 2023 | Atty. Arlene Capili

7. Expert Power  Does following the tools in planning serves as an

8. Self Power o
 People with special skills and abilities
e assurance for you to have a good plan? How
about effectiveness?
 Power that emanates from self due to maturity,  Yes
experience or gender.  No, effectiveness will always depend on the
o of Management
e 4 Functions implementation

1. Planning  Tip: Never forget the definition of terms and the

activities done in each function.
 knowing where you are and where you want to be.
 Tip: Do not read the full question first, read the
 Two types of planning:
last sentence first.
 Strategic Planning

o
 Long term planning
 Implemented in 3-5 years
o
Budget
 The systematic way of meeting with the expenses.
 Benefits the organization
 Includes the past, present and future expenses.
 Done by top level leaders
 Focuses on the revenues/income and
 Operational Planning
expenses/costs.
 Short term planning
 Changed D annually
 Benefits the operations first
 Done by first level leaders ly 4 Types of Budget
1. Capital Expense Budget
 Usually Expensive, but also can be inexpensive
 Activities done during planning:
sometimes
 SWOT Analysis
 For long term use
 Strength, Weakness, Opportunities,
2. Operational Expense Budget
Threat
 Day to day expense
 Planning Formula
 Also include consumable items
 Questions needed to be answered in
3. Personnel Budget
order to create a plan
 Salary of your full time employees or full time
1. What action is necessary?
equivalents
2. Where will it take place?
 Prepared ahead of time
3. When will it take place?
 FTE= 8 hours for 5 days a week

E
4. Who will do it?
4. Cash Budget
5. How will it be done?
 Available all the time for emergency purpose
 Tools in Planning (Hierarchy)
1. Mission and Vision e  Emergency fund/ Cash on hand
 Mission is the reason for existence
 Vision is what the o agency wants to 2. Organizing

o
achieve and this is futuristic.
2. Philosophy
 Establish a formal structure of the organization
and create the job qualification and job description
 The statement of beliefs, values and  Purpose of the organization structure: work
principles. distribution.
 Value centered usually
includes  Elements of the Organizational Structure:
3. Goals cure values 1. Levels of Authority (3 TMF)
 General statements of aims and  Do we always need to have three levels of
purposes. authority? Np, it will always depend on the
4. Objectives
popthemgr size of the organization
 Specific statements of aims and 2. Lines of Communication (2)
purposes that are used to carry out the  Solid line: direct superior subordinate
goals relationship
5. Policies  Connects to the unity of command: there
 Plans reduced to statements that are is only one person who could give
used by the organization for decision orders which is the immediate superior
making.  Connects to scalar chain or chain of
 Not subjected to regulations unlike in the command: following the hierarchical
rules order. Reporting relationships, reporting
 Application is subjected to all Affectseveryone only to the immediate superior.
6. Procedures  When it comes to complain, you address
 Set repby yep
set instructions the complain to the immediate superior
7. Rules of the person you are complaining.
 Guidelines for actions and non-actions  Broken line: Indirect and coordinated
 Subjected to regulations relationship
 Application is subjected to specific  Doctors cannot give orders to the nurses
persons except if it is for the patient/ Doctor’s
order pertaining to patient care.
 PNLE Review
Professional Adjustment, Leadership and Management, and Research
A.M.M|August 10-12 2023 | Atty. Arlene Capili

 RA 9173 1. Existence of a duty

3. Span of control 2. Failure to meet the standard
 Number of workers that directly report to a 3. Foreseablility of the heart (Proximate cause)
superior or these are the number of workers 4. Injury (absent of injury, there is no negligence)
that a superior handles
 Limited Staffing
4 common methods of Staffing
Major Forms of the Organizational Structure 1. Conventional
 Centralized  Oldest method of staffing
 Refers to the center (1)  Can be used centralized or decentralized
 There is only one person who has the  No system - decision of manager
responsibility for decision making
 Advantages: 2. Cyclic
 Cost effective  Schedule repeats itself
 Management is easier  Based on schedule and it repeat itself
 Disadvantages
 The hierarchy at the bottom becomes 3. 40 hours
cumbersome  Manadated by law: Labor Code PD 442 Magna
 Dilution of responsibility Carta; specifically for healthcare workers
 Manager will not readily adopt to change  Applicable to Private, Applicable to public
 Decentralized  8 hours a week, 5 days a week with 2 days off
 The bigger organization is broken down into  Can work 6 days but considered as over time (6th
smaller units and the responsibility for decision day)
making is delegated to the ones nearest the  3 Shift:
majority of the workers.  AM
 Advantages:  PM
 Better interpersonal relationship  Night
 Staff has a voice in decision making
 Greater imagination and better creativity 4. Seven days - Covid
 Communication departmentally and  Min of 10 hours: 7 days a week, 7 days off
inter-departmentally
 Disadvantages: Nursing Care System/ Modalities of Nursing Care/
 Not cost effective Pattern of Nursing Care
 Danger of breakdown in communication  System that is used to deliver nursing care
 Role communication 1. Case Nursing/ Case Method
 Which is better centralized or decentralized? It  Total care nursing
depends on the size of the organization.  1:1 ratio
 If the organizations is small? Centralized.  Ex: Private Duty Nurse, ideal in ICU
 If the organization is big? Decentralized.
2. Functional Nursing
Job description  Tasks are delegated among the staff
 Spells out your precise job content.
 Purpose: 3. Team Nursing
 Prevents malpractice  Group of nurses assign to a group of patient
 Delegation where there is a team leader.
 Evaluation  Ex: Pedia Ward
 Staffing - assigning of competent people to
fill the roles of the organization 4. Primary Nursing
 24 hour continuous coordinated comprehensive
 Is there a difference between malpractice and nursing service of 5-6 patients from admission to
negligence? Yes and no, since malpractice is also discharge
negligence.  Ratio: 1:5 or 1:6
 No, because negligence have the same elements  Patient will be first endorsed to the primary nurse.
with malpractice but yes since malpractice can be  Primary nurse will endorse to the associate
given as a sanction only with persons who have primary nurse
license.  Primary nurse will be the one to make the NCP
 Malpractice also is doing duty beyond nursing and cannot be changed by the associate except if
practice there are changes in the patient’s condition
 Negligence is the commission or omission of an provided that it will be reported to the primary
act pursuant to a duty that a reasonable prudent nurse.
person would or would not do. Simply it means  Patient will have the same set of nurses.
carelessness and did not practice due diligence.
 Negligence is without licence, malpractice is with 5. Modular Nursing
license  Combination of team and primary nursing
 PNLE Review
Professional Adjustment, Leadership and Management, and Research
A.M.M|August 10-12 2023 | Atty. Arlene Capili

 There is a geographical assignment of patients.  Great Vine Communication: “chismis” 75%

accurate, actually beneficial to the organization
6. Case Management since it gives the manager a opportunity to solve
 Utilizing the healthcare delivery system wherein the problem immediately.
the goals are to deliver quality care, to promote
the quality of life, to decrease fragmentation, and Elements of Communication
to contain costs.  Message
 Focuses on long term treatment  Encoding
 Ex: Nursing homes  Transmitting (via the channels of communication)
 Decoding
3. Directing  Feedback/ Action
 Issuance of orders, assignments and instructions.
Barriers in Communication
 Delegation
1. Physical Barriers
 2 Aspects of delegation:
 Usually environmental
 Technical aspect
 Ex: Noise
 Tasks, procedures, materials and
equipment
2. Socio- Psychologic
 If staff is incompetent, inexperience or
 Ex: Lack of trust
any other problem relating to it, show or
teach or demonstrate or supervise or do
3. Semantic Barrier
or performing with the nurse is the
 Misinterpretation of signs and symbols.
solution
 Interpersonal aspect
Conflict
 Attitudes, behaviors, styles of direction
 the misunderstanding or agreement between two
giving
or more persons, agencies or organization.
 If the staff experiences burnout or any
 Priority of the manager: solve the problem
problem relating to behavior,
immediately
verbalization of feelings/ talk is the
solution.
Conflict Resolution Strategies
 How are you going to give command/
 strategies often used to solve the problem
styles of direction giving/ communicating,
1. Avoidance
assertiveness
 Let us not talk about it.
 What and Who of Delegation? Refer to the
pointers
2. Dominance and Suppression
Pointers of Delegation
 I am the manager here, you have no choice.
1. Position of the staff
 licensed or unlicensed
3. Restriction/Power
 simple tasks only if unlicensed
 I am the manager here, I will do what is best for
2. Ward (know what ward is it from and to where)
everyone.
 Check the tasks done of the staff
3. Capabilities of the staff
4. Majority Rule
 Depends on the position in the ward
 Let us divide the house.
4. Condition of the patient
 Voting and whoever who gets the majority of the
 Ex: You are a telemetry and you are ask to float in
vote, wins.
the pediatric ward. What should be and should not
 Commonly used
be assigned to the floating nurse
 AGE- should not
5. Smoothing
 Dermatitis- should not be
 The unacceptable appears to be acceptable.
 Tetralogy of Fallot- should be
 VSD- should be
6. Compromise
 Rheumatic fever- should be
 Meeting half way
 Nephrectomy- should not be
 Cardiac complication- should be
7. Collaboration
 Kawasaki Disease- should be. autoimmune,
 Working hand and hand to solve the problem.
discovered by Dr. Kawasaki, inflammation on
 Brainstorming - all ideas are welcomed
the linings of the blood vessels - vasculitis
with strawberry tongue and fever, strict IMO
 Tip: In problem solving, if one of the option is
reporting wherein, the manager is waiting for the
Communication
reports to be presented and has no participation
 Sending of messages from sender to receiver and
consider it WRONG.
vise versa and hoping what is being sent is
understood.
 It would not occur without its elements.
 PNLE Review
Professional Adjustment, Leadership and Management, and Research
A.M.M|August 10-12 2023 | Atty. Arlene Capili

4 approaches in Problem Solving  Criteria: characteristics use to meet the level of

 First part serves as the manager while the second care
part is the members or others
1. Win- Lose Approach 2. Determine compliance to your standards and criteria
 Able to solve the problem at the expense of  Evaluation
others.  2 types of Evaluation
 Relates to the dominance and suppression  Nursing Audit
2. Lose- Win Approach  Patient focused
 Able to solve the problem at your own expense.  2 types
 Relates to Restriction/ Power and Smoothing  Concurrent - evaluate as the care is
3. Lose- Lose Approach given
 Both parties sacrifice in the solution of the  Retrospective- the source of
problem evaluation is the patient’s chart.
 Relates to comprise  Document owned by the hospital but the
4. Win-Win Approach content/information is owned by the
 Both parties benefit from the solution of the patient.
problem  Performance appraisal
 Relates to collaboration and majority rule  Staff focused
 2 types
Change Management  Informal Performance Appraisal-
 Any alteration in the status quo Incidental performance appraisal
 Status quo: present situation  Formal Performance Appraisal-
 There is no exception, all questions that talks systematically done and usually
about problem solving, remember about the ends in a review session
change process 3. Identify strengths and weaknesses
 Should concentrate on both
Change Process:  Tip: Delegation and evaluation compliments each
1. Perceive the need to change other. You have to delegate both strengths and
2. Initiate a group interaction weaknesses to promote improvement.
 the group is the key
 If the problem is the group, then talk to the group 4. Act to reinforce the strengths and take corrective
except if the problem is an individual, then talk to actions for the weaknesses.
the person privately  How are you going to correct the weaknesses of
 Read BON Resolution 220 Series of 2004 the staff? Go back to the 2 aspects of delegation.
3. Implement the plan one step at a time
 To prevent resistance
4. Evaluate overall results
 To check effectiveness
 Go back to the two aspects of directing

CONTROLLING
 Seeing to it that what is planned is done
 Controlling/ evaluating/reviewing/ checking/
determining/comparing

4 Basic Steps
1. Develop standards and criteria
 Standard: predetermined level of care
 Tip: Any option in the board that talks about the
standards is the answer since it serves as the
basis for evaluation.
 3 types of standards
 Structure - includes facilities, equipment,
materials and management system
 Process - includes plans and
procedures
 Outcome - pertains to results
 If type of standard is being ask, identify FIRST if
the question talks about RESULT, answer is
OUTCOME. Second, if there is being done and
who does it, if NURSE answer is PROCESS, if
MANAGER answer STRUCTURE.
 PNLE Review
Professional Adjustment, Leadership and Management, and Research
A.M.M|August 10-12 2023 | Atty. Arlene Capili

RESEARCH 5. Formulating the hypothesis

 Scientific Method is the informal way to discover
new things. Phase 2: Design and Planning Phase (most
 Research is more formal, intensive, and tedious)
comprehensive method for the discovery of new
6. Selecting the research design
knowledge.
7. Developing the protocols for the intervention
8. Identifying the population to be studied
Two kinds of Research
9. Designing the sampling plan
 Nursing research 10. Specifying the methods on how to measure
 Deals with clinical problems research variables
 Commonly done by nursing students  Methods: tools or instruments for data
 Research in nursing collection
 Broader study of nursing in the profession 11. Developing a method on how to safeguard
 Issues that could affect the nursing human/animal rights
profession 12. Reviewing and finalizing the plan

Evidenced based practice Phase 3: Empirical Phase (longest)

 Use of the current best evidence/ latest findings 13. Collecting the data
14. Preparing the data for analysis
Importance of Research
1. Professionalism Phase 4: Analytic Phase
2. Accountability 15. Analyzing the data
3. Social Relevance of Nursing 16. Interpreting the results
4. Research and Decision Making
Phase V: Disseminating Phase
Ultimate Goal of Research in Nursing
17. Communicating the findings
 Improve the practice of the nursing profession/
18. Utilizing the findings into practice
client care/ patient care/ healthcare/ nursing care
Problem
Sources of Knowledge
Sources of Research Problem
Tradition - passed down from one generation to
Nursing literature
another
Ideas from external source
Authority- people who are considered experts.
Theory
Logical Reasoning- use of logic and reason.
Experience in clinical fieldwork
Experience & Trial and Error
 Richest in information
Scientific Method
Social Issues
Scientific Research
5 Major Steps of the Research Process
 previous researches, modifications done
Phase 1: Conceptual Phase
 Tip: least being used, do not answer this option in
1. Formulating & delimiting of the problem the board.
2. Reviewing Related Literature (synthesis of
previous studies related to the problem of interest) Criteria of a Good Research Problem
 Purpose RL: Get an idea or background
Significance of the study
about the study
 Addressed to the people
3. Undertaking a clinical fieldwork
 Addressed to the society at large (not the direct
4. Defining framework & conceptual definitions
target)
 Framework: Graphical representation of
 Addressed to the profession
concepts and relationship between concepts
Availability of the subjects
(RRL)
Limitation of the subjects
 Framework does not include findings
Time Allotment & research ability
 Two types of Framework
Limitation of tools
 Conceptual Framework - focuses on the
Interest of the researchers
topic
Novelty
 Theoretical Framework - focuses on the
 Newness or freshness of idea
existing or own theories
Major forms of Data Collection
 Two types of definition of terms:
 Operational definition: use to define the 1. Use of existing data
variables on how they were used in the  Any form of records, reports and documents
study.
 Conceptual Definition: Definitions found 2. Self reports
on your resource material  Use of questionnaires and interviews
 PNLE Review
Professional Adjustment, Leadership and Management, and Research
A.M.M|August 10-12 2023 | Atty. Arlene Capili

 Widely used form of data collection  Population: Patients

 Direct data  Characteristics: Older and Younger (Age)
 Flexible and versatile  Independent Variable: Age
 Disadvantages: (Crucial)  Dependent Variable: risk to fall
 Validity
 Accuracy  Example 2
 Girls are less sexually active than boys
3. Observation  Population: Girls and boys
 Best to ellicit feelings and emotion  Characteristics: gender
 Participant observer  Independent Variable: Gender
 Non-participant observer: plain observer  Dependent Variable: being sexually active
 Phenomena amenable to observation
 Characteristics and condition of the subjects  Example 3
 Activities and behavior of the subjects  Full term infants who are breastfed weight
 Skill attainment and appraisal more than preterm infants who are mixed fed
 Environmental characteristics  Population: Infants
 Characteristics: Full term breastfed, Preterm
4. Biophysical Measures mixed fed.
 Use of equipment and gadgets  Independent Variable: term and type of
 2 types of Biophysical Measurements feeding
 In Vivo - measurement is performed directly  Dependent Variable: Weight
to the subject.
 In Vitro - measure is performed outside  Example 4
 Ex: Depressed patients who are living with
Criteria to know the Effectivity of the Tool significant others have lesser chances of
committing suicide than those depressed
1. Validity
patients who are living alone
 Measure what is supposed to be measured.
 Population: Depressed patients
2. Reliability
 Characteristics: Depressed patients who are
 Consistency or the repeatability of the tool.
living with SO and depressed patients who
3. Sensitivity
are living alone
 Detect small variations and small differences.
 Independent Variable: Living condition
 Dependent Variable: Chances of committing
Hypothesis
suicide
 Tentative prediction of the relationship between
variables
 Example 5
 Educational attainment is not related to the
4 parts of Hypothesis
compliance of PTB patients.
1. Independent Variable  Population: PTB Patients
 Cause  Independent Variable: Educational
 Fix and set by the researchers attainment
2. Dependent Variable  Dependent Variable: compliance
 Effect
 Varies  Tip: If the research is experimental, there is a
3. Relationship manipulation
4. Population to which it applies  Tip: All manipulation is automatically your
 Identify the population first including their independent variable
characteristics
 If there are 2 or more sets, concentrate on the  Example 6
population  Music therapy decreases the levels of anxiety
 The difference in characteristics will be among cancer patients
automatically serve as the INDEPENDENT  Population: Cancer Patients
VARIABLE.  Independent Variable: Music Therapy
 Whatever is fixed in the population is a set.  Dependent Variable: Levels of anxiety
 Whatever VARIES in the population is
DEPENDENT VARIABLE. Types of Research
 If there is only 1 set, eliminate the characteristic of 1. According to Motive
the population. Instead go back to the hypothesis
 Basic/ Pure Research
and ask, what is being studied? It will serve as the
 Usually seen in the board
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE.
 Gain knowledge
 Example 1
 Applied Research
 Older patients are more at risk to fall than the
 Use of knowledge into practice
younger patients
 PNLE Review
Professional Adjustment, Leadership and Management, and Research
A.M.M|August 10-12 2023 | Atty. Arlene Capili

2. According to the Levels of Investigation 1. True experiment - strict control over variables
 Elements of True Experiment
Level 1: Expolaratory
 Randomization
 You want to identify the variable.
 Manipulation
 If the researcher is looking for opinion.
 Control
 Anything that mentions quality/census asks for the
2. Quasi experiment - control overcomes the
opinion.
variables
 Example: Favorite color in Barangay Makulay.
 Lacks randomization
 Manipulation
Level 2: Descriptive
 Control
 Research wants to know if the variables are
associated or related.
Double Blind
 Deeper description of an issue.
 Both researchers and subjects does not know
 Types of Descriptive
who is in the EG or CG.
 Descriptive
 To prevent bias.
 Describe variables as it is.
 Descriptive Correlational
Example 1:
 Describe the relationship of the
 You wanted to study the healthcare delivery
variables to each other
system used during world war 2.
 Descriptive Comparative
 Compare variables to each other
4. According to Time Frame
 If you see the word describe/
relationship/similarities/ differences/facts and  Cross sectional
issues/study/analysis, it is descriptive.  One time study
 Longitudinal
Level 3: Experimental  Repetitive studies
 Wants to find out the cause and effect of variables  Retrospective Studies
to each other  Study of the past to explain the present
 If you see effect/manipulation, it is experimental.  Prospective Studies
 Study of the present to predict the future
How to Use the Process of Elimination?
 Check your options, and find what is lacking.
 First, check if opinion is being asked - Exploratory Population
(Survery)  Entire agregated cases that the researcher would
 Second, try to look for manipulation - like to study.
Experimental  Eligibility Criteria
 Lastly, there is no opinion or manipulation,  Exact criteria that you are going to use to
automatic Descriptive (historical, case study, narrow down the population
methodological, analytical)  Accessible within the reach
 Target Population/ Universe
3. According to Design  Focused
 Non-experimental
 Without manipulation Sampling
1. Historical - study of the past, past issues  Process used to get a representative of the
2. Survery - use of interview and questionnaires population.
to gather public opinion  Representative = Sample
3. Case study - In-depth or in detail study of
person or entities Characteristic of a Sample
4. Methodological -study of methods, tests and 1. Representativeness/ Representation
procedures
5. Analytical - further analysis of issues and Sampling Plan
events, deeper description of an issue or event  Non-probability
(present)  Non-random
1. Convenient/ Accidental
 Experimental  Using of the available
 With manipulation 2. Quote
 2 sets of subjects  Getting a proportion of the population
 Experimental Group 3. Purposive/ Judgemental
 The only group with experimental  Choosing only based on the
manipulation researcher’s opinion
 Control Group 4. Snowball
 Placebo (PNSS, sugar, starch)  Sample are those who are referred to
(given without comparison) the researcher
 Others (given with comparison)
 PNLE Review
Professional Adjustment, Leadership and Management, and Research
A.M.M|August 10-12 2023 | Atty. Arlene Capili

 Probability  Numerical
 Random (more accurate)  Ranking of events with equal interval and the zero
1. Simple Random is absolute
 All has a chance  Ex: weight, height

2. Stratified Phase IV
 You create a strata of the population Two types of Analysis
and divide the population into  Descriptive Analysis
homogeneous group  Summarizes data but it will not prove the
 Strata/ Characteristic hypothesis
 Example: Grouping the pop using 1. Frequency of Distribution
marital status, gender  Use of tables and graphs
 Communicates to the readers
3. Cluster 2. Measures of Central Tendency
 Successive random sample of the units  Mean - average
 Cluster/big groups  Median - from lowest to highest, median is in
 Example: Grouping the pop using the middle
province, school, or barangay  Mode - frequently appears
3. Measures of variability
4. Systematic  Simple rank
 You get the Kth of the list  Range
N
 Sample size: k = n  Variance
 Standard deviation
 N: population size
 n: sample size
 Inferential Statistics
 Slovin’s Formula
N  population, focus is on the set
 n = 1 + Ne2 
1. Anova
4 Basic Rights of the Research Subjects  If you have three or more sets compared
1. Right not to be harm to one variable
 Protect the subjects from possible inconveniences 2. Chi-square
 If you only have one set of the
 Relates to beneficence and non-maleficence
 Beneficence: to do population and you have or more set of
 Non-malifence: to prevent or to protect variable focused on the frequency
 Pearson r: is just like chi-square, 1 set, 2
2. Right to full disclosure or more variable but the focused is on
 Relates to veracity (truthfulness) the interval or ratio data
3. T-test
3. Right to self-determination  Student T-test
 Relates to autonomy  2 sets of population compared to 1
set of variable
4. Right to anonymity, confidentiality and privacy  Paired T-test
 Anonymity: To protect subjects’ identity  1 set of population and you’re
studying dependent groups/results
 Confidentiality: Only to those who are
professionally involved or allowed by law  Both results is needed, always pre
 Privacy: Do not disclose information about the and post
case of the patient Tips:
1. Population set
Different Levels of Measurement 2. Greater than 3: ANOVA
3. 2: Student
 Assignment of numbers according to rules
4. 1: Before and After- Paired
1. Nominal
5. If not, check the numbers - Pearson R
 Categorical
6. If not, -Chi-square
 Naming of the category
 Ex: Gender 7. Disseminate the Findings
2. Ordinal 8. Reporting of the result
9. Utilize the findings
 Categorical
 Ranking of events
3. Interval
 Numerical
 Ranking of events with equal interval and the zero
is not absolute
 Ex: Temperature
4. Ratio