LESSON 4
THE INFORMATION
PROCESSING APPROACH
The Information Processing Approach
(Source: Huitt, W. 2003)
A primary focus of this approach is on memory (the storage and retrieval of information), a subject that
has been of interest for thousands of years. The most widely accepted theory is labeled the "stage theory," based
on the work of Atkinson and Shriffin (1968). The focus of this model is on how information is stored in memory;
the model proposes that information is processed and stored in 3 stages. In this theory, information is thought to
be processed in a serial, discontinuous manner as it moves from one stage to the next. This theory is discussed in
more detail below.
In addition to the stage theory model of information processing, there are three more that are widely
accepted. The first is based on the work of Craik and Lockhart (1972) and is labeled the "levels-of-processing"
theory. The major proposition is that learners utilize different levels of elaboration as they process information.
This is done on a continuum from perception, through attention, to labeling, and finally, meaning. The key point
is that all stimuli that activate a sensory receptor cell are permanently stored in memory, but that different levels
of processing (i.e., elaboration) contribute to an ability to access, or retrieve, that memory. Evidence from
hypnosis and forensic psychology provide some interesting support for this hypothesis. This approach has been
extended by Bransford (1979) who suggests that it is not only how the information is processed, but how the
information is accessed. When the demands for accessing information more closely match the methods used to
elaborate or learn the information, more is remembered.
Two other models have been proposed as alternatives to the Atkinson-Shiffrin model: parallel-
distributed processing and connectionistic. The parallel-distributed processing model states that information is
processed simultaneously by several different parts of the memory system, rather than sequentially as
hypothesized by Atkinson-Shiffrin as well as Craik and Lockhart. Work done on how we process emotional data
somewhat supports this contention (see Goleman, 1995). The stage-theory model shown below differs slightly
from the original Atkinson-Shriffin model in order to incorporate this feature.
The connectionistic model proposed by Rumelhart and McClelland (1986) extends the parallel-distributed
processing model. It is one of the dominant forms of current research in cognitive psychology and is consistent
with the most recent brain research (see Scientific American, 2000). This model emphasizes the fact that
information is stored in multiple locations throughout the brain in the form of networks of connections. It is
consistent with the levels-of-processing approach in that the more connections to a single idea or concept, the
more likely it is to be remembered.
Even though there are widely varying views within cognitive psychology, there are a few basic principles
that most cognitive psychologists agree with.
General Principles
1. Assumption of a limited capacity of the mental system.
This means that the amount of information that can be processed by the system is constrained in some very
important ways. Bottlenecks, or restrictions in the flow and processing of information, occur at very specific
points.
2. A control mechanism is required to oversee the encoding, transformation, processing, storage, retrieval
and utilization of information.
That is, not all of the processing capacity of the system is available; an executive function that oversees
this process will use up some of this capability. When one is learning a new task or is confronted with a new
environment, the executive function requires more processing power than when one is doing a routine task or is in
a familiar environment.
3. There is a two-way flow of information as we try to make sense of the world around us.
We constantly use information that we gather through the senses (often referred to as bottom-up
processing) and information we have stored in memory (often called top-down processing) in a dynamic process
as we construct meaning about our environment and our relations to it. This is somewhat analogous to the
difference between inductive reasoning (going from specific instances to a general conclusion) and deductive
reasoning (going from a general principle to specific examples.) A similar distinction can be made between using
information we derive from the senses and that generated by our imaginations.
A fourth principle generally accepted by cognitive psychologists is that the human organism has
been genetically prepared to process and organize information in specific ways. For example, a human infant is
more likely to look at a human face than any other stimulus. Given that the field of focus of a human infant is 12
to 18 inches, one can surmise that this is an important aspect of the infant's survival. Other research has
discovered additional biological predispositions to process information. For example, language development is
similar in all human infants regardless of language spoken by adults or the area in which they live (e.g., rural
versus urban, Africa versus Europe.) All human infants with normal hearing babble and coo, generate first words,
begin the use of telegraphic speech (e.g., ball gone), and overgeneralize (e.g., using "goed to the store" when they
had previously used "went to the store") at approximately the same ages. The issue of language development is an
area where cognitive and behavioral psychologists as well as cognitive psychologists with different viewpoints
have fought many battles regarding the processes underlying human behavior. Needless to say the disussion
continues.
Stage Model of Information Processing
One of the major issues in cognitive psychology is the study of memory. The dominant view is labeled the
"stage theory" and is based on the work of Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968).
This model proposes that information is processed and stored in 3 stages.
1. Sensory memory (STSS).
Sensory memory is affiliated with the transduction of energy (change from one energy from to another).
The environment makes available a variety of sources of information (light, sound, smell, heat, cold, etc.), but the
brain only understands electrical energy. The body has special sensory receptor cells that transduce (change from
one form of energy to another) this external energy to something the brain can understand. In the process of
transduction, a memory is created. This memory is very short (less than 1/2 second for vision; about 3 seconds for
hearing).
It is absolutely critical that the learner attend to the information at this initial stage in order to transfer it to
the next one. There are two major concepts for getting information into STM:
First, individuals are more likely to pay attention to a stimulus if it has an interesting feature. We are more
likely to get an orienting response if this is present.
Second, individuals are more likely to pay attention if the stimulus activates a known pattern. To the extent we
have students call to mind relevant prior learning before we begin our presentations, we can take advantage of this
principle.
2. Short-term memory (STM).
Short-term memory is also called working memory and relates to what we are thinking about at any given
moment in time. In Freudian terms, this is conscious memory. It is created by our paying attention to an external
stimulus, an internal thought, or both. It will initially last somewhere around 15 to 20 seconds unless it is repeated
(called maintenance rehearsal) at which point it may be available for up to 20 minutes. The hypothalamus is a
brain structure thought to be involved in this shallow processing of information. The frontal lobes of the cerebral
cortex is the structure associated with working memory. For example, you are processing the words you read on
the screen in your frontal lobes. However, if I ask, "What is your telephone number?" your brain immediately
calls that from long-term memory and replaces what was previously there.
Another major limit on information processing in STM is in terms of the number of units that can be
processed an any one time. Miller (1956) gave the number as 7 + 2, but more recent research suggests the number
may be more like 5 + 2 for most things we are trying to remember. Because of the variability in how much
individuals can work with (for some it may be three, for others seven) it is necessary to point out important
information. If some students can only process three units of information at a time, let us make certain it is the
most important three.
There are two major concepts for retaining information in STM: organization and repetition. There are
four major types of organization that are most often used in instructional design:
● Component (part/whole)--classification by category or concept (e.g., the components of
the teaching/learning model);
● Sequential -- chronological; cause/effect; building to climax (e.g., baking a cake, reporting on a research
study);
● Relevance -- central unifying idea or criteria (e.g., most important principles of learning for boys and
girls, appropriate management strategies for middle school and high school students);
● Transitional (connective) -- relational words or phrases used to indicate qualitative change over time
(e.g., stages in Piaget's theory of cognitive development or Erikson's stages of socioemotional
development)
A related issue to organization is the concept of chunking or grouping pieces of data into units. For
example, the letters "b d e" constitute three units of information while the word "bed" represents one unit even
though it is composed of the same number of letters. Chunking is a major technique for getting and keeping
information in short-term memory; it is also a type of elaboration that will help get information into long-term
memory.
Repetition or rote rehearsal is a technique we all use to try to "learn" something. However, in order to be
effective this must be done after forgetting begins. Researchers advise that the learner should not repeat
immediately the content (or skill), but wait a few minutes and then repeat. For the most part, simply memorizing
something does not lead to learning (i.e., relatively permanent change). We all have anecdotal evidence that we
can remember something we memorized (a poem for example), but just think about all the material we tried to
learn this way and the little we are able to remember after six months or a year.
3. Long-term memory (LTM).
Long-term memory is also called preconscious and unconscious memory in Freudian terms. Preconscious
means that the information is relatively easily recalled (although it may take several minutes or even hours) while
unconscious refers to data that is not available during normal consciousness. It is preconscious memory that is the
focus of cognitive psychology as it relates to long-term memory. The levels-of-processing theory, however, has
provided some research that attests to the fact that we "know" more than we can easily recall. The two processes
most likely to move information into long-term memory are elaboration and distributed practice (referred to as
periodic review in the direct instruction model).
There are several examples of elaboration that are commonly used in the teaching/learning process:
● imaging -- creating a mental picture;
● method of loci (locations)--ideas or things to be remembered are connected to objects located in a
familiar location;
● pegword method (number, rhyming schemes)--ideas or things to be remembered are connected to
specific words (e.g., one-bun, two-shoe, three-tree, etc.)
● Rhyming (songs, phrases)--information to be remembered is arranged in a rhyme (e.g., 30 days hath
September, April, June, and November, etc.)
● Initial letter--the first letter of each word in a list is used to make a sentence (the sillier, the better).
Organization (types) of knowledge
As information is stored in long-term memory, it is organized using one or more structures: declarative,
procedural, and/or imagery.
Declarative Memory (generally refers to information we can talk about)
● Semantic Memory-- facts and generalized information (mental representations, concepts,
principles, rules; problem-solving strategies; learning strategies)
o Schema / Schemata -- networks of connected ideas or relationships; data structures or
procedures for organizing the parts of a specific experience into a meaningful system (like a
standard or stereotype)
o Proposition -- interconnected set of concepts and relationships; if/then statements (smallest
unit of information that can be judged true or false)
o Script -- "declarative knowledge structure that captures general information about a routine
series of events or a recurrent type of social event, such as eating in a restaurant or visiting
the doctor" (Stillings et al., 1987)
o Frame -- complex organization including concepts and visualizations that provide a
reference within which stimuli and actions are judged (also called "Frame of Reference")
o Scheme -- an organization of concepts, principles, rules, etc. that define a perspective and
presents specific action patterns to follow
o Program -- set of rules that define what to do in a particular situation
o Paradigm -- the basic way of perceiving, thinking, valuing, and doing associated with a
particular vision of reality (Harman, 1970)
o Model -- a set of propositions or equations describing in simplified form some aspects of
our experience. Every model is based upon a theory or paradigm, but the theory or
paradigm may not be stated in concise form. (Umpleby in Principia Cybernetica Web, no
date)
● Episodic Memory-- personal experience (information in stories and analogies)
Procedural Memory-- how to (driving a car, riding a bike)
Imagery -- pictures
Concept formation
One of the most important issues in cognitive psychology is the development or formation of concepts. A
concept is the set of rules used to define the categories by which we group similar events, ideas or objects. There
are several principles that lend themselves to concept development:
● name and define concept to be learned (advance organizer)
a. reference to larger category
b. define attributes
● identify relevant and irrelevant attributes (guided discovery)
● give examples and nonexamples (tie to what is already known -- elaboration)
● use both inductive (example/experience --> definition) and deductive reasoning (definition --> examples)
● Name distinctive attributes (guided discovery)
USING THE INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH
IN THE CLASSROOM
Principle Example
1. Gain the students' attention. ● Use cues to signal when you are ready to begin.
● Move around the room and use voice inflections.
2. Bring to mind relevant prior ● Review previous day's lesson.
learning. ● Have a discussion about previously covered content.
3. Point out important information. ● Provide handouts.
● Write on the board or use transparencies.
4. Present information in an ● Show a logical sequence to concepts and skills.
organized manner. ● Go from simple to complex when presenting new material.
5. Show students how to categorize ● Present information in categories.
(chunk) related information. ● Teach inductive reasoning.
6. Provide opportunities for ● Connect new information to something already known.
students to elaborate on new ● Look for similarities and differences among concepts.
information.
7. Show students how to use coding ● Make up silly sentence with first letter of each word in the list.
when memorizing lists. ● Use mental imagery techniques such as the keyword method.
8. Provide for repetition of learning. ● State important principles several times in different ways during
presentation of information (STM).
● Have items on each day's lesson from previous lesson (LTM).
● Schedule periodic reviews of previously learned concepts and skills
(LTM).
9. Provide opportunities for ● Use daily drills for arithmetic facts.
overlearning of fundamental ● Play form of trivial pursuit with content related to class.
concepts and skills.
Retrieval and Forgetting
In retrieval, we search for information that is stored in our memory bank, the LTM. The ease of retrieval
depends on the type of memory used (semantic or episodic) and the time that has lapsed when the information
was stored in memory.
Retrieval is influenced by the serial position effect (memory is better for items at the beginning and end of
lists than in the middle), how effective retrieval cues are, encoding specificity, and the memory task (such as
recall versus recognition).
Forgetting can be explained in terms of cue-dependent forgetting (failure to use effective retrieval cues),
interference theory (because information gets in the way of what we are trying to remember) and decay (losing
information over time).
Mnemonics as Study Strategies
Recall of material that is stored in memory could be facilitated through the use of Mnemonics which are
memory aids for remembering information. Mnemonic strategies can be in the form of imagery and words. Some
types of mnemonics described by Santrock (2001) are:
1. Method of loci. In this procedure, children develop images of items to be remembered and mentally store
them in familiar locations, such as rooms of their house. When they need the information, they can
imagine the house, mentally go to the room and retrieve the information.
2. Rhymes. Common examples are the alphabet song and the month rule “Thirty days hath September, April,
June and November,. . . . “
3. Acronyms. This strategy involves creating a word from the first letters of items to be remembered. For
example for important characteristics of research problems it must be SMART – specific, measurable,
attainable, realistic and time-bound.
4. Keyword method- a strategy in which vivid imagery is attached to important words. For example, to teach
children that the famous chocolate hills is found in Bohol, they would be asked to attach the picture of
Hershey’s chocolate to the word Bohol.
Chunking is another method used to aid learning and storage of information by grouping together in chunks those
information that are similar or related to each other.
REFERENCES
1. Santrock, John W. (2001) Educational Psychology, New York: McGraw Hill, New York.
2. Woolfolk, Anita, E, (1998) Educational Psychology. Massachusetts: Allyn and Bacon.
On-line References:
https://explorable.com/cognitive-learning-theory
https://www.simplypsychology.org/information-processing.html
http://www.psychology.sunysb.edu/hwaters-/psy327/slide%20sets/327Set8a_AttentionMemory.pdf
https://lo.unisa.edu.au/mod/book/view.php?id=610988&chapterid=120209
http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cognition/infoproc.html
https://www.learnupon.com/blog/what-is-information-processing-theory/
