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core-8

*1. Economic and Political Crisis in 17th Century Europe*

*Economic Crisis:*
- *Agricultural Decline:* Poor harvests led to food shortages and famine.
- *Inflation:* The price revolution due to the influx of silver from the Americas caused high inflation.
- *Decline of Trade:* The Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648) disrupted trade routes and economies.
- *Plague and Population Decline:* The bubonic plague and wars reduced the population, affecting labor and productivity.
* The Little Ice Age: A period of colder temperatures led to agricultural failures, crop shortages, and famines. This resulted
in widespread hunger, disease, and social unrest.
* Inflation: The influx of precious metals from the Americas led to inflation, devaluing currency and causing economic
instability.
* Warfare: The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) and other conflicts devastated economies, disrupted trade, and drained state
treasuries.
* Trade Disruptions: Trade routes were disrupted by wars, piracy, and economic competition, further exacerbating
economic problems.
* Urban Crises: Rapid urbanization led to overcrowding, poverty, and social problems in cities.

Political Crisis:*
- *Absolute Monarchy vs. Parliamentary Struggles:* Monarchs tried to centralize power (e.g., France’s Louis XIV), leading
to conflicts with parliaments.
- *Revolts and Civil Wars:* Uprisings like the English Civil War (1642–1651) challenged monarchy.
- *Rise of Nation-States:* The decline of feudalism and the Treaty of Westphalia (1648) led to modern states. Rulers sought
to consolidate their power and build stronger states, leading to increased taxation, bureaucracy, and military expansion.
* Absolutism vs. Constitutionalism: The struggle between monarchs seeking absolute power and those advocating for
limited government and representative institutions was a central feature of the 17th century.
* Religious Conflicts: The Protestant Reformation had created deep religious divisions, leading to wars and persecution. The
Thirty Years' War was a prime example of this.
* Social Unrest: Economic hardship and political oppression led to widespread peasant revolts, urban riots, and other forms
of social unrest.
* The decline of the Holy Roman Empire: The 30 year war severely weakened the holy roman empire, and created the
environment for the rise of strong national states.

2. Causes and Consequences of the English Revolution (1642–1651)*

The English Revolution (1642-1651) was a pivotal event in English history, resulting in the overthrow of the monarchy and
the establishment of a republic.
*Causes:*
- *Conflict Between King and Parliament:* King Charles I believed in the divine right of kings, while Parliament wanted
more power. The Stuart monarchs, James I and Charles I, believed in the divine right of kings, which clashed with the
growing power of Parliament.
- *Religious Tensions:* The king’s policies angered Puritans and Protestants. Charles I's attempts to impose Anglicanism on
Scotland and his perceived sympathy for Catholicism alienated many Protestants.
- *Economic Issues:* High taxation and poor economic management. Charles I's attempts to raise taxes without
Parliament's consent created tension and resentment.
- *Failure to Compromise:* Charles I refused to limit his powers, leading to war.
* Parliamentary Power: Parliament sought to assert its authority and limit the king's power.
* The rise of puritanism: Puritans sought to "purify" the church of England, and many were members of parliament, and
held strong political views.

Consequences:*
- *Execution of Charles I (1649):* England became a republic under Oliver Cromwell. The king was tried and executed in
1649, a radical act that shocked Europe.
- *Rise of Parliamentary Power:* The monarchy was abolished temporarily.
- *Restoration of Monarchy (1660):* After Cromwell’s death, Charles II was restored to the throne.
- *Glorious Revolution (1688):* Limited the power of the monarchy, establishing constitutional monarchy. The revolution
laid the groundwork for the Glorious Revolution, which established a constitutional monarchy and enshrined the principle of
parliamentary sovereignty.
* Establishment of the Commonwealth: England became a republic, ruled by Parliament and later by Oliver Cromwell as
Lord Protector.
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* Increased Parliamentary Power: Parliament's power was significantly increased, and the principle of limited government
was established.

3. Development of Science in Europe (Renaissance to 17th Century)*

- *Scientific Revolution (16th–17th Century):* Shift from religious explanations to scientific reasoning.
- *Key Developments:*
- *Copernicus (1543):* Heliocentric model (sun-centered solar system).
- *Galileo (1609):* Telescope discoveries proving planetary motion.
- *Kepler (1619):* Laws of planetary motion.
- *Newton (1687):* Laws of motion and gravity.
- *Francis Bacon & René Descartes:* Developed the scientific method.

- *Impact:*
- *Weakened Church Authority:* Science challenged religious explanations.
- *Technological Advancements:* Innovations in medicine, physics, and astronomy.
- *Inspiration for the Enlightenment:* Reason and logic became dominant ideas.

4. Impact of Modern Science on European Society*

* Economic Impact:
* Technological Innovations: Scientific discoveries led to new technologies, such as the steam engine and improved
agricultural techniques.
* Increased Productivity: Scientific advancements contributed to increased productivity in agriculture and industry.
* Social Impact:
* Improved Medicine: Scientific advances led to improved medical knowledge and practices.
* Increased Literacy: The printing press and the spread of scientific knowledge contributed to increased literacy rates.
* Changing Worldview: Science challenged traditional social hierarchies and beliefs
* Led to industrial advancements, increasing production and trade.
- *Improved Medicine:* Discoveries in anatomy and vaccines increased life expectancy.
- *Technological Innovations:* Printing press, steam engine, and electrical discoveries transformed society.
- *Decline of Superstition:* Rational thought replaced myths and religious dogma.
- *Political Changes:* Inspired democratic ideals and revolutions (American, French).
* Intellectual Transformation:
* Shift from a Geocentric to a Heliocentric Worldview: This challenged traditional religious and philosophical beliefs.
* Emphasis on Reason and Observation: The scientific method promoted a rational and empirical approach to understanding
the world.
* Secularization: Science contributed to the gradual secularization of European society.

5. Mercantilism: Origin and Impact*

- An economic system where nations sought wealth through trade, colonies, and government regulation. Mercantilism was
an economic system that aimed to increase a nation's wealth and power by accumulating precious metals (gold and silver)
and maintaining a favorable balance of trade.

Origin:
- *16th–18th Century:* Developed in response to European expansion and colonization.
- *Key Countries:* England, France, Spain, and the Netherlands.
* Rise of Nation-States: The emergence of strong nation-states led to competition for wealth and power.
* Exploration and Colonization: The discovery of the Americas and other overseas territories provided new sources of
wealth.
* Belief in Finite Wealth: Mercantilists believed that the world's wealth was finite, leading to competition for resources.

*Principles of Mercantilism:*
- *Government Regulation:* State-controlled trade policies.
- *Export Surplus:* More exports than imports to accumulate gold and silver.
* Accumulation of Bullion: Nations sought to acquire gold and silver through trade and colonization.
* Favorable Balance of Trade: Exports should exceed imports to bring in more wealth.
* Protectionism: Governments imposed tariffs and other restrictions on imports to protect domestic industries.
* Colonial Exploitation: Colonies were seen as sources of raw materials and markets for manufactured goods. Colonies

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provided raw materials for European markets.
* State Intervention: Governments played a significant role in regulating trade and promoting economic development.

*Impact:*
- *Positive:*
* Growth of National Economies: Mercantilist policies contributed to the growth of national economies in some countries.
- Expansion of global trade and empires.
- Increased naval power.

- *Negative:*
* Colonial Rivalries: Mercantilism fueled competition between European powers for colonies and trade routes.
- High taxation and economic restrictions.
* The American Revolution: many of the policies enacted by the British, were Mercantilist policies, and contributed to the
revolution.
* Trade Wars: Protectionist policies led to trade wars and conflicts.

*6. Industrial Revolution: Role of Agriculture and Science*

Definition:*
- A period (1750–1850) of major technological advancements that shifted production from manual labor to machines. The
Industrial Revolution was a period of rapid technological innovation and economic growth, characterized by the shift from
hand production to machine production.

Role of Agriculture:*
- *Enclosure Movement (England):* Large farms replaced small peasant holdings.
- *Crop Rotation & Fertilizers:* Increased food production.
* Agricultural Revolution: Improvements in agricultural techniques, such as crop rotation and selective breeding, increased
food production.
* Enclosure Movement: The enclosure of common lands led to increased efficiency but also displaced many rural workers.
* Labor supply: The increased food production, and the enclosure movement, created a large pool of displaced farm
workers that moved to cities, and supplied labor for the new factories.

Role of Science:*
- *Steam Engine (James Watt):* Revolutionized transportation and production.
- *Textile Machines (Spinning Jenny, Power Loom):* Increased fabric production.
- *Iron & Steel Production:* Led to railways, bridges, and machinery.
* Technological Innovations: Scientific discoveries led to the development of new machines, such as the steam engine, the
power loom, and the spinning jenny.
* Engineering Advancements: Scientific principles were applied to engineering, leading to improvements in transportation
and communication.
* New Materials: Chemistry advances allowed for new materials to be created.

7. Causes of the 1776 American Revolution*

*Economic Causes:*
- *High Taxes:* Britain imposed heavy taxes (Stamp Act, Sugar Act). Colonists resented British taxes, such as the Stamp
Act and the Townshend Acts,
- *Trade Restrictions:* Mercantilist policies limited colonial trade.
- *Economic Exploitation:* Colonies supplied raw materials but had to buy expensive British goods.
* Mercantilist Policies: British mercantilist policies, such as the Navigation Acts, restricted colonial trade and benefited
British merchants.

Political Causes:*
- *Lack of Representation:* Colonists had no voice in British Parliament.
- *British Control:* Laws like the Quartering Act forced colonists to support British troops.
- *Royal Tyranny:* King George III’s refusal to negotiate with the colonies.

Social Causes:*
- *Enlightenment Ideas:* Inspired by John Locke and Rousseau, people demanded democracy.

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- *National Identity:* Colonists began seeing themselves as Americans, not British.
- *Religious Freedom:* Many sought escape from religious control.

8. The 1776 American Revolution*

Major Events:*
1. *Boston Tea Party (1773):* Protest against British taxation.
2. *Declaration of Independence (July 4, 1776):* Written by Thomas Jefferson, declaring freedom from Britain.
3. *Revolutionary War (1775–1783):* Colonists fought against British forces.
4. *Treaty of Paris (1783):* Britain recognized American independence.

Consequences:*
- *Political:* Birth of the USA as a democratic republic.
- *Economic:* End of British economic control, growth of American trade.
- *Social:* Inspired other revolutions (French Revolution 1789).

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