Lesson 3
The Moral Agent
Elements of Moral Agent The Church
- helps the individual acquire self-confidence,
Training of the Intellect moral and identity that would influence his
To seek the purpose and time end of life. goals, values and convictions.
To grasp universal truths.
To understand and reason out truths and moral The Government
precepts and relate them to life. - it promotes economic and socio-cultural well-
To make judgements based on an objective being of the people. It administers justice,
standard of morality. fairness; promotes progress and development,
To analyze the cause and effect of decisions security and protection.
and behavior.
To solve problems critically and rationally. The Workplace
- in the contemporary world, high technology
Formation of the Will and computerization have important roles in
To love the Supreme Being and neighbor. the conduct of employees and workers in the
To choose the higher good/universal truths and workplace.
moral values.
To act upon a decision
To take the rational and logical consequences Cultural Relativism
of a decision and act.
To make responsible use of freedom. Cultural Relativism
To exercise self-discipline and control the - idea that a person’s beliefs, values and
emotions practices should be understood based on the
To persevere, sustain and commit. person’s own culture rather than be judged
To change and improve. against the criteria of another culture.
To practice virtues and good moral habits
Strengths of Cultural Relativism
It is a system which promotes cooperation.
Providers of Moral Behavior It creates a society where equality is possible.
People can pursue a genuine interest.
Culture Respect is encouraged in a system of cultural
derived from Latin word “cultus” which means relativism.
“care” – a care and attention provided to a It preserves human cultures.
human person as he grows into a mature Cultural relativism creates a society without
person. judgment.
According to a theorist, Allan G. Johnson, Moral relativism can be excluded from cultural
culture is the sum of symbols, ideas, forms of relativism.
experience, and material products associated We can create personal moral codes based on
with a social system. societal standards with ease.
It stops cultural conditioning.
Two Types of Culture Weaknesses of Cultural Relativism
It creates a system that is fueled by personal
Material Culture bias.
- refers to the concrete and tangible things that It would create chaos.
man creates and uses. It is an idea that is based on the perfection of
humanity.
Non-Material Culture It could promote a lack of diversity.
- refers things or intangible objects that a person It draws people away from one another.
uses follows, professes and other things that he It could limit moral and humanity’s progress.
strives to conform with. Cultural relativism can turn perceptions into
truths.
Providers of Moral Behavior in a Culture
Universal Values
The Family
- is said to be the smallest unit of society that Universal Values
plays a vital role in the development of - the same value for all, same worth for all or for
personality and values formation of children. almost all people.
The School Universal Values in Two Different Ways
- helps preserve, perpetuate, modify and 1. It could be that something has a universal
integrate the conditions of human life by value when everybody finds it valuable.
promoting teachings and learnings. 2. When all people have reason to believe it has
value.
Ten Broad Value Domains
Shalom Schwartz (2014) Lawrence Kohlberg (Levels of Moral Reasoning)
Lawrence Kohlberg (1958) agreed with Piaget's
1. Self-Direction (1932) theory of moral development in
- independent thought and action–choosing, principle but wanted to develop his ideas
creating, exploring. further.
Kohlberg identified three distinct levels of
2. Stimulation moral reasoning:
- excitement, novelty, and challenge in life. o pre-conventional
o conventional
3. Hedonism o post-conventional.
- pleasure or sensuous gratification for oneself. Each level has two sub-stages.
4. Achievement
- personal success through demonstrating Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development
competence according to social standards.
Level 1 - Pre-Conventional Morality (most 9 years
5. Power old – below)
- social status and prestige, control or Stage 1
dominance over people and resources. o Obedience and Punishment Orientation
Stage 2
6. Security o Individualism and Exchange
- safety, harmony, and stability of society, of
relationships, and of self. Level 2 – Conventional Morality (most adolescents
and adults)
7. Conformity Stage 3
- restraint of actions, inclinations, and impulses o Good Interpersonal Relationships.
likely to upset or harm others and violate social Stage 4
expectations or norms. o Maintaining the Social Order.
8. Tradition Level 3 – Post-Conventional Morality
- respect, commitment, and acceptance of the Stage 5
customs and ides that one’s culture or religion o Social Contract and Individual Rights.
provides. Stage 6
o Universal Principles.
9. Benevolence
- preserving and enhancing the welfare of those
with whom one is in frequent personal contact
Problems with Kohlberg's Methods
(the ‘in-group’).
The dilemmas are artificial (i.e., they lack
10. Universalism
ecological validity)
- understanding, appreciation, tolerance, and
Most of the dilemmas are unfamiliar to most
protection for the welfare of all people and for
people (Rosen, 1980).
nature.
Kohlberg’s subjects were aged between 10 and
16.
Development of Moral Character
The sample is biased
According to Gilligan (1977), because
Aristotle (Nichomachean Ethics)
Kohlberg’s theory was based on an all-male
focused on the importance of development and
sample, the stages reflect a male definition of
behavior among virtuous characters.
morality (it’s androcentric). Men’s' morality is
introduced the word “Eudaimonia,” which is
based on abstract principles of law and justice,
relative to the how a moral character develops.
while women’s' is based on principles of
compassion and care.
Confucius (Analects)
prominent figure that has been relative to the
The dilemmas are hypothetical (i.e., they are not
modern development of a moral character.
real)
kindness of human rather than spiritual
Would subjects reason in the same way if they
concepts.
were placed in a real situation? We just don’t
know.
Plato (in Apology, Phaedo)
People may respond very differently to real life
“Apology” means “legal defense of trial.”
situations
A soul is part of a life, whereas, the soul
determines the things we do every day.
Poor research design
“Phaedo” illustrates important arguments for
His research was cross-sectional, meaning that
personal immortality.
he interviewed children of different ages to see
soul is “something”, rather than a sense of
what level of moral development they were at.
“harmony.”
A better way to see if all children follow the
same order through the stages would have
been to carry out longitudinal research on the
same children.
Problems with Kohlberg's Theory
Are there distinct stages of moral development?
Kohlberg claims that there are, but the
evidence does not always support this
conclusion. For example, a person who justified
a decision on the basis of principled reasoning
in one situation (post-conventional morality
stage 5 or 6) would frequently fall back on
conventional reasoning (stage 3 or 4) with
another story.
Does moral judgment match moral behavior?
Kohlberg never claimed that there would be a
one-to-one correspondence between thinking
and acting (what we say and what we do) but
he does suggest that the two are linked.
Is justice the most fundamental moral principle?
This is Kohlberg’s view. However, Gilligan
(1977) suggests that the principle of caring for
others is equally important. Furthermore,
Kohlberg claims that the moral reasoning of
males has been often in advance of that of
females.
