REVIEWER Idiographic Approach- Approach to interobserver reliability and

psychology that is concerned with replicability

FTC 1 individual differences among people,
Parsimony Preference for the simplest
WHY DO I NEED TO STUDY FTC 1? FTC Developmental Function -The form scientific explanation for a
1 is not just a random subject that you that development takes over time phenomenon
have to go through college just
because. It is an important subject Nature/Nurture -Debate concerning Structured Interviews- Interviews in
mainly because it will help you the degree to which biology (nature) which participants are asked a set of
understand yourself better, how and experience (nurture) influences standardized questions under
childhood influenced our personality the development of any psychological conditions in which the researcher can
today and a lot more. Another characteristic and its development control extraneous factors that may
important reason is because as future Empiricism -Philosophical perspective influence a child's behavior
educators you will have to understand that nature provides only species-
Clinical Interviews- Interviews, used
the developmental milestones of your general learning mechanisms, with
extensively by Piaget, in which the
students. Basically, this subject can cognition arising as a result of
examiner probes a child's knowledge
help you understand your future experience
about a given topic
students better and in a more efficient Developmental Systems Theory The
manner. Questionnaires- A form of self-
perspective that development is not
reports, in which participants respond
TERMINOLOGIES simply "produced" by genes, nor
to a series of questions designed to get
constructed by the environment, but
Development- Predictable changes at some specific aspect of people's
emerges from the continuous,
that occur in structure or function over behavior, thinking, or feelings
bidirectional interaction between all
the life span levels of biological and environmental Observational Studies -Studies in
factors which researchers identify a type of
Ontogeny- Development of the
individual over his or her lifetime behavior they are interested in and
Epigenesis The emergence of new
observe children in specific situations
structures and functions during course
Phylogeny -Evolution of the species for the incidence of those behaviors.
of development
Child Study Movement -Social Case Study -Detailed description of a
Preformationism -The idea that
movement begun in the United States single individual made by an expert
development is just the expression of
around 1900 that proposed the observer
previously fully formed structures
systematic application of science
principles to the study of children Correlational Studies -Type of study
Structure- In development
that examines two or more factors to
psychology, a substrate of the
Stability In development psychology, determine if changes in one are
organism that develops, such as
the degree to which a person associated with changes in another
muscle, nervous tissue, or mental
maintains over time the same rank
knowledge Experimental Studies- Type of studies
order in comparison with peers for a
particular characteristic in which a researcher manipulates one
Function- In developmental
or more factors, then observes how
psychology, action related to a
Plasticity or Neuroplasticity The these manipulations change the
structure, such as movement of a
extent to which behavior or brain behavior under investigation
muscle, nerve firing, or the activation
functioning can be changed
of a mental representation. Independent Variables- In
Discontinuity versus Continuity of
Development The scientific debate experimental studies, the factors, or
Sensitive Period The time in
over whether developmental change is variables, that are modified to see
development (usually early in life)
gradual (continuous) or relatively their effect on the dependent, or
when a certain skill or ability can be
abrupt (discontinuous) outcome, variables
most easily acquired
Normative Approach- Approach in Dependent Variables- The "outcome"
Validity The extent to which a
psychology concerned with features variable, or behavior, that is being
measurement accurately assesses
that all people have in common studied
what it purports to measure
Quasi-Experimental- Studies Studies
Reliability The trustworthiness of a
in which assignment of participants to
research finding; includes
conditions is not made at random (e.x. and females and becomes aware of A learned response is called a
males vs females) sexuality. “conditioned” response.

Naturalistic Studies- Studies in which LANTENCY 7-11 – the child

continues hid or her development but LITTLE ALBERT AND JOHN B. WATSON
the researcher observes individuals in
their own environments, interviewing sexual urges are relatively quite.
as little as possible. GENETAL 11-adult – the growing American psychologist John B Watson
adolescent shakes off old dependencies was influenced by Pavlov’s work on
Longitudinal Studies Type of classical conditioning. In 1913,
and learns to deal maturely with thw
developmental studies that assesses opposite sex. Watson published a paper in
developmental change by following a the Psychological Review titled
person or group of people over a long THE BEHAVIORAL ‘Psychology as the Behaviourist Views
period of time Cross-sectional Studies PERSPECTIVE It’, now seen as the original
Type of developmental studies that ‘behaviourist manifesto’.
compares different individuals of The behavioral perspective is the
different ages at the same point in psychological approach that suggests Thorndike, Skinner and operant
time that the keys to understanding conditioning
development are observable behavior
Cross-sequential Approach -Type of and external stimuli in the
developmental studies that combines environment. Operant conditioning is a form of
learning where one learns to change
aspects of crosssectional and
behaviour in order to achieve
longitudinal Behaviorism emerged early in the 20th favourable outcomes. This is not a
century and became a major force in reflexive behaviour that is
Cohort Effects The psychological American psychology. Championed by automatically elicited by something.
effects associated with being a psychologists such as John B. Watson This is a volitional behaviour:
member of a group born at a particular (1878–1958) and B. F. Skinner (1904– purposefully produced behaviour.
time (e.x. a generation) and place; 1990), behaviorism rejected any
reference to mind and viewed overt
Microgenetic Studies Studies and observable behavior as the proper Thorndike and the ‘Law of effect’
assessing some target behaviors of subject matter of psychology. Through
participants repeatedly over relatively the scientific study of behavior, it was Operant conditioning started with
short intervals of time, usually days or hoped that laws of learning could be Edward Lee Thorndike and what he
weeks. derived that would promote the called in his PhD thesis the ‘Law of
prediction and control of behavior. effect’. In the law of effect, there’s a
SIGMUND FREUDS STAGES OF Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov focus on the importance of the
PSYCHOSEXUAL (1849–1936) influenced early consequences of behaviour on
DEVELOPMENT behaviorism in America. learning.
According to Freud’s psychosexual CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
theory of development, people move (Ivan Pavlov) Classical conditioning mostly (but not
through a series of stages in which always) occurs because a
they confront conflicts between Classical conditioning is a form of stimulus precedes an involuntary resp
biological urges and social associative learning. Associative onse. In contrast, operant
expectations. learning is more complex than non- conditioning is often (but not always)
associative learning. We know the about associating
Freud’s psychosexual Stage of a voluntary behaviour and
Development basis of associative learning as classical
a consequence. In other words, in
conditioning (CC), the simplest form of
classical conditioning the stimulus
ORAL 0-2 – Infant achieves associative learning.
gratification through oral activities comes first and we respond by reflex.
such as feeding, thumb sucking and In operant condition we make an
babbling. This form of learning was proposed by intentional action, knowing a stimulus
Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) who was a event reliably follows.
ANAL 2-3 – the child learns to respond Russian scientist and studied salivation
to some of the demands of society (production of saliva) in dogs as a SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY
(such as bowel and bladder control). response to stimuli that the dogs were (ALBERT BANDURA)
presented with. It was Pavlov who
PHALLIC 3-7 – the child learns to
realize the difference between males discovered what he called
the conditioned reflex.
Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), a sudden’ through understanding ational, concrete
originally known as the Social Learning relationships to various parts of a operational and formal operation ,
Theory (SLT), began in the 1960s problem, rather than through trial and
through research done by Albert error. Sensorimotor (0-2 years)
Bandura. The theory proposes
that learning occurs in The sensorimotor period is mainly
Insight learning was proposed by based on the sensory functions,
a social context. It takes into Wolfgang Kohler based on
consideration the dynamic and where the child interacts with the
experiments he conducted with a
reciprocal interaction of the person, world with their senses (taste, touch,
chimpanzee named Sultan. Kohler
environment, and their own behavior. outlined four stages: sight or smell) gathering cognitive
information.
If the model was reinforced for their • Preparation: The problem is too During this stage, the major gain is the
behaviour, the observer will be more difficult to be solved. Time is spent development of object permanence:
motivated to reproduce it. This is gathering information.
known as vicarious conditioning.
• Incubation: The problem is ‘put on Preoperational (2-6 years)
hold’ but worked on unconsciously.
In vicarious conditioning a person • Insight: Suddenly, a mental There is a great amount of cognitive,
learns the consequences of an action representation of a solution to the physical and social development
by observing its consequences for problem. during the preoperational stage.
someone else. • Verification: The solution to the
During this stage, the major gain
problem is checked to see if it does
is language:
Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment indeed work.
Concrete operational (7-11 years)
JEAN PIAGET’S COGNITIVE
In the experiment, a model acted THEORY OF The main gain during the Concrete
aggressively towards a doll while a DEVELOPMENT
operational stage is that children are
child watched. In one condition of the
Brain development, through the able to understand concrete
experiment, the model was punished for
her bad behaviour. formation of synaptic connections, operations such as mathematical
underlies the development of operation (add and subtract numbers)
cognitive skills. and social operation (greeting
LEARNED HELPLESSNESS AND
LEARNED OPTIMISM (EDWARD someone or introducing themselves).
Assimilation and accommodation
C. TOLMAN)
Formal operational (12+ years)
Assimilation relates to finding new
Through the course of your life if you experiences or mental cognitions that At the formal operational stage,
have repeated success at controlling a fit with your existing schemas, children can think logically about
particular event, it is likely that you will requiring very little mental effort or abstract ideas and engage in
develop a sense of mastery and perhaps change. hypothetical thinking. Children also
a positive view of the world, otherwise learn about social institutions and
known as learned optimism. Accommodation involves changing or
moderating your existing schemas to begin to question the purpose and
fit new information. function of those institutions. The
On the contrary, if you find that your main gains are abstract reasoning and
attempts at controlling an event over Piaget maintained that the brain tried to Theory of Mind.
time consistently fails to succeed, then achieve a sense of equilibrium, to
you may develop a sense of learned exist in harmony with its environment ZONE OF PROXIMAL
helplessness. and reduce disequilibrium (cognitive DEVELOPMENT (LEV
conflict). VYGOTSKY)
Learned helplessness is not limited to Equilibrium is achieved, where Adapting Piaget’s theory
harsh experiments and can arise in there’s harmony with the environment
everyday life. and there’s a new understanding of the One of Piaget’s contemporaries was
world. Vygotsky, who believed that children’s
development occurred more through
INSIGHT LEARNING Jean Piaget proposed that children the basis of social interactions. He
(WOLFGANG KOHLER) move through distinct stages of conceptualised children as
cognitive ‘apprentices’ rather than scientists’ and
Insight learning is a type of learning development: sensorimotor, preoper believed that children were a little more
or problem solving that happens ‘all of passive and learned by watching (more
experienced individuals) rather than by Authority is outside the individual and good of the greatest number, there are
doing. reasoning is based on the physical times when they will work against the
consequences of actions. interest of particular individuals.
Vygotsky developed the concept
of ‘Zone of Proximal Development’, • Stage 1. Obedience and The issues are not always clear-cut. For
which describes the difference Punishment Orientation. The example, in Heinz’s dilemma, the
child/individual is good in order to protection of life is more important
between what a child can do on their
avoid being punished. If a person is than breaking the law against stealing.
own and what they can do with some punished, they must have done wrong.
assistance. • Stage 6. Universal Principles.
• Stage 2. Individualism and People at this stage have developed
This help is known as ‘scaffolding’, Exchange. At this stage, children their own set of moral guidelines which
where the individual is assisted by an recognize that there is not just one right may or may not fit the law. The
expert or someone who is more view that is handed down by the principles apply to everyone.
cognitively developed. authorities. Different individuals have
different viewpoints. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive
Piaget believed that there are four Development
different stages of learning:
Level 2 - Conventional morality Piaget’s Second Stage: The
The first is the sensorimotor stage. Preoperational Stage
The second is the preoperational At the conventional level (most
stage, followed by the third, which is adolescents and adults), we begin to Piaget‘s second stage of cognitive
the concrete operational stage, and internalize the moral standards of development is called the
finally the last, known as the formal valued adult role models. preoperational stage and coincides
operational stage. with ages 2-7 (following the
Authority is internalized but not
sensorimotor stage). The word
Piaget’s belief was that children self- questioned, and reasoning is based on
operation refers to the use of logical
initiate this learning and their the norms of the group to which the
rules, so sometimes this stage is
development, so it is completely self- person belongs.
misinterpreted as implying that
contained within the child.
• Stage 3. Good Interpersonal children are illogical.
This phenomenon is known as the zone Relationships. The child/individual is
good in order to be seen as being a good Pretend Play
of proximal development, the state of
learning where information or skills person by others. Therefore, answers
Pretending is a favorite activity at this
cannot be acquired on one’s own, but relate to the approval of others.
time.
with the help of others.
• Stage 4. Maintaining the Social
Order. The child/individual becomes Egocentrism
Vygotsky didn’t quite believe so
much in self-initiated development, aware of the wider rules of society, so Egocentrism in early childhood refers
but his conviction was that the socio- judgments concern obeying the rules in
to the tendency of young children to
cultural environment of an order to uphold the law and to avoid
think that everyone sees things in the
individual is fundamental to their guilt.
same way as the child.
development.
Level 3 - Post-conventional morality Precausal Thinking
STAGES OF MORAL
DEVELOPMENT (LAWRENCE Similar to preoperational children‘s
Individual judgment is based on self-
KOHLBERG) egocentric thinking is their structuring
chosen principles, and moral reasoning
is based on individual rights and of cause-and-effect relationships
Kohlberg identified three distinct
justice. According to Kohlberg this based on their limited view of the
levels of moral reasoning: pre-
conventional, conventional, and level of moral reasoning is as far as world. Piaget coined the term
post-conventional. Each level has most people get. ―precausal thinking‖ to describe the
two sub-stages. way in which preoperational children
Only 10-15% are capable of the kind of use their own existing ideas or views,
abstract thinking necessary for stage 5
like in egocentrism, to explain cause-
Level 1 - Pre-conventional morality or 6 (post-conventional morality). That
and-effect relationships. Three main
is to say, most people take their moral
concepts of causality, as displayed by
At the pre-conventional level (most views from those around them and only
a minority think through ethical children in the preoperational stage,
nine-year-olds and younger, some over
nine), we don’t have a personal code of principles for themselves. include animism, artificialism, and
morality. Instead, our moral code is transductive reasoning.
shaped by the standards of adults and • Stage 5. Social Contract and
Individual Rights. The Animism is the belief that inanimate
the consequences of following or
child/individual becomes aware that objects are capable of actions and
breaking their rules.
while rules/laws might exist for the have lifelike qualities.
Artificialism refers to the belief that Overregularization Children learn the Self-control is not a single
environmental characteristics can be rules of grammar as they learn the phenomenon, but is multi-facetted. It
attributed to human actions or language. includes response initiation, the
interventions. ability to not initiate a behavior before
VYGOTSKY AND LANGUAGE
Transductive reasoning is when a child DEVELOPMENT you have evaluated all of the
fails to understand the true information, response inhibition, the
Vygotsky's theories stress the ability to stop a behavior that has
relationships between cause and
fundamental role of social interaction already begun, and delayed
effect.
in the development of cognition gratification, the ability to hold out for
syncretism, which refers to a tendency (Vygotsky, 1978), as he believed
a larger reward by forgoing a smaller
to think that if two events occur strongly that community plays a
immediate reward (Dougherty, Marsh,
simultaneously, one caused the other. central role in the process of "making
meaning." Mathias, & Swann, 2005).
Cognition Errors
Lev Vygotsky hypothesized that Gender Identity, Gender Constancy
Between about the ages of four and children had a zone of proximal and Gender Roles
seven, children tend to become very development (ZPD). The ZPD is the
curious and ask many questions, Another important dimension of the
range of material that a child is ready
beginning the use of primitive self is the sense of self as male or
to learn if proper support and
reasoning. There is an increase in guidance are given from either a peer female. Preschool aged children
curiosity in the interest of reasoning who understands the material or by an become increasingly interested in
and wanting to know why things are adult. finding out the differences between
the way they are. Piaget called it the boys and girls both physically and in
“intuitive substage” because children The process of scaffolding is one in terms of what activities are acceptable
realize they have a vast amount of which the guide provides needed for each
knowledge, but they are unaware of assistance to the child as a new skill is
how they acquired it. learned. Freud and the phallic stage: Freud
believed that masculinity and
Centration and conservation are Private Speech
femininity were learned during the
characteristic of preoperative thought.
Vygotsky, however, believed that phallic stage or psychosexual
Centration is the act of focusing all
attention on one characteristic or children talk to themselves in order to development.
dimension of a situation while solve problems or clarify thoughts. As
children learn to think in words, they Chodorow and mothering: Chodorow,
disregarding all others.
do so aloud before eventually closing a neo Freudian, believed that
Conservation is the awareness that their lips and engaging in private mothering promotes gender
altering a substance‘s appearance speech or inner speech stereotypic behavior. Mothers push
does not change its basic properties. their sons away too soon and direct
Erikson: Initiative vs. Guilt
their attention toward problem-
CHILDREN’S EMERGING “THEORY OF
The trust and autonomy of previous solving and independence
MIND”
stages develop into a desire to take
Learning through reinforcement and
The theory of mind is the initiative or to think of ideas and
understanding that the mind holds modeling: Learning theorists suggest
initiative action (Erikson, 1982).
people‘s beliefs, desires, emotions, that gender role socialization is a result
and intentions. Self-Concept and Self-Esteem Early of the ways in which parents, teachers,
childhood is a time of forming an initial friends, schools, religious institutions,
Theory of Mind and Social Intelligence media and others send messages
sense of self. Self-concept is our self-
This awareness of the existence of description according to various about what is acceptable or desirable
mind is part of social intelligence and categories, such as our external and behavior as males or females.
the ability to recognize that others can internal qualities. In contrast, self-
• During the early years of
think differently about situations. esteem is an evaluative judgment
childhood, especially the first
about who we are.
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT A child‘s three, babies and young children
vocabulary expands between the ages This focus on external qualities is learn more quickly and develop
of two to six from about 200 words to referred to as the categorical self more rapidly than at any other
over 10,000 words through a process time, particularly if they receive
called fast-mapping. Self-Control love and affection, attention,
encouragement and mental
 stimulation, as well as nutritious how well these styles describe parents Physical Growth: Biological
meals and good healthcare. crossculturally. Each parenting style Changes
• Psycho-social and cognitive varies in at least four areas: discipline
development sit at the front end style, communication, nurturance, and On average, children grow about 2 to 3
of a lifetime of human expectations. inches taller per year, and they gain
development, in which children about 5 to 7 pounds per year
Baumrind Parenting Styles: Four (Kliegman, R.M., Stanton, B., St. Geme,
learn to handle ever more
Types of Parenting J., & Schor, N., 2016). By the end of this
complex levels of thinking, feeling
and relating to others stage, girls are usually taller than their
Authoritarian Parenting-Authoritarian
• The most important way children male counterparts.
parents are often thought of as
develop and learn is through disciplinarians. ➢ Baby fat decreases as children’s
interaction with others. The more bodies become stronger and
often parents and caregivers talk • They use a strict discipline style with
more muscular. In addition,
and respond to the child, the little negotiation possible. Punishment
baby teeth begin to fall out and
quicker he or she learns. is common.
are replaced by permanent
• Boys and girls have the same teeth, and bones grow longer
• Communication is mostly one way:
physical, mental, emotional and and stronger through the
from parent to child.
social needs. Both have the same ossification process.
capacity for learning. And both Permissive Parenting - Permissive or ➢ Children in middle childhood
have the same need for affection, Indulgent parents mostly let their also demonstrate improved
attention and approval. children do what they want, and offer motor skills due to increasing
• Play is key to learning and limited guidance or direction. body maturation and basic
development. Playing builds practice. By the time that
children's knowledge and • Their discipline style is the opposite
children enter elementary
experience and helps develop of strict. They have limited or no rules
school, they have mastered
their curiosity and confidence.
• Communication is open but these gross motor skills such as
• Play is key to learning and running, jumping, climbing,
parents let children decide for
development. Playing builds jumping rope, and bicycle riding
themselves rather than giving
children's knowledge and (Cratty, 1986). Historically, boys
direction.
experience and helps develop have outperformed girls in
their curiosity and confidence. Uninvolved Parenting - Uninvolved gross motor skills that involve
• All children need a variety of parents give children a lot of freedom the large muscles.
simple materials to play with that and generally stay out of their way.
are suitable for their stage of BRAIN DEVELOPMENT . The
development. • No particular discipline style is
brain development that begins
utilized. An uninvolved parent lets a
Parenting style refers to the in early childhood continues in
child mostly do what he wants,
combination of strategies that parents probably out of a lack of information or middle childhood, with the most
use to raise their children. The work of significant advances occurring in
caring.
the prefrontal cortex (Gogtay &
Diane Baumrind in the 1960s created • Communication is limited.
one commonly-referenced Thompson, 2010)
categorization of parenting styles. Authoritative Parenting -
Authoritative parents are reasonable ➢ By the time that children turn 8-
The four Baumrind parenting styles and nurturing, and set high, clear years-old, the brain has become
have distinct names and expectations. extremely interconnected.
characteristics: ➢ Other neurological
• Disciplinary rules are clear and the developments include faster
• Authoritarian or Disciplinarian reasons behind them are explained. reaction time, which improves
• Permissive or Indulgent • Communication is frequent and children‘s ability to plan ahead
appropriate to the child‘s level of and to control their impulses. In
• Uninvolved addition, children are better
understanding.
able to engage in selective
• Authoritative
attention; this means that they
These Baumrind parenting styles are can concentrate on a specific
United States-centric and it is not clear stimulus while ignoring others.
 ➢ A new brain function that is Specific learning disorder (or learning THEORIES OF MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
developed in middle childhood disability) is characterized by a (Piaget and Vygotsky) Piaget
is automatization, and this is noticeable deficit in a certain area of described middle childhood as a time
particularly helpful in this learning that is not attributed to a of concrete operational thought. The
period as children are learning physical or intellectual disability. In word operational has its roots in Latin,
how to read. (htt1) addition, this deficit must also not be where it originally meant “to produce
caused by an abnormally stressful or work” and this reflects the
HEALTH PROBLEMS
home environment. development of productive thinking
A common health problem is that is characteristic of this age.
There are three types of learning
childhood obesity; it is estimated that
disabilities: dyslexia, dysgraphia, and INFORMATION PROCESSING
18% of U.S. children in this stage of
dyscalculia. THEORY Developed by American
development are obese (Ogden, et al.,
2012). Similarly, a less extreme but still Dyslexia is a learning disability that psychologists including George Miller
serious problem is overweight impairs reading ability. in the 1950s, Information Processing
children. Causes of childhood obesity Theory has in recent years compared
and overweight children can be Dysgraphia impacts handwriting and the human brain to a computer. The
attributed to hereditary and fine motor skills. ‘input‘ is the information we give to
environmental factors. the computer - or to our brains - while
Dyscalculia makes math difficult.
the CPU is likened to our short-term
➢ Environmental factors include (ADDitude) Of the three types, dyslexia
memory, and the hard-drive is our
easy access to food with a high fat is the most common.
long-term memory.
content, overfeeding, and parents ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY
modeling poor eating habits. DISORDER (ADHD) Information Processing Theory is a
Likewise, children spend less time cognitive theory that focuses on how
being physical active and more Attention Deficit Hyperactivity information is encoded into our
time using electronics. Disorder (ADHD) is a disorder in which memory.
there is an enduring pattern of
Weight Problems and Obesity in inattention and/or hyperactivity or The premise of Information
Children impulsivity. Processing Theory is that creating a
long-term memory is something that
The number of children who are obese AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER happens in stages; first we perceive
or overweight is growing at an something through our sensory
alarming rate. Extra pounds put kids at Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is
memory, which is everything we can
risk of serious health problems, arguably the most troubling disorder
see, hear, feel or taste in a given
including diabetes, heart disease, and that impacts children with special
moment; our short-term memory is
asthma needs.
what we use to remember things for
➢ Medically, the consequences for According to the Centers for Disease very short periods, like a phone
being overweight include the risk Control and Prevention (CDC), around number; and long-term memory is
of diabetes, hypertension, high 1 in 68 children were diagnosed with stored permanently in our brains.
cholesterol, asthma, and ASD in 2010. Children with ASD have (Lawless, 2019)
orthopedic issues. Psychologically, significant trouble engaging in social
MIDDLE CHILDHOOD:
obese and overweight children communication and interaction,
including problems understanding PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
may struggle with poor self-
esteem, rejection, loneliness, other people’s emotions and point of Developmental maturity is evident
depression, and low academic view. Additionally, their conduct, when looking at children‘s brains,
achievement (Harris et al., 2012). hobbies, or activities follow a limited, cognitive functioning, experiences,
➢ Asthma is another major health repetitive pattern. Boys are about five and sense of responsibility.
problem in this period. times more likely to be diagnosed
with ASD than girls (CDC, 2012). As children begin to master various
➢ . Children with this condition often
skills and become more independent,
experience wheezing, shortness ➢ Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is they enter into Erikson’s fourth stage:
of breath, and coughing. a group of developmental industry versus inferiority.
LEARNING DISORDERS disabilities that can cause
significant social, communication ➢ Erikson's fourth stage in which
and behavioral challenges. children are striving to master a
 multitude of skills and establishing and nation (income support, Children‘s moral judgment undergoes
a sense of themselves grounded in health care) are crucial. notable changes in the middle
either competence and ➢ 2010 Strengths vary by culture childhood years. The moral standards
industriousness or inferiority and and national values. Both that children chose to adopt are
incapableness. universal needs and local shaped by their culture, parents, and
variations must be recognized and experiences
Dominant Ideas About respected.
Resiliance, 1965-Present ➢ 2012 Genes, family structures, and Lawrence Kohlberg (1963) expanded
cultural practices can be either upon Piaget’s stages of moral thinking
➢ 1965 All children have the same and proposed the following distinct
strengths or weaknesses.
needs for healthy development. levels of moral reasoning:
Differential sensitivity means
➢ 1970 Some conditions or preconventional, conventional, and
identical stressors can benefit one
circumstances - such as "absent
child and harm another. postconventional.
father," "teenage mother,"
"working mom," and "day care" - FAMILY INFLUENCE ADOLESCENCE: BIOSOCIAL
are harmful for every child. DEVELOPMENT
➢ 1975 All children are not the The impact of one‘s environment
same. Some children are resilient, varies from child to child and depends
Adolescence is a time of major
coping easily with stressorss that on whether it is a shared or nonshared
transition that bridges the gap
cause harm in other children. environment.
between childhood and adulthood.
➢ 1980 Nothing inevitably causes
➢ This is because each family
harm. All the factors thought to be ➢ Typically lasting 3 to 5 years,
member has unique experiences
risks in 1970 (e.g., day care) are puberty is the period of time
that cause their environment to
sometimes beneficial. starting when the first rush of
be unshared (Burt, 2009; L ngstr
➢ 1985 Factors befond the family, hormones occurs and ending
m et al., 2010; Bartels et al., 2013).
both in the child (low birthweight, when full adult physical
It is easy to understand how each
prenatal alcohol exposue, development has been achieved.
person has a unique environment
aggresive temperment) and in the
when you consider the following: PUBERTY IN GIRLS For girls, one
community (poverty, violence),
differing genetics, parental change brought on by puberty is the
can harm children.
influence, and unique family first menstrual period, known as
➢ 1990 Risk-benefit analysis finds
experiences, such as moving, menarche.
that some children are
losing a job, or losing a loved one.
"invulnerable" to, or even benefit ➢ General health also seems to be a
A family’s structure is impactful,
from, circumstances that destroy factor; better-nourished and
but the most influential aspect of
others. healthier girls tend to start earlier
family is how each member cares
➢ 1995 No child is invincibly than girls with malnourishment or
for one another-- that is, the
resilient. Risks are always harmful chronic diseases. Moreover, body
family’s function.
- if not in education, then in fat percentage may also be a
emotions; if not immediately, INFLUENCE OF PEERS/FRIENDS factor; girls with higher body fat
then long term. Children initiate their own child start earlier than leaner, athletic
➢ 2000 Risk-benefit analysis culture, in which they adopt traits and girls or girls with low body fat
involves the interplay among customs from slightly older children (Berkley et al, 2000)
many biological, cognitive and and seek independence from adults.
social factors, some within one This peer-culture teaches children PUBERTY IN BOYS
child (genes, disability, social lessons that are unique to their
temperament), the family puberty in boys looks and sounds
developmental stage.
(function as well as structure), and much different. One of the first signs of
the community (neighborhood, ➢ Friendships can enhance puberty in boys is the growth of both
school, church and culture). children’s socioemotional testicles. By the time that boys reach
➢ 2005 Focus on strengths, not development, academic abilities, the age of 12, their internal and
risks. Assets in child (intelligence, and self-concept (Vandell & external genitalia will experience
personality), family (secure Hembree, 1994). accelerated growth. It will take
attachment, warmth), community approximately 3 to 4 more years for
MORAL AND VALUES their genitalia to reach adult size. Boys
(schools, after-school programs),
DEVELOPMENT experience their first ejaculation of
sperm, referred to as spermarche, ➢ Two common eating disorders are adolescence. Primary sex
around age 13. Though boys can have anorexia nervosa and bulimia characteristics and secondary sex
erections as early as infancy, nervosa. characteristics experience dramatic
ejaculation indicates that sperm is ➢ Anorexia nervosa is the most growth, preparing adolescents’ bodies
being produced. Spermarche can be deadly of the two— in fact, this is to engage in reproduction.
brought about by direct stimulation or the most deadly mental disorder
➢ Fueled by raging hormones,
while asleep in a “wet dream.” Other ➢ Bulimia nervosa is characterized
sexual activity increases during
sex characteristics that develop in by binging on food and then
adolescence. Sexual activities
boys include hair growth on the face, purging.
range from flirting and
underarms, and pubic region, which ➢ Healthy relationships with food
handholding to masturbation, oral
occurs at about 12 years of age. start in the home, and
sex, and intercourse.
Finally, as the vocal cords and larynx combatting such disorders with
➢ A major social problem resulting
continue to grow, boys‘ voices begin to therapies that involve one’s
from adolescent sex is teenage
take on a deeper tone (Biro et al., family has been found to be more
pregnancy.
2001; Herman-Giddens et al., 2012; successful, especially in
➢ A devastating problem that
Susman et al., 2010). adolescence (Couturier, Kimber,
typically increases during
& Szatmari, 2013).
PROPER NUTRITION AND EATING adolescence is child sexual abuse,
DISORDERS Once puberty hits, both THE ADOLESCENT BRAIN which is defined as any sexual
male and female adolescents DEVELOPMENT activity between a juvenile and an
experience a great deal of physical adult.
The adolescent brain continues to ➢ Sexually transmitted infections
growth, affecting virtually every part of
develop but at an uneven rate. For (STIs) are another major issue in
the body.
example, the limbic system develops adolescent sexuality.
➢ The first change in puberty is the faster than the prefrontal cortex
growth spurt, which aids in the during this developmental stage
Adolescent Thinking &
physical transformation of
➢ the reward centers of the brain Neurological Development
children into young adults. The
are more active than the areas
first change in puberty is the Piaget’s Theory of Adolescent
responsible for planning and
growth spurt, which aids in the Development
impulse control, and this is
physical transformation of
especially true when adolescents Adolescents graduate from the
children into young adults.
are with one another. concrete operational stage, which was
➢ The growth spurt is typically
➢ The overabundance of gray discussed in the previous module, and
accompanied by an increase in
matter that is produced during move to the formal operational stage
appetite and weight gain, referred
adolescence undergoes a pruning of thought around the age of 12. As the
to as the weight spurt.
process between adolescence fourth and last stage of Piaget’s
➢ most adolescents eat a poor diet
and adulthood. In addition, the cognitive development theory, this
that fails to provide adequate
brain experiences an increase in stage brings about the ability to
nourishment for their growing
myelination, which improves the engage in abstract thought (Piaget,
bodies.
efficiency of neural message 1972).
➢ While iron deficiencies may lead
transmission and results in swift
to poor muscle growth, calcium
reaction times (Sowell et al., 2001; ➢ Instead of being limited to
deficiencies can negatively impact
Sowell et al., 2003; Li, 2012) concrete thinking, adolescents
bone mass and may even lead to
➢ as the brain’s positive can imagine both the possible and
osteoporosis later in life.
neurotransmitters are activated, the impossible, form speculations,
➢ In some cases, poor nutrition may
adolescents tend to become and use deductive reasoning to
be caused by the choices that one
happier; adolescents may fall in determine the probability of a
makes to combat their poor body
love or dedicate themselves to concept or task.
image
work and school. ➢ Adolescent thought is often self-
➢ Eating disorders are more
common in girls, and they are centered and influenced by the
ADOLESCENT SEXUALITY belief that others are acutely
manifested in extreme disordered
The onset of puberty marks the aware of their every action. They
behaviors.
beginning of a complex journey in live with the awareness of an
human sexuality, which is a vital part of imaginary audience and often act
 out in attention-seeking then” reasoning, which eventually IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT AND
behavior. gives rise to deductive reasoning. EMOTIONAL CHALLENGES
➢ Elkind (1976) called this
➢ In the concrete operation stage, As individuals move into adolescence,
heightened self-consciousness Erikson (1968) theorized that they
individuals still base their
adolescent egocentrism, which enter his fifth stage of psychosocial
reasoning on their own
gives rise to several shortcomings development, identity versus role
experiences, known as inductive confusion.
of adolescent thought.
reasoning.
ADOLESCENTS AND THE BRAIN ➢ This dual-process model posits ➢ In adolescence, identity is often
During adolescence, the human brain that the human brain is composed shaped by their impression of what
of one network for handling others think of them as well as
does not grow much in size.
emotional stimuli and another for their own view of themselves
➢ Not all parts of the brain develop analytical processing. James Marcia (1966) built upon
at the same rate. For example, ➢ intuitive thinking is based on an Erikson’s theory, finding four
maturation and myelination begin emotion or a premonition— not different ways in which teenagers
with the inner lower brain and necessarily rational reasoning— work through the identity crisis: 1)
proceed to the outer prefrontal and is influenced by previous identity confusion, 2) foreclosure, 3)
cortex (Sowell, Thompson, & moratorium, and 4) identity
experiences and cultural
Toga, 2007). achievement.
conventions.
➢ The limbic system is the ➢ Despite teens being capable of The first stage, identity confusion,
emotional center of the brain using logic, they find that impedes a teenager from forming close
responsible for processing fear emotional intuitive thinking is relationships and engaging in
and anxiety, and this matures quicker and more gratifying to meaningful activities, which often
before the parts of the brain leads to social withdrawal.
them.
responsible for impulse control
Second, foreclosure occurs when
and emotional regulation (Gogtay THE IMPORTANCE OF teenagers simply adopt others‘ values
et al., 2004). EDUCATION or norms in an attempt to avoid
➢ As a consequence of the different confusion and to find comfort in some
rates of growth, many adolescents With more advanced reasoning and form of commitment
cognitive abilities, adolescents can
are quick to react and engage in
engage in their school environments in The third stage of moratorium
risk-taking behavior. new and meaningful ways. commonly occurs around age 19, and it
➢ Teenagers are fully grown before allows adolescents to take a break from
their brains are ready to engage ➢ Young adolescents have to figuring out their identity, such as by
the world in an adult manner with navigate many social, biological, attending college or joining the military
their emotions ruling their and academic factors. One
predictor of success is their Once a teenager progresses through a
behavior.
beliefs about the nature of time of identity crisis, the final and
➢ Considering that impulsivity is intelligence. ideal stage is identity achievement.
linked with sensation-seeking and
poor decisions, it is ➢ When transitioning to a new level ➢ Over the years, Erikson‘s term
understandable that many view of education, many students sexual identity has greatly
adolescent brain development in experience the top-dog changed. This term has been
phenomenon, which occurs when replaced with the term gender
a negative light.
an individual is taken from a top identity due to the change in
➢ During adolescence increased position (oldest, smartest, or traditional roles held by men and
myelination paired with biggest) and placed in the lowest women (Denny & Pittman, 2007).
spontaneity causes reactions to position (youngest, least powerful,
be lightning fast and creativity to or smallest). After such transitions, RELATIONSHIPS DURING
be heightened. In the teenage many individuals perceive a ADOLESCENTS
years, there are many “firsts” significant decrease in their quality
of education and overall life As teenagers seek autonomy, the
that shape the individual’s
satisfaction. dynamics of family relationships
worldview.
change.
➢ As many older adolescents are
capable of abstract logic, most ➢ Teenagers may see the limitations
THINKING AND REASONING high school curriculums are geared
set by their parents as restricting
As previously mentioned, adolescents towards formal thinking
engage in hypothetical thought, or “if-
 and unfair, which may lead to moral development occurs in
conflict. three levels, each with two stages
➢ As teenagers age, they tend to ➢ Compared to children,
spend less time with their family adolescents engage in more
and more time with their peers. prosocial behavior, and girls do so
➢ The quality and type of friendships more than boys.
that teenagers seek are also ➢ Two important aspects of
affected by the parent-child prosocial behavior are forgiveness
relationship (Brown & Bakken, and gratitude.
2011). ➢ According to behaviorists, moral
➢ The hormonal changes that behavior is influenced by
adolescents experience also reinforcement, punishment, and
influence their relationships, imitation. In contrast, Freud
especially romantic ones, as they believed that children may adopt
often cause them to become their parents‘ moral standards to
keenly interested in sexual avoid feeling guilty (Kohlberg,
attractions and interactions. 1963)
➢ A key aspect of romantic
relationships is sexual
orientation. The expression of
one’s sexual orientation can vary
from overt to hidden and may
exist over a wide range of
orientations (Denny, Dallas, &
Pittman, 2007)

MENTAL HEALTH AND MENTAL

HEALTH PROBLEMS IN ADOLESCENCE
Adolescence and identity formation
may be a confusing and stressful time
for many individuals, resulting in
psychological problems like
depression and suicide.

MORAL DEVELOPMENT IN
ADOLESCENTS
➢ Moral reasoning continues to take
shape during the adolescent
years.
➢ Teens often wrestle with
determining what is right and
wrong, and this process continues
for the rest of their lives.
➢ moral development is a major
component in adolescents‘
identity development
➢ During adolescence and emerging
adulthood, individuals undergo
moral development — that is,
they witness changes in their
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
about what is right and wrong.
➢ Kohlberg‘s theory of moral
reasoning (1976) argues that
 REVIEWER • Traumatic brain injury • Providing as much support to
• Visual impairment including children, teachers and classrooms
FTC 2MODULE 1: WEEK 1-3 blindness as necessary to ensure that all
➢ Deviation is defined as the children can participate in their
PART 1: FOUNDATIONS OF process of steering away from an schools and classes.
SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE accepted standard. • Looking at all children at what
EDUCATION ➢ Positive deviation refers to an they can do rather then what they
aspect of a child’s personality cannot do.
Special education is the practice of that is displayed in a greater way • Teachers and parents have high
providing individualized compared to the norm. expectations of all children.
instruction and support to students ➢ Negative deviation is the • Developing education goals
with disabilities or learning difficulties opposite of positive deviation. according to each child’s abilities
This refers to children who
I. Being Exceptional and Different experiences delay in catching up
with their peers
The Benefits of Inclusive
According to Kauffman & Hallahan,
➢ Multiple deviation, on the other Education
from an educational standpoint,
hand is a bit more complex than
exceptional learners are those who Over the years, the benefits of
the positive and negative
require special education and related deviation. providing an inclusive education to all
services in order for them to realize children have been shown. Inclusive
II. Inclusive Education and It’s
their full potential. education (when practiced well) is very
Benefits important because:
➢ Exceptional children may display Inclusive education is about looking at
different behavior from the the ways our schools, classrooms,
• All children are able to be part of
majority of the population but it programs and lessons are designed so their community and develop a
doesn’t mean that they don’t that all children can participate and sense of belonging and become
have similarities from the learn. Inclusion is also about finding better prepared for life in the
average person. different ways of teaching so that community as children and adults.
➢ Phenylketunuria or PKU which is a classrooms actively involve all • It provides better opportunities for
children. It also means finding ways to learning.
type of intellectual disability can
• The expectations of all the children
now be routinely tested in infants develop friendships, relationships and
are higher. Successful inclusion
which means that they can now be mutual respect between all children, attempts to develop an individual’s
detected earlier and in turn, and between children and teachers in strengths and gifts.
preventing it the school. • It allows children to work on
➢ Studies regarding the cure for individual goals while being with
muscular dystrophy have also Beliefs and Principles other students their own age.
been promising. Other conditions
III. The Needs of Exceptional
such as hydrocephalus can now • All children can learn Children
be corrected via surgery if • All children attend age appropriate
In addition to the basic needs and
detected early in the developing regular classrooms in their local
schools problems that all growing children
fetus. experience, exceptional children have
• All children receive appropriate
The Individuals with Disabilities educational programs an additional set of needs and
Education Act or IDEA which we will • All children receive a curriculum problems growing up. These basic
talk more about later recognizes relevant to their needs needs include physical and
fourteen disability categories • All children participate in co- physiological needs (food, shelter,
curricular and extracurricular clothing, proper sleep and rest, etc.),
• Autism activities
socio-psychological needs (love and
• Deaf-blindness
belongingness, security, acceptance,
• Deafness Key Features of Inclusive
recognition, respect, education,
• Developmental delay Education
• Emotional disturbance opportunities to develop one’s
• Hearing impairment potential).
Generally, inclusive education will be
• Intellectual Disability successful if these important features ➢ Additional needs of children
• Multiple Disabilities and practices are followed:
with exceptionalities include
• Orthopedic Impairment
self-awareness of their own
• Other health impairment • Accepting unconditionally all exceptionalities.
• Specific Learning Disability children into regular classes and
• Speech or Language Impairment the life of the school
 ➢ Another need is the need to cope. incidence is defined as “the ✓ A carefully sequenced series of
The need to cope with one’s own proportion or rate of persons who educational tasks – means starting
exceptionality is vital. Support develop a condition during a off with smaller and simpler tasks
from family and friends are particular time period.” As in and slowly moving on to more
important. Another need is the “new” cases. complex ones.
✓ Emphasis on stimulation and
need to be accepted. Anyone in ➢ And in talking about prevalence,
awakening of the child’s senses –
all walks of life has this urge to be we also have to talk about high
assisting the child or the student to
accepted. incidence and low incidence develop self-awareness
➢ Another need is the need for disabilities. High incidence are ✓ Meticulous arrangement of the
proper education and those exceptionalities that occur child’s environment – adapting the
counseling. Equal opportunities more frequently or those that are environmental setting to the
for educational access should be more common, like learning child’s needs in order to ensure
given to everyone disabilities. In that note, low maximum learning capacity
➢ incidence are exceptionalities that ✓ Immediate reward for correct
IV. Differentiating Disability and are far less common. performance – providing positive
Handicap ➢ reinforcement to ensure repeated
behaviour
A disability is defined as an inability to VII. Definition and History of ✓ Functional Skills Tutoring –
do something. A handicap, however is Special Education making sure that the child will
a disadvantage laid on an individual. A develop a certain level of
Special education means a special or independence to support
disability may or may not be a handicap
different approach in education that himself/herself
depending on the situation.
specializes in the needs of ✓ Belief that every child should be
V. Differentiating Disability and exceptional children and learners. This educated in the best way possible.
Inability includes special approach in instruction
and specifically procured materials that Samuel Gridley Howe (1801 –
All disabilities are an inability to do would tend to the needs of special 1876) – was a main figurehead in
something. But not all inabilities are a learners. the foundation of Perkins School
disability. Based on age, maturation, for the Blind in Massachusetts.
We start off in Europe where most of Howe was a graduate of Harvard
opportunity and sometimes even
the pioneers in special education came Medical School and an advocate of
culture, an inability to do something
from and we will move on to the U.S many humanitarian causes. He was
can be viewed as completely normal.
pioneers. acquainted with Séguin.
For example, a 6-month old baby has
an inability to walk but based on the Jean-Marc Gaspard Itard (1775 – Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet (1787 –
baby’s age, his inability to walk is not 1838) – a figurehead in studying ear 1851)
a disability. A disability is a substantial diseases and deaf learners. Itard was a
deviation from our expectations of student of Philippe Pinel (1745-1826), ✓ Established the first American
what other people can do and cannot do another important pioneer that fought residential school for deaf children
based on developmental milestones, for humane treatment for the mentally ✓ Galludet University in Washington
societal norms, and education. ill. D.C was named in honor his
legacy
VI. Prevalence of Exceptionality Édouard Séguin (1812 – 1880) – VIII. Normalization,
Séguin was Itard’s student. He was Deinstitutionalization, and
Prevalence is defined as the percentage well-known for caring and educating Inclusion
of a population having certain “idiotic” children.
exceptionality – for example, the Normalization – is defined as the
percentage of children with visual Itard, Séguin, and many of their process of making opportunities for
impairments enrolled in special contemporaries left us with great ideas exceptional children to live life as
education classes in a given year that served as the foundation for normal as possible . Normalization
today’s approach in special education. eventually led to the birth of
➢ differentiate prevalence from
The ideas are as follows: mainstreaming and inclusion.
incidence as the two are often
confused with one another. ✓ Individualized Instruction – Normalization includes all areas of life
According to the United States’ wherein the focus should be on the including personal relationships, job
Centers for Disease Control and individual needs of the child rather opportunities, and living within the
Prevention, prevalence refers to than just providing them with community. This means giving
“the proportion of persons who education that is given to the exceptional individuals the same
have a condition at or during a general masses. opportunities as you would to any
particular time period” while other human being.
 Deinstitutionalization – during the individuals with learning Individual/Small Group Setting
1900s it was a common practice that all disabilities and to validate their (Tutoring) - The Individual/Small
individuals with mental health rights. Group Instruction program provides
problems be institutionalized. It wasn’t ➢ Litigation is synonymous to the students with disabilities support that
until the late 1900s that the phrase “legal settlement”. It is helps to increase their opportunity to
deinstitutionalization movement primarily driven towards the benefit from regular class placement.
commenced. Deinstitutionalization is a assurance that all children shall This is supplemental instruction which
movement that allowed individuals in receive the quality education
focuses on targeted IEP goals and
institutions to move out and live with that one needs.
objectives.
their families/relatives. X. Progress in Special Education
➢ Since the IDEA’s enactment in Resource Room - The Resource Room
Inclusion – inclusion was born out of 1990, it was one of the few events
the concept of normalization as serves children whose disabilities
that altered the power relationship
mentioned earlier. Inclusion has been require intensive programming.
between schools and parents
somewhat controversial since it was (Gerber, 2011; Continued participation in the child's
first introduced. Inclusion means Sarason, 1990). regular class activities is encouraged.
providing a program or system for that ➢ Laws that rose up during the 20th The Resource Rooms offer an
will be suitable for both exceptional and 21st centuries help to ensure alternative/modified curriculum in a
and nonexceptional learners and that all newborns with disabilities small group setting, which provides
children. are given early intervention. personalized options that are not
Guidance from other concepts is offered in the general education
IX. Parent Organizations, primarily the foundation
Legislation and Litigation program. These placements are
supporting Special Educations considered cross-categorical, meaning
Parent Organizations consists of ,these include prevention, early students with a variety of disabilities
parents who has an exceptional child intervention and appropriate are served in the same special class.
and/or family member. Parent treatment from modern science
Separate Facility - Separate facilities
Organizations usually have three basic (Kauffman, 2007, Kauffman &
are, typically, schools outside of the
functions: Hallahan, 1974, 2009).
district that are designed specifically
(1) empathize with parents going The Continuum of Placement and for students with disabilities. Home
through the same personal Services The Role of Families Instruction - Home instruction is an
problems, including helping each individualized education program
I. Continuum of Special Education provided at home to a child with a
other; Services The Individuals with disability which prevents the child
(2) inform each other regarding Disabilities Education Improvement from attending a regular or special
available support and programs; Act (IDEIA) requires states to establish program even with the aid of special
and procedures to ensure, "that to the transportation
maximum extent appropriate,"
(3) to give appropriate pathways students with disabilities are educated Institutions and Hospitals
for necessary programs for their with children who are not disabled.
Related Services - Related Services are
children. Programs serving children with
support services needed to allow
learning challenges as well as those
➢ Laws have been enacted in the children with disabilities to benefit
with speech/language and other
United States of America from special education. These include:
related services needs are available in
concerning children with
all schools. • Adapted Physical Education Services
learning disabilities, namely the
Education for All Handicapped • Aide Services
Regular Education
Children Act (also known as
Classes/Inclusion – • Audiological Services
Public Law 94-142) which ensures
that all exceptional children are Collaboration/consultation/co- • Behavior Consultant
given equal opportunity for teaching services focus on special
public education, this would later • Braillist
educators (Intervention Specialists)
be amended as the Individuals and general educators working
with Disabilities Education Act • Interpreter Services
together to best meet the needs of
(IDEA) in 1990, and the • Occupational Therapy Services
students with disabilities as well as
Americans with Disabilities Act
children who may be "at risk".
(ADA) which omits • Orientation & Mobility Services
discriminatory treatment towards
• Physical Therapy Services
• School Psychological Services parents are not the only ones to this theory are shock and
be held accountable for their disruption, denial, sadness,
• Speech and Language Services
child’s actions and behavior. The anxiety and fear, anger, and
• Transportation first reason is that the direction of finally adaptation (Drotar,
causation between child and Baskiewicz, Irvin, Kennell, & Klaus,
• Vision Specialist adult behavior is a two-way 1975).
street (Bell & Harper, 1977; ➢ The Role of Guilt
• Work-Study/Transition Services
Bellefontaine, Hastings, Parker, & Parents of children with
Other Support Forman, 2006; Mangelsdorf & disabilities are mostly faced with
Personnel/Programs SchoppeSullivan, 2007). feelings of guilt and with the belief
➢ The second reason is that many that it is somehow their fault that
• Counseling Services parents of children with a their child ended with a special
disability are very adept at condition.
• Nursing Services adjusting their interactions with ➢ Dealing with the Public Aside
Students with Disabilities Served their children to maximize from dealing with the changes in
Preschool Age Children (ages 3-5) positive development (Guralnick, family dynamics, feelings of guilt
School Age (ages 6-21) students with Neville, Hammond, & Connor, and uncertainty, parents also have
identified disability conditions 2008; L. E. Smith et al., 2008). to deal with the reactions of the
➢ Schools/teachers must work hand people around them towards their
• Autism in hand with parents in the child and how they handle or
development of individualized approach those problems
• Cognitive Disabilities
family service plans or IFSPs. The ➢ Dealing with the Child’s
• Multiple Disabilities IFSP is a family-oriented approach Feelings Apart from the
which does not only give emphasis
• Specific Learning Disabilities scrutinizing eyes of the public,
to the needs of the child but also
parents must also face the
• Other Health Impairment to the needs of the family
responsibility of talking to their
members who are taking care of
child about his or her own
• Orthopedically Handicapped the child in order to better assist
disability. Finding a way to be
them in the development of their
• Severe Emotional Disturbance honest with your child about their
children.
condition while being careful on
• Hearing Impairment not to hurt their feelings but still
III. The Effects of a Child with a
• Visual Impairment Disability on the Family providing enough insight is a
difficult task to say the least
• Traumatic Brain Injury Having a child will always have a great ➢ Dealing with Extended Family
effect on the family dynamics. Having Members’ Feelings Something
• Speech / Language Disability
an exceptional child just makes the job that most people don’t really give
• Deaf-Blindness a tad bit more difficult. Things and focus on but still important is how
activities that normal families do may parents have to deal with
• Deafness be disrupted in a household that is extended family members when
home to an exceptional child (Keogh, they give out the news that their
II. The Role of Families
Garnier, Bernheimer, & Gallimore, child has a disability.
Having a child with a disability is in no 2000; Stoneman & Gavidia-Payne,
way an easy task. It can have great 2006). V. Parents Adjustment
effects to the family dynamics. Family
➢ Effects on Parents According to research, parents of
reactions may vary from denial to
One theory that aimed to explain children with exceptionalities
acceptance and so forth. But one
what parents feel or experience experience more stress than average
important thing to remember is that
when they learn that they have an (Fiedler, Simpson, & Clark, 2007). The
having a child or children with
exceptional child is the Stage stress is usually the result of the
exceptionalities or disabilities doesn’t
Theory Approach. This is similar to accumulation of small and daily
automatically mean a life of stress and
how people process their tasks/responsibilities.
misery.
emotions when they experience a
➢ Parental Reaction to Stress
➢ Research has shown us two death of a loved one. The
We all experience stress in
important reasons as to why processes or the stages involved in
varying degrees depending on
 different situations. Parents also ➢ Cohesion refers to how one family VI. Positive Behavioral
experience stress differently member can create and maintain Intervention and Support for
depending on their familial their own personality and set of Challenging Behaviors
situation. The factor that is most beliefs while still getting the right
important to consider in order to amount of support from their Behaviors of children with
figure out if they will be able to family members. exceptionalities can be difficult at
cope with stress healthily is ➢ Adaptability refers to how flexible times and even more difficult to
psychological makeup and marital family members are when they handle. Difficult behaviour can have
happiness. encounter less ideal or stressful adverse effects on the family dynamic.
➢ Changing Views of Parental situations.
Extreme behaviors can be dealt with
Adjustment There was a point in using two approaches: functional
Family Functions are the different
time when experts actually behavioural assessment (FBA) and
tasks, routines, and responsibilities
believed that having a child with a that families go through to meet their positive behavioural intervention and
disability meant a life of misery. needs. This includes economic, daily support (PBIS).
care, social, medical, and educational
V. A Family-Centered Approach to Functional behavioural assessment
needs.
Treatment and Education (FBA) – FBA is used to assess the
Educators and experts are now seeing Family Functions are the different underlying causes behind a difficult
and realizing the importance of tasks, routines, and responsibilities behaviour that a child is displaying.
positive family relationship in the daily that families go through to meet their
life and treatment of children with needs. This includes economic, daily Positive behavioural intervention and
exceptionalities. care, social, medical, and educational support (PBIS) – PBIS is more focused
needs. on prevention. This focuses on
➢ The family-centered model promoting positive behaviour. The key
revolves around giving the ➢ Transitions are difficult due to the
to PBIS is to focus on family activity
families the freedom to make uncertainty it brings to the family.
settings or their routines/day-to-day
their own decisions based on the Each cycle poses new and harder
activities that families go through each
services that is appropriate and challenges.
day.
available for them.
Social Support for Families Parent – Teacher Conferences – P-T
Family Systems Theory conferences are helpful for both
Social support is defined as any
emotional, informational, physical, or teachers and parents to communicate
the family systems theory
material aid given to a person or effectively and efficiently about the
(Lambie, 2000) emphasizes the
persons in need. Social support is progress of the child and to talk about
relationship and interactions
mostly delivered in an informal way. and share information about
between family members and
Social support can come from opportunities, potentials, and
how it affects treatment.
relatives, friends, and neighbors. weaknesses of the student
➢ Family Characteristics - family
characteristics include the basic Social support is known to reduce or Effective parent – teacher conferences
information of the family, namely, minimize the effects of stress which always considers the individuality of
socioeconomic status, coping can be extremely helpful for families the child. Objectivity is important
styles, culture, family size, type who have an exceptional child when discussing the welfare of any
and severity of disability and child or any person for the matter.
special conditions. Family ➢ Parental Support Groups –
parental support groups can be Home – Note Programs – A home –
characteristics can help identify
the kind of relationship and structured or unstructured. note program is a simple form wherein
interaction family members have Parental support groups consists teachers put “yes,” “no,” or not
of parents who share similar applicable to different areas of
with one another
experiences, as in they have a behaviour like: social behaviour,
➢ Family Interaction – Turnbull’s
child or children with academic performance, and
model introduced to us that a way
exceptionalities. homework performance.
to determine how healthy a family
is through the level of cohesion ➢ Internet Resources for Parents – Traveling Notebooks – traveling
and adaptability that is reflected blogs, websites, online forums can notebooks are most helpful if a child is
in their family interactions be helpful for parents to know seeing multiple professionals.
(Turnbull et al., 2006). more about exceptionality.
MODULE 3: WEEK 6-7 • Intrauterine and other writing, listening, speaking, reasoning,
environmental factors and doing math
PART 2: TYPICAL AND ATYPICAL
DEVELOPMENT AND • Prematurity Emotional and Behavioral
CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNERS Disorders
In some cases, the cause is unknown.
WITH EXCEPTIONALITIES
Children with persistent, serious Causes:
I. TYPICAL AND ATYPICAL motor skill delays may eventually
DEVELOPMENT receive a specific diagnosis such as one • Brain Disorders
of these: • Genetics
➢ Development usually follows a
• Temperment
predictable course, with the • Cerebral palsy
• Home
mastery of certain milestones • Muscular dystrophy
• School
being used to determine progress • Spina bifida
➢
• Community
Part of being an engaged caregiver • Congenital hypotonia Causes of Autism
involves recognizing the • Progressive metabolic disorder
differences between typical and Autism is a complex disorder with
atypical development so that one many contributing factors.
II. ETIOLOGICAL AND MEDICAL
can work with the family to
ASPECTS Communication Disorder
identify potential issues that may
require early intervention. Definition: A disorder such as
Etiology is the study of causation or
stuttering, impaired articulation, a
origination. The word is derived from
Developmental Milestones language impairment, or a voice
the Greek αἰτιολογία "giving a reason impairment that adversely affects a
Age-appropriate behaviors emerge for". More completely, etiology is the child’s educational performance.
gradually over time and usually fall study of the causes, origins, or reasons Impairment in the ability to receive,
within the following categories: behind the way that things are, or the send, process, and comprehend
way they function, or it can refer to the concepts or verbal, non-verbal and
• Awareness causes themselves. graphic symbols systems (ASHA, 1993,
• Language pg.40) Communications disorder may
• Motor skills Intellectual Disability be evident in the process of hearing,
• Social interaction Intellectual disability is a term used
language and/or speech.
• Adaptive behaviors when a person has certain limitations Characteristics:
in mental functioning and in skills such • Speech-sound errors that exist, four
➢ Due to the number of time as communicating, taking care of him basic: distortions substitutions,
providers spend with each child or herself, and social skills. omissions, and additions
and their specialized knowledge • Articulation disorder – cannot
relating to appropriate Learning Disability produce a given sound physically.
milestones, child care providers • Language impairment involves
a disorder in one or more of the basic
are valuable resources in problems in phonology, morphology,
psychological processes involved in
recognizing and identifying syntax, semantics, and/or pragmatics;
understanding or in using language,
potential areas that may require usually classified as either receptive or
spoken or written, that may manifest
additional support. Early expressive.
itself in an imperfect ability to listen, • Stuttering-repetitions of consonant
intervention can make a
think, speak, read, write, spell, or do or vowel sounds especially at
monumental difference in a
mathematical calculations, including beginning of words
child’s developmental progress;
the involvement and concern of a
conditions such as perceptual • Phonological disorder- a child can
disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain produce a given sound correctly but
skilled caregiver can have a
dysfunction, dyslexia, and not all the time.
positive impact that will last a
developmental aphasia. Learning • Voice disorder- abnormal vocal
lifetime.
disability is a general term that quality, pitch, loudness, resonance for
Atypical Motor Development describes specific kinds of learning a speaker’s age or sex.
problems. A learning disability can
The causes of motor delays are many. cause a person to have trouble Deafness
They include these factors: learning and using certain skills. The Causes: Hearing loss is a common birth
skills most often affected are: reading, defect, affecting about 1 to 3 out of
• Genetics every 1,000 babies. A number of
factors can lead to hearing loss, and responsible for 22.7% of the genetic or damaged. Trauma usually happens
about half the time, no cause is found. syndromic cases. Down syndrome was after birth.
Pregnancy-Related: Prematurity the most common syndromic cause, at
The most common 8.7% of the cases of genetic or ILLNESS
prenatal/pregnancy-related cause was syndromic hearing loss. There are many illnesses that can
"consequence of prematurity," at 4% cause damage to body systems that
of the cases of pregnancy-related CHARGE Syndrome
control movement and make people
causes nationally. According to the CHARGE syndrome, at 5.6% of the physically disabled. Some of these
American Academy of Family genetic or syndromic cases, was the illnesses are caused by bacteria and
Physicians, about 5% of children born next most common genetic or viruses. Some illnesses may be
before 32 weeks (8 months of syndromic cause after Down inherited and there are some illnesses
pregnancy) have hearing loss by the syndrome. CHARGE is a craniofacial for which scientists still don't know the
time they are five years old. disorder. cause.
Cytomegalovirus Waardenburg Syndrome CONGENITAL
Cytomegalovirus, another pregnancy- Waardenburg syndrome can create
Something that is "congenital" means
related cause, was cited as being unique physical features as well as
present when a person is born. In this
responsible for 1.8% of the pregnancy- cause hearing loss; it was responsible
case, a person is born with a physical
related cases nationally. CMV is very for 4.8% of the cases of genetic or
syndromic causes nationally. disability.
similar to rubella in how it can affect a
fetus. GENETIC
Treacher Collins Syndrome
Other Pregnancy Complications Treacher Collins syndrome was the Genetic means that it is inherited from
"Other pregnancy complications" was next most frequently cited genetic or a person’s parents. This means that
the next most cited specific pregnancy- syndromic cause. Like CHARGE, one or both parents passed a gene that
related cause in the survey, at 3.8% of Treacher Collins is a craniofacial carried that disease or disability
pregnancy-related cases nationally. A disorder that can cause deafness.
pregnancy complication is anything ADHD
Unknown Causes
that can harm the baby, mother, or
Causes:
both of them, and it can be mild or Finally, in the 2004-2005 report, the
serious. remainders of the cases were due to • Not clearly known, considered
unknown causes (approximately 54% neurologically based disorder
Post-Natal: Otitis Media of cases). The 2006-2007 report saw an
Otitis media was the most common increase in unknown causes, to 57% of • Genetic factors can put people at
post-natal cause cited, at 4.8% of post- the cases of deafness. risk for an ADHD diagnoses can be
natal cases nationally. Ear infections associated with fetal alcohol
Blind and Low Vision
associated with otitis media are syndrome, drugs and lead
frustrating for both parents and Causes: poisoning.
doctors, who must decide whether or
not to prescribe antibiotics. • Childhood diseases Sever, Profound, and Multiple
Disabilities Causes:
Meningitis • Macular degeneration, cataracts,
glaucoma, eye injuries, birth defects, • Largely biological (either before
Meningitis, at 3.6 percent of post-natal eye disorders, diabetic retinopathy, conception or during gestation)
cases nationally, was the next most photophobia or albinism • Brain Dysgenesis (abnormal
common post-natal cause of deafness
Physical disabilities brain development)
cited. The antibiotics needed to treat
• Brain damage
bacterial meningitis can cause hearing
loss, but this risk can be reduced with
Causes: • Can happen after birth.
TRAUMA (Accident, Abuse, Neglect, etc.)
the use of steroids.
Trauma means injury. Many people
Genetic or Syndromic: become injured through accidents. In
Down Syndrome this cases skeletal, muscular or Other Health Impaired
Genetic or syndromic factors were nervous system may become
Definitions:
cited in the 2004-2005 report as being
IDEA- Other health impairment means such as repeating words or actions, • According to Bowen, a family is a
having limited strength, vitality or obsessively following routines or system in which each member had a
alertness, including a heightened schedules, and playing in repetitive role to play and rules to respect.
alertness to environmental stimuli, way. Members of the system are expected
that results in limited alertness with to respond to each other in a certain
respect to the educational “The Dyslexic Advantage,” authors way according to their role, which is
environment, Fernette and Brock Eide list four determined by relationship
“MIND” aptitudes common in agreements.
MODULE 4: WEEK 8-9 individuals with dyslexia.
There are eight interlocking concepts
PART 2: TYPICAL AND ATYPICAL Material or spatial reasoning: in Dr. Bowen's theory:
DEVELOPMENT AND heightened ability to solve problems
CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNERS with navigation, or with the • Triangles: The smallest stable
WITH EXCEPTIONALITIES visualization of faces, scenes, and relationship system. Triangles usually
objects. have one side in conflict and two sides
UNIQUE STRENGHTS AND NEEDS OF in harmony, contributing to the
STUDENTS WITH EXCEPTIONALITIES Interconnectedness: the verbal development of clinical problems.
reasoning capacity to connect
 Learning disorder: deeper observers • Differentiation of self: The variance
seemingly-disconnected ideas (finding
usually good at processing information in individuals in their susceptibility to
analogies, etc.).
visually, which brings up the possibility depend on others for acceptance and
to rely on visual support, and normally Narrative reasoning: great memory approval.
commit to work with determination if for personal experiences. This skill can
appropriately supported. be helpful for poets (such as Philip • Nuclear family emotional system:
Schultz), essayists, memoirists, and The four relationship patterns that
 Attention deficit hyperactivity
other writers (like John Irving). define where problems may develop in
disorder (ADHD) can be original a family.
thinkers and good risk-takers, which is • Dynamic reasoning: ability to
always an appreciated factor for reason in novel situations. This is a. Marital conflict
cooperative work. Thus, these children helpful for the business or scientific b. Dysfunction in one spouse
can be given specific roles that imply field, as exemplified by Jack Horner c. Impairment of one or more
acting out, performing physical tasks, and likely Albert Einstein. children
and so on. d. Emotional distance
III. THE FAMILY SYSTEM • Family projection process: The
 Characteristics of ADHD students:
transmission of emotional problems
they have a short attention span and Family System Theory
from a parent to a child.
get distracted easily and they are
• Family systems theory is an approach
impulsive. • Multigenerational transmission
to understand human functioning that
process: The transmission of small
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a focuses on interactions between
differences in the levels of
wide term that includes children with people in a family and between the
differentiation between parents and
features compatible with Asperger family and the context(s) in which that
their children.
syndrome family is embedded.
• Emotional cutoff: The act of
Moreover, ASD involves problems • Family systems theory emphasizes reducing or cutting off emotional
in the following areas: the interdependent nature of contact with family as a way managing
subsystems within families (Cox & unresolved emotional issues.
• Communication – both verbal Paley, 1997; Minuchin, 1985),
(spoken) and non-verbal (unspoken, conceptualizing families as organized • Sibling position: The impact of sibling
such as pointing, eye contact, and wholes (Cox & Paley, 2003). position on development and
smiling) behavior.
➢ Families are capable of both self-
• Social – such as sharing emotions, regulation and self- • Societal emotional process: The
understanding how others think and reorganization (Cox & Paley, emotional system governs behavior on
feel, and holding a conversation 1997). a societal level, promoting both
• Routines or repetitive behaviors progressive and regressive periods in a
The Family System by Murray Bowen
society.
(also called stereotyped behaviors) –
REVIEWER schools as tools to solve social Behaviorism is a teacher centered
problems. Social reconstructionists philosophy that is closely related to
EdCK 1 reason that, because all leaders are the realism. This philosophy focuses on
product of schools, schools should human behavior as a reaction to
WHAT IS A GOOD TEACHING? provide a curriculum that fosters their external stimuli, and believes that
development. changing the environment can change
A good teacher is one who is able to
misbehavior.
explain and demonstrate concepts in a
variety of ways for a variety of The reconstructionist classroom
Humanism is a student centered
different learners and learning styles. contains a teacher who involves the
philosophy that focuses on enhancing
A good teacher is a good learner—they students in discussions of moral
one’s innate goodness, rejects the idea
learn how their student(s) learn—and dilemmas to understand the
of group-oriented education, and
modify their teaching accordingly. implications of one’s actions.
upholds the idea of enhancing
individual development. This
Progressivism is based on the positive Existentialism promotes attentive philosophy also believes that students
changes and problem-solving personal consideration about personal should be actively involved with their
character, beliefs, and choices. The education on all levels, and students
approach that individuals with various
primary question existentialists ask is should be able to make choices about
educational credentials can provide
whether they want to define who they what they will be learning.
their students. Progressivist educators are themselves, or whether they want Essentialism is a teacher centered
are outcome focused and don’t simply society to define them. philosophy that believes there is a
impart learned facts. common set of skills and knowledge
that educated people should have. It
John Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) Perennialism is a teacher centered
focuses on respect for authority,
and John Dewey (1859–1952) are the philosophy that focuses on the values
developing sound habits of the mind,
guiding minds of progressivism. associated with reason. It considers
Rousseau maintained that people are knowledge as enduring, seeks and training in fundamentals.
basically good and that society is everlasting truths, and views principles
responsible for corrupting them. He of existence as constant or Metacognition and Learner-
supported education in nature, away unchanging. Progressivism is a student Centered Psychological
from the city and the influences of centered philosophy that believes that Principles (LCP)
civilization, where the child’s interests ideas should be tested by
(as opposed to a written set of experimentation, and learning comes The term "metacognition" was coined
guidelines) would guide the from finding answers from questions. by John Flavell. According to Flavell
curriculum. (1979, 1987), metacognition consists
of both metacognitive knowledge and
Reconstructionism is another student
metacognitive experiences or
John Dewey proposed that people centered philosophy that promotes
regulation. Metacognition, simply put,
learn best by social interaction and world social progress, focuses on
is thinking about thinking" or "learning
problem solving. Dewey developed the world events, controversial issues, and
how to learn". It refers to higher order
scientific method of problem solving developing a vision for a new better
thinking which involves active
and experimentalism. As a result of the world. This philosophy is associated
awareness and control over the
varied opinions emerging from the with pragmatism and essentialism.
cognitive processes engaged in
movement, progressivism was not
learning. Metacognitive knowledge
developed into a formalized, Positivism is a teacher centered
refers to acquired knowledge about
documented educational philosophy. philosophy that rejects intuition,
cognitive processes, knowledge that
matters of mind, essences, and inner
can be used to control cognitive
causes. This philosophy relies on laws
The progressivist classroom is about processes. Flavell further divides
of matter and motion as valid, and
exploration and experience. Teachers metacognitive knowledge into three
bases truth on provable fact. It is also
act as facilitators in a classroom where categories: knowledge of person
known as logical positivism.
students explore physical, mental, variables, task variables and strategy
moral, and social growth. Common variables.
sights in a progressivist classroom Constructivists believe that students Person Variables. This includes how
might include: small groups debating, should be able to discover lessons on one views himself as a learner and
custom-made activities, and learning their own through hands on activity thinker. Knowledge of person variables
stations. because it is the most effect way of refers to knowledge about how human
learning and is considered true beings learn' and process information,
learning as well as individual knowledge of
Social reconstructionism is an
one's own learning processes.
educational philosophy that views
Task Variables. Knowledge of task • How can I spot an error if I make clear to you. Use a marker or colored
variables includes knowledge about one? pencil to highlight important words or
the nature of the task as well as the • How should I revise my plan if it is phrases. (Do not highlight the whole
type of processing demands that will not working to my paragraph!)
place upon the individual. It is about expectations/satisfaction? R-Recite. Work on answering the
knowing what exactly needs to be questions who had earlier.
accomplished, gauging its difficulty Metacognitive Strategies to R-Review. Pinpoint topics you may
and knowing the kind of effort it will Facilitate Learning need to go back and read in order to
demand from you. understand better.
Strategy Variables. Knowledge of Remember, metacognition is like any R- Reflect. Think about what you read.
strategy variables involves awareness another thing you will teach. Is everything clear to you? What are
of the strategy you are using to learn a Metacognition involves knowledge the main points you learned? How is
topic and evaluating whether this and skills which you and your this relevant or useful to you?
strategy is effective. students can learn and master.
Novice and Expert Learners
Terms like meta-attention and meta- Here are some examples of teaching
Differences Between Novice and
memory are related to strategy strategies to develop metacognition:
Expert Learners
variables. Meta-attention is the
awareness of specific strategies so that 1. Have students monitor their own Aspect of Novice Expert
you can keep your attention focused learning and thinking (Example: Learning Learners Learners
on the topic or task at hand. Meta- have student monitor a peer's Knowledge Have Have deeper
memory is your awareness of memory learning/thinking/behaving in in different limited knowledge in
strategies that work best for you. dyad) subject knowledg different
2. Teach students study or learning areas e in the subject areas
strategies different because they
These three variables all interact as TQLR - This can be taught to younger subject look for
you learn and apply metacognition. areas interrelation
students (primary grades). It is a
Omrod, includes the following in the ships in the
metacognitive strategy before things they
practice of metacognition: listening to a story or presentation. learn
• Knowing the limits of one's own T is for Tune in. It is first important for Problem Satisfied First try to
learning and memory capacities the learner himself to be aware that he solving at just understand
• Knowing what learning tasks one is paying attention, and that he is scratchin the problem,
can realistically accomplish within ready to learn. g the look for
a certain amount of time Q is for Question. The learner is given surface; boundaries,
• Knowing which learning strategies questions or he thinks of questions hurriedly create a
are effective and which are not gives a mental
about what he will soon learn.
• Planning an approach to a learning solution picture of the
L is for Listen. The learner then to the problem
task that is likely to be successful intentionally exerts effort to listen. He problem
• Using effective learning strategies becomes aware if he is momentarily Learning/thi Employ Design new
to process and learn new material detracted and goes back to listen nking rigid strategies
• Monitoring one's own knowledge again. Strategies strategies that would
and comprehension. R is for Remember. The learner uses that may be
Huitt believes that metacognition ways or strategies to remember what be not be appropriate
includes the ability to ask and answer was learned. appropria to the task at
the following types of questions: te to the and
➢ what do I know about this subject, task at
PQ4R -This is usually for older students
hand
topic, issue? in the intermediate levels and Selectively Attempt Select
• Do I know what do I need to onwards. This strategy is used in study in to important
know? a unit or chapter Processing process information
• Do I know where I can go to get P - Preview. Scan the whole chapter all to process;
some information, knowledge? before delving on each paragraph. informati able to
• How much time will I need to learn Heck out the objectives. on they
receive
breakdown
information
this? Q-Question. Read the guide
questions provided, or think of your to
• What are some strategies and manageable
tactics that I can use to learn this? own questions about the topic.
chunks
• Did I understand what I just heard, R- Read. Check out sub headings as Production Do not Check their
read or saw? you read. Pay attention on words that of output examine errors and
• How will I know if I am learning at an are printed in bold or italicized. Find the redirect their
appropriate rate? out the meaning of words that are not quality of efforts to
 their maintain Higher order strategies for selecting 13. Learning and diversity
work, nor quality and monitoring mental operations Learning is most effective when
stop to output facilitate creative and critical thinking. differences in learners' linguistic,
make 6. Context of learning cultural, and social backgrounds are
revisions
Learning is influenced by taken into account.
LEARNER-CENTERED environmental factors, including
PSYCHOLOGICAL culture, technology, and instructional
PRINCIPLES(LCP) practices.
Advance Organizer Motivational and Affective 14.Standards and assessment
Factors Setting appropriately high and
Cognitive and Motivational
and Affective 7. Motivational and emotional challenging standards and assessing
Metacognition
Factor (6 Factors (3 influences on learning the learner as well as learning progress
Principles) principles) What and how much is learned is including diagnostic, process, and
influenced by the learner motivation. outcome assessment- are integral
Motivation to learn, in turn, is parts of the learning process.
14 Learner-
influenced by the individual: emotional
Centered ➢ The ideas of. the theorists, Freud,
states, beliefs, interests and goals, and
Principles Erikson, Piaget, Vygotsky and
habits of thinking.
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn Bronfenbrenner remain to be
Developmental and Individual foundational in the teacher's
Difference The learner 's creativity, higher order
Social Factors (2 understanding of the learners'
Factors (3 thinking, and natural curiosity all
principles) development. Let us recall
principles) contribute to motivation to learn.
Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by highlights of their theories Freud
The 14 principles are divided into tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, said, "The mind is like an iceberg,
those referring to (1) cognitive and relevant to personal interests, and it floats with one-seventh of its
metacognitive, (2) motivational and providing for personal choice and bulk above water."
affective, (3) developmental d social, control ➢ Freud also emphasized the three
and (4) individual difference factors 9. Effects of motivation on effort components that make up one's
influencing learners and learning. Acquisition of complex knowledge and personality, the id, ego and the
skills requires extended learner effort superego. The id is pleasure-
and guided practice. Without learners' centered; the ego, reality-
Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors
motivation to learn, the willingness to centered and the superego, which
1.Nature of the learning process
exert this effort is unlikely without is related to the ego ideal or
The learning of complex subject matter
coercion conscience.
is most effective when it is an
➢ Freud believed that an individual
intentional process of constructing
goes through five psychosexual
meaning from information and Developmental and Social
stages of development. This
experience. Factors
includes the oral, anal, phallic,
10. Developmental influences on
learning latency and genital stages. Each
2. Goals of the learning process As individuals develop, there are stage demands satisfaction of
The successful learner, over time and different opportunities and constraints needs, and failure to do so results
with support and instructional for learning. Learning is most effective in fixations.
guidance, can create meaningful, when differential development within ➢ Erikson said, "Healthy children
coherent representations of and across physical, intellectual, will not fear life if their elders have
knowledge. emotional, and social domains is taken integrity enough not to fear
3. Construction of knowledge death." He believed in the impact
into account. of the significant others in the
The successful learner can link new
11. Social influences on learning development of one's view of
information with existing knowledge in
Learning is influenced by social himself, life and of the world
meaningful ways.
interactions, interpersonal relations, ➢ Piaget said, "The principle goal of
4. Strategic thinking and communication with others education in the schools should be
The successful learner can create and creating men and women who are
use a repertoire of thinking and Individual Differences Factors capable of doing new things, not
reasoning strategies to achieve 12. Individual differences in learning simply repeating what other
complex learning goals. Learners have different strategies, generations have done."
approaches, and capabilities for ➢ Kohlberg said, "Right action tends
5. Thinking about thinking learning that are a function of prior to be defined in terms of general
experience and heredity individual rights and standards
that have been critically examined
 and agreed upon by the whole Visual-iconic. Those who prefer this Frames of Mind (1983). Gardner
society." Kohlberg proposed three form of input are more interested in defines intelligence or as fashion "an
level of moral development (pre- visual imagery such as film, graphic ability or set of abilities that allows a
conventional, conventional and displays, are or pictures in order to person to solve a problem or that a
post-conventional) which are solidify learning. They usually have product that is valued in one or more
further subdivided into the stages. good "picture memory," a.k.a. iconic cultures".
➢ Vygotsky said, "The teacher must
imagery and attend to pictorial detail
orient his work not on yesterday's Visual/Spatial Intelligence (Picture
development in the child but on Visual-symbolic. Those who prefer this Smart) learning visually and organizing
tomorrow's." Vygotsky form of input feel comfortable with ideas spatially. Seeing concepts in
emphasized the role of social abstract symbolism such as action in order to understand them.
interaction in learning and
mathematical formulae feel or the The ability to "see" things in one's
development. Scaffolding the
written word. mind in planning to create a product or
systematic manner of providing
assistance to the learner that solve a problem.
Auditory Learners. They learn best
helps learner to effectively through verbal lectures They learn Verbal/Linguistic (Word Smart) -
acquire a skill. learning through the spoken and
best through verbal lectures,
➢ Bronfenbrenner's model also written word. This intelligence is
discussions, talking things through and
known as the Bio Ecological always valued in the traditional
listening to what other have to say.
Systems the presents child classroom and in traditional
development within the context Auditory learners also fall into two assessments of intelligence and
of relationship systems comprise categories: achievement.
the child's environment. The The "Listeners". This is the more Mathematical/Logical (Number
model is composed of common type. "Listeners, most likely Smart/Logic Smart) - learning through
microsystem, mesosystem,
do well in school. reasoning and problem solving.
exosystem, macrosystem and the
chronosystem. The "Talkers". They are the ones who Bodily/Kinesthetic (Body Smart) -
INDIVIDUAL INTELLIGENCES prefer to talk and discuss. They often learning through interaction with
Advance Organizer find themselves talking to those one's environment. This intelligence is
Individual Differences around them. not the domain of "over ly active"
(Student Diversity) learners.
Tactile/Kinesthetic Learners.
Benefits of Tactile/Kinesthetic persons benefit Musical (Music Smart) - learning
Diversity in the much from a hands-on approach, through patterns, rhythms and music.
Classroom
actively exploring the physical world This includes not only auditory
Individual Classroom around them. They may find it hard to learning, but the identification of
Differences Strategies for
patterns through all the senses.
Factors Student sit still for long periods.
Diversity Intrapersonal (Self Smart)- learning
Global Analytic Continuum through feelings, values and attitudes.
Learning/Thinking Styles This is a decidedly affective
Learning/Thinking styles refer to the Analytic. Analytic thinkers tend
component of learning through which
preferred way an individual processes toward the linear, step-by-step
students place value on what they
information. They describe a person's processes of learning. They tend to see
learn and take ownership for their
styles typical are usually mode of finite elements of patterns rather than learning.
considered thinking remembering or the whole; they are the "tree seers." Interpersonal (People Smart) -
problem solving learning through interaction with
Global. Global thinkers lean towards
others. Not the domain of children
Sensory Preferences. Individuals tend non-linear thought and tend to see the
who are simply "talkative" or every
to gravitate toward one or two types whole pattern rather than particle
social."
of sensory input and maintain a elements. They are the "forest seers" Naturalist (Nature Smart) - learning
dominance in one of the following who give attention only to the overall through classification, categories and
types: structure and sometimes ignore hierarchies.
Visual Learners. These learners must details
see their teacher's actions and facial Existential (Spirit Smart) - learning by
expression to fully understand the Multiple Intelligences seeing the "big picture": This
content of a lesson The theory of multiple intelligences intelligence seeks connections to real
MD was first described by Howard world understanding and application
Multiple Intelligences Gardner in of new learning.
Disability. A disability is a measurable Emotional/Conduct Disorders. This elapsed time, but will soon
impairment or limitation that involves the presence of emotional extinguished again if the dog is not
interferes with a person's ability, for states like depression and aggression presented with food.
example, to walk, lift, hear, or learn. It over a considerable amount of time Discrimination. The dog could learn to
may refer to a physical, sensory, or that they notably disturb learning and discriminate between similar bells
mental condition" (Schiefelbusch performance in school. (stimuli) and discern which bell would
result in the presentation of food and
Institute, 1996)
Physical Disabilities and Health which would not.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Impairments Higher-Order Conditioning. Once the
Act (IDEA). IDEA is the law that dog has been conditioned to associate
provides comprehensive service and Physical and health impairments. This the bell with food, another
support for exceptional learners involves physical or medical conditions unconditioned stimulus, such as a light
(usually long-term) including one or may be flashed at the same time that
Handicap. The word handicap does more of these (1) limited energy and the bell is rung.
not have the same meaning as strength, (2) reduced mental alertness,
disability. A handicap 18 a and/or (3) little muscle control. Edward L. Thorndike. Edward
disadvantage that occurs as a result of a Severe and Multiple Disabilities. This Thorndike’ Connectionism Theory
disability or impairment. refers to the presence Two or more gave us the original S-R framework of
different types of disability, at times at behavioral psychology.
Specific Cognitive or Academic
a profound of level specific.
Difficulties Thorndike’s theory on connectionism,
Learning Disabilities. Learning Sensory Impairments stated that learning has taken place
disabilities involve difficulties in Visual Impairments. These are when a strong connection or bond
specific cognitive processes like conditions when there malfunction of between stimulus and response if
perception, language, memory, or the eyes or optic nerves that prevent formed. He came up with three
metacognition that are not due to normal vision eve n with corrective primary laws:
other disabilities like mental lenses. Law of Effect. The law of effect stated
retardation, emotional or behavioral Hearing Impairments. These involves that a connection between a stimulus
disorders, or sensory impairments. malfunction of the ear or auditory and response is strengthened when
nerves that hinder perception of the consequence is positive (reward)
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity sounds within the frequency range of and the connection between the
Disorder. ADHD is manifested in either normal speech. stimulus and the response is
or both of these: (1) difficulty in weakened when the consequence is
focusing and maintaining attention Giftedness
negative.
and (2) recurrent hyperactive and Giftedness. This involves a significantly
impulsive behavior. Speech and high level of cognitive development. Law of Exercise. Tells us that the more
Communication Disorders. There is There is unusually high ability or an S-R (stimulus response) bond is
difficulty in spoken language including aptitude in one or more of these practiced the stronger it will become.
voice disorders, inability to produce aspects: intellectual ability, aptitude in
“Practice makes perfect” seem to be
the sounds correctly, stuttering, academic subjects, creativity. visual or
associated with this.
difficulty in spoken language performing arts or leadership.
comprehension that significantly Law of Readiness. This states that, the
hamper classroom performance. Behaviorism
more readiness the learner has to
Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist is
Social/Emotional and Behavioral respond to the stimulus will be the
well known for his work in classical
Difficulties bond between them.
conditioning or stimulus substitution.
Autism. Autism is a condition
John Watson. John B. Watson was the
manifested by different levels of Pavlov also had the following findings:
first American psychologist to work
impaired social interaction and
communication, repetitive behaviors Stimulus Generalization. Once the dig with Pavlov’s ideas.
has learned to salivate at the sound of
and limited interests. Burrhus Frederick Skinner. Like
the bell, it will salivate at other similar
Mental Retardation. Mental sounds. Pavlov, Watson and Thorndike,
retardation refers to significant sub- Extinction. If you stop pairing the bell Skinner believed in the stimulus-
average intelligence and deficits in with the food, salivation will response pattern of conditioned
adaptive behavior eventually cease in response to the behavior. His theory zeroed in only on
bell. changes in observable behavior,
Spontaneous Recovery. Extinguished
responses can be “recovered” after an
excluding any likelihood of any every 10 minutes, regardless of how an individual can successfully model
processes taking place in the mind. many times it presses the bar. the behavior of someone else:
Variable Interval Schedules. This is 1. Attention – the person must first
Skinner’s work differs from that of the similar to fixed interval schedules, but pay attention to the model.
three behaviorists before him, in that the amount of time that must pass 2. Retention – the observer must be
he studied operant behavior between reinforcement varies. able to remember the behavior
(voluntary behaviors used in operating Example, the bird will be receiving that has been observed. One way
on the environment). Thus, is theory food (reinforcer) different intervals, of increasing this is using the
coming to be known as Operant not every ten minutes. technique of rehearsal.
Conditioning. 3. Motor reproduction- the third
Operant Conditioning is based upon Fixed Ratio Schedules. A fixed number condition is the ability to replicate the
the notion that learning is a result of of correct responses must occur behavior that he model has just
change in overt behavior. before reinforcement may recur. demonstrated.
Example, the bird will be given food
Reinforcement is the key element in (reinforcer) every time it presses the 4. Motivation – the final necessary
Skinner’s S-R theory. A reinforce is bar 5 times. ingredient for modeling to occur is
anything that strengthens the desired
motivation.
response. There is a positive reinforce NEO BEHAVIORISM: TOLMAN AND
and a negative reinforce. BANDURA Cognitive Perspective
A positive reinforce is any stimulus Neo behaviorism has aspects of • Gestalt Psychology
that is given or added to increase the behaviorism but it also reaches out to Gestalt theory was the initial cognitive
response. the cognitive perspective. response to behaviorism. It
There are two theories reflecting neo emphasized the importance of sensory
A negative reinforce is any stimulus
behaviorism that stands out. Edward wholes and the dynamic nature of
that results in the increased frequency
Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism and visual perception. The term gestalt,
of a response when it is withdrawn or
Albert Bandura’s Social Learning means “form” or “configuration.”
removed. A negative reinforce is not a
Theory. Both theories are influenced Psychologists, Max Wertheimer,
punishment, in fact it is a reward.
by behaviorism Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka
A negative reinforce is different from a studied perception and concluded that
Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism
punishment because a punishment is perceivers (or learners) were not
Purposive behaviorism has also been
a consequence intended to result in passive, but rather active.
referred to as Sign Learning Theory
reduced responses. and is often seen as the link between Gestalt Principles
behaviorism and cognitive theory. Law of Proximity. Elements that are
Behavioral chaining come about when Tolman’s theory was founded on two closer together will be perceived as a
a series of steps are needed to be psychological views, those of the coherent object. When objects we are
learned. The animal would master Gestalt psychologists and those of perceiving are near aeach other, we
each step in sequence until the entire John Watson, the behaviorist perceive them as belonging together.
sequence is learned. This can be .
applied to a child being taught to tie a Latent Learning. Latent learning is a Law of Similarity. Elements that look
shoe lace. The child can be given kind of learning that remains or stays similar will be perceived as part of the
reinforcement (rewards) until the with the individual until needed. It is same form. We link similar elements
entire process of tying the shoe lace is learning that is not outwardly together.
learned.
Reinforcement Schedules. Once the manifested at once.
Law of Closure. We tend to fill the
desired behavioral response is
Albert Bandura’s Social Learning gaps or “close” the figures we
accomplished, reinforcement does not
theory perceive. We enclose a space by
have to be 100%; in fact, it can be
Social learning theory focuses on the completing a contour and ignoring
maintained more successfully through
learning that occurs within a social gaps in the figure.
what Skinner referred to as partial
context. It considers that people learn
reinforcement schedules. Partial
from one another, including such Law of Good Continuation. Individuals
reinforcement schedules include
concepts as observational learning, have the tendency to continue
interval schedules and ratio schedules.
Fixed Interval Schedules. The target imitation, and modeling. contours whenever the elements of
response is reinforced after a fixed the pattern establish an implied
Conditions necessary for effective direction.
amount of time has passed since the
modeling to occur
last reinforcement. Example, the bird
Bandura mentions four Law of Good Pragnanz. The stimulus
in a cage is given food (reinforcer)
conditions that are necessary before will be organized into as good a figure
as possible. In this example, good • There is a difference in duration information based on what one
refers to symmetry, simplicity, and based on modality: auditory already knows. It is connecting
regularity. memory is more persistent than new info with old, to gain
visual. meaning.
“Types” of Knowledge • Visual Imagery - This means
Short Term Memory (STM or Working forming a "picture" of the
➢ General vs. Specific: this involves information
Memory)
whether the knowledge is useful
➢ Capacity: The STM can only hold 5
• Generation- Things we 'produce'
in many tasks, or only in one. are easier to remember than
to 9 "chunks" of information,
➢ Declarative- This refers to factual things we 'hear'.
sometimes described as 7 + /- 2. It
knowledge. They relate to the
is called working memory because • Context- Remembering the
nature of how things are. situation helps recover
it is where new information is
➢ Procedural- This includes information.
temporarily placed while it is
knowledge on how to do things. • Personalization - It is making the
Examples include making a lesson mentally processed.
information relevant to the
plan, baking a cake, or getting the ➢ Duration: Around 18 seconds or
individual.
least common denominator. less.
Other Memory Methods
➢ Episodic- This includes memories ➢ To reduce the loss of information
• Serial Position Effect (recency
of life events, like your high in 18 seconds, you need to do
and primacy)- You will remember
school graduation. maintenance rehearsal. It is using
the beginning and end of "list'
➢ Conditional- This is about repetition to keep the information
most readily
"knowing when and why" to active in STM, like when you
• Part Learning- Break up the list or
apply declarative or procedural repeat a phone number just given
"chunk" information to increase
over and over.
strategies. memorization.
Long Term Memory (LTM) • Distributed Practice- Break up
The LTM is the final or permanent learning sessions, rather than
Stages in the Information
storing house for memory information. cramming all the info in at once
Processing Theory It holds the stored information until
The stages of IPT involve the (Massed Practice)
needed again.
functioning of the senses, sensory • Mnemonic Aids These are
• Capacity: LTM has unlimited
register, short term memory and memory techniques that learners
capacity.
the long term memory. may employ to help them retain
• Duration: Duration in the LTM is
and retrieve information more
indefinite
effectively.
These three primary stages in IPT are:
• Encoding- Information is sensed, Executive Control Processes
AUSUBEL’S MEANINGFUL
perceived, and attended to. The executive control processes
VERBAL LEARNING/
• Storage- The information is stored involve the executive processor0 what SUBSUMPTION THEORY
for either a brief or extended is referred to as metacognitive skills. The main theme of Ausubel's theory is
Storage period of time, depending These processes guide the no of that knowledge is hierarchical
upon the processes following information through the system, help organized; that new information is
encoding. the learner make informed decision meaningful to the extent that it can be
• Retrieval- The information is about how to categorize, organize, or related (attached, anchored) to what is
brought back at the appropriate interpret information. already known.
time, and reactivated for use on a
Methods for Increasing Retrieval of Meaningful learing can take place
current task, the true measure of
Information through four processes:
effective memory.
• Rehearsal This is repeating
Sensory Register
information verbatim, either Derivative subsumption. This
The first step in the IP model, holds all
mentally or aloud. describes the situation in which the
sensory information for a very brief
• Meaningful Learning - This is new information you learn is an
time.
making connections between new example of a concept that you have
• Capacity: Our mind receives a
information and prior knowledge.
great amount of information but already learned.
it is more than what our minds • Organization - It is making
Correlative subsumption. Examine
can hold or perceive. connections among various pieces
this example. Now, let's say you see
of information. Info that is
• Duration: The sensory register new kind of bird that has a really big
organized efficiently should be
only holds the information for an body and long strong legs. It doesn't a
recalled.
extremely brief- in the order of I new but it can run fast. In order to
to 3 seconds. • Elaboration This is adding accommodate this new information,
additional ideas to new
you have to change or expand your 3. Symbolic representation - In this
concept of bird to include the third stage, the learner has developed
possibility of being big and having long the ability to think in abstract terms.
legs. This uses symbol system to encode
Superordinate learning. Imagine that knowledge. The most common symbol
a child was well acquainted with systems are language and
banana, mango, dalandan, guava etc., mathematical notation.
but the child did not know, until she
was taught, that these were all Discovering learning
examples of fruits.
Discovery learning refers to obtaining
Combinatorial learning is different; it
knowledge for oneself. Teacher plans
describes a process by which the new
and arranges activities in such a way
idea is derived from another idea that
that students search, manipulate,
is neither higher nor lower in the
explore, and investigate.
hierarchy, but at the same level (in a
different, but related, "branch"). It is a Bruner (1966) states that a theory of
lot like as learning by analogy. instruction should address four major
aspects:
1. Predisposition to learn. He
Types of advance organizers introduced the ideas of "readiness for
learning". Bruner believed that any
1. Expository - describes the new
subject could be taught at any stage of
content.
development in a way that fits the
2. Narrative presents the new child's cognitive abilities, this feature
information in the form of a story to specifically states the experiences
which move the learner toward a love
students.
of learning in general, or of learning
3. Skimming - is done by looking over something in particular. Motivational,
the new material to gain a basic cultural, and personal factors
overview. contribute to this.
2. Structure of Knowledge. The ways
4. Graphic organizer visuals to set up in which a body of knowledge can be
or outline the new information. This structured so that it can be most
may include pictographs, descriptive readily grasped by the learner. Bruner
patterns, concept patterns, concept emphasized the role of structure in
maps. learning and how it may be made
central in teaching. Structure refers to
BRUNER’S CONSTRUCTIVIST relationships among factual elements
THEORY and techniques.

Bruner's Main Concepts

Representation
Bruner suggested the ability to
represent knowledge in three stages.
These three stages also become the
three ways to represent knowledge.

1. Enactive representation - At the

earliest ages, children learn about the
world through actions on physical
objects and the outcomes of these
actions

2. Iconic representation - This second

stage is when learning can be obtained
through using models and pictures. The
learner can now use mental images to
stand for certain objects or events.
REVIEWER districts to organize class schedules organizing learning experiences for the
EdCK 4 around subject areas, hiring teachers purpose of changing and developing
to their certification in subject areas learners' behaviors and insights."
Unit 1: The School Curriculum and The and hence teachers set subject related Decker Walker (1990): A curriculum
Teacher yearly goals. consists of those matter: A. that
What is Curriculum? teachers and students attend to
Curriculum was first used in ancient An experienced centered approach is together, B. that students, teachers,
Rome to refer to a chariot race track. most likely implemented with a unit, and others concerned generally
Imagine Julius Ceaser debating which project, portfolio approach. recognize as important to study and
horse team, driver, and chariot would learn, as indicated particularly by using
complete the syllabus the fastest. Curriculum Definition Collection them as a basis for judging the success
A. Bestor (1956): The curriculum must of both school and scholar, C.
Curriculum, more than any other term consist essentially of disciplined study Duncan and Frymier (1967): a set of
in education, has a wide range of in five great areas: 1) command of events, either proposed, occurring, or
definitions. Here are a few examples: mother tongue and the systematic having occurred, which has the
• Curriculum is everything that study of grammar, literature, and potential for reconstructing human
happens within the school, including writing. 2) mathematics, 3) sciences, 4) experience.
extra class activities, guidance, and history, 5) foreign language. Goodman (1963): A set of
interpersonal relationships. Albert Oliver (1977): curriculum is “the abstractions from actual industries,
• Curriculum is that which is taught educational program of the school” arts, professions, and civic activities,
both inside and outside of school and divided into four basic elements: and these abstraction are brought into
directed by the school. 1) program of studies, 2) program of the school-box and taught.
• Curriculum is everything that is experiences, 3) program of service, 4) Harnack (1968) The curriculum
planned by school personnel. hidden curriculum. embodies all the teaching-learning
• Curriculum is a series of experiences B. Othanel Smith (1957): A sequence experiences guided and directed by
undergone by learners in school. of potential experiences is set up in the the school.
• Curriculum is that which an school for the purpose of disciplining Hass (1980): The curriculum is all of
individual learner experiences as a children and youth in group ways of the experiences that individual
result of schooling. thinking and acting. This set of learners have in a program of
experiences is referred to as the education whose purpose is to achieve
Curriculum definitions fit 5 curriculum. broad goals and related specific
categories: Bell (1971): the offering of socially objectives, which is planned in terms
If you review curriculum definitions valued knowledge, skills, and attitudes of a framework of theory and research
you will find they can be classified into made available to students through a or past and present professional
five categories: variety of arrangements during the practice.
1. Curriculum as a product - program, time they are at school, college, or Hilda Taba (1962): "All curricula, no
document, electronic media, or university matter what their particular design,
multimedia Bobbit (1918): Curriculum is that are composed of certain elements. A
2. Curriculum as a program of study - series of things which children and curriculum usually contains a
usually courses offered, curriculum youth must do and experience by way statement of aims and of specific
sequences of study in standards as of developing abilities to do the things objectives.
benchmarks, gateways, well that make up the affairs of adult Hollis L. Caswell and Doak S.
3. Curriculum as intended learnings - life; and to be in all respects what Campbell: "all the experiences
goals, content, concepts, adults should be. children have under the guidance of
generalizations, outcomes Caswell and Campbell (1935): teachers."
4. Curriculum as experiences of the curriculum is composed of all of the J. Galen Saylor, William M.
learner - activities, planned and experiences children have under the Alexander, and Arthur J. Lewis (1974):
unplanned. guidance of the teacher." "We define curriculum as a plan for
5. Hidden curriculum - what students Daniel Tanner and Laurel N. Tanner providing sets of learning
learn that isn't planned - unless you (1988) "that reconstruction of opportunities to achieve broad goals
plan for this - or is it possible? knowledge and experience and related specific objectives for an
systematically developed under the identifiable population served by a
Curriculum as program of study usually auspices of the school (or university), single school center for persons to be
centers on a subject presentation to enable the learner to increase his or educated."
approach such as nationally standards her control of knowledge and Johnson (1967): Curriculum is a
classified by subject, national and experience." structural series of intended learning
other subject related assessment David G. Armstrong (1989): "is a outcomes. Curriculum prescribes (or at
testing, which encourage school master plan for selecting content and
least anticipates) the results of and moral principles, norms, and Three Education Levels:
instruction. values. 1.Basic Education-This level include
Jon Wiles and Joseph Bondi (1989): Personal Attributes kindergarten, Grade 1 to Grade 6 for
curriculum is a goal or set of values, Personality is the sum of one’s elementary, and for secondary, Grade
which are activated through a personal characteristics. It is one’s 7 to Grade 10, for junior high school
development process culminating in identity. and Grade 11 to Grade 12 for Senior
classroom experiences for students. Some outstanding personal qualities High School.
Krug (1957): Curriculum consists of all that never fail to win their flock are 2.Technical Vocational Education-this
the means of instruction used by the worth mentioning; is post-secondary technical vocational
school to provide opportunities for educational and training. For the
student learning experiences leading 1. Passion TechVoc track in SHS of DepEd and
to desired learning outcomes. Passion for teaching is a compelling TESDA work in close coordination.
Musgrave (1968): the contrived force that emerges from teacher’s love 3.Higher Education-this includes the
activity and experience- organized, for children. baccalaureate or Bachelor Degrees
focused, systematic- that life, unaided, 2.Humor and the Graduate Degrees (Masterate
would not provide. Teacher’s humor connects them with and Doctorate) which are under the
P. Phenix (1962): The curriculum their students like a magnet. They help regulations of the Commission on
should consist entirely of knowledge in merging two words-youth and Higher Education (CHED).
which comes from the disciplines. maturity.
Peter F. Oliva (1989): "the program, a 3.Values and Attitude Types of Curriculum
plan, content, and learning Teachers are model of values. Recommended Curriculum –This
experiences." Whether conscious of them or not, sort of curriculum is based on the
Ralph Tyler (1957): The curriculum is values are exhibited implicitly and recommendations of educational
all of the learning of students which is explicitly. Values connote standards, professionals. Curriculum
planned by and directed by the school code of ethics and strong beliefs. recommendations can originate from a
to attain its educational goals ➢ Fairness and impartiality in wide range of people, including
Robert Hutchins (1936): The treating students eliminate nationally known experts,
curriculum should consist of discrimination. policymakers and lawmakers, and
permanent studies-rules of grammar, ➢ Sincerity and honesty are values others. It concentrates on the
reading, rhetoric and logic, and exhibited in words and actions. material, skill sets, and tools that
mathematics (for the elementary and ➢ Professionalism is highly educators should employ in the
secondary school), and the greatest treasured in the teaching classroom.
books of the western world (beginning profession. Written Curriculum- These items
at the secondary level of schooling). 4. Patience may include instructional manuals,
Ronald C. Doll (1988): "the formal and In teaching, patience refers to a videos, text, and other things that an
informal content and process by which teacher’s uncomplaining nature, self- educator requires. These items are
learners gain knowledge and control and persistence. either from the broader school system
understanding, develop skills, and 5. Enthusiasm or from the individual school. They
alter attitudes, appreciations, and Enthusiasm is synonymous to frequently hire or hire a curriculum
values under the auspices of that specialist to create a strategy that
eagerness and excitement.
school." addresses certain aims and objectives.
Ronald Doll (1970): The curriculum is
Enthusiastic teachers are full of
energy and dynamism. Their Taught Curriculum – for what has
now generally considered to be all of
passion and love for children are been written or planned, the
the experiences that learners have
easily felt. curriculum has to be taught or
under the auspices of the school.
implemented. The teacher and the
Shaver and Berlak (1968): situations 6. Commitment
learners will put life to the written
or activities arranged and brought into Commitment is a “solemn promise” to
curriculum. The skill of the teacher to
play by the teacher to effect student perform the duties and responsibilities
facilitate learning based on the written
learning. mandated by the laws and code of
curriculum with the aid of instructional
Smith and Orlovsky (1978): the ethics of the profession.
materials and facilities will be
content pupils are expected to learn. The Teacher and the Curriculum necessary.
No formal, non-formal or informal
Professional Teacher – is a
Assessed Curriculum – Taught and
education exists without a curriculum.
credentialed professional who has supported curricula have to evaluated
Classrooms will be empty with no
dignity and a good name, as well as to find out if the teacher has
curriculum. Teacher’s will have
strong moral values and technical and succeeded or not in facilitating
nothing to do, if there is no curriculum
professional competence......she/he learning. A curriculum that has been
follows and practices a set of ethical assessed is also known as a curriculum
that has been tested. It refers to
quizzes, examinations, and other 2.Writes the curriculum. A the subject areas such as Science,
means of assessing a student's classroom teacher takes record of Mathematics, Social Studies, English
progress. This can include a variety of knowledge concepts, subject matter or and many more. In college, Academic
evaluation methods, such as content. These need to be written or disciplines are labelled as humanities,
presentations, portfolios, preserved. (Writer) sciences, languages mathematics
demonstrations, and state and federal 3.Plans the curriculum. A good among others. He coined the world
standardized examinations. curriculum has to be planned. It is the discipline as a ruling doctrine for
Supported Curriculum role of the teacher to make a yearly, curriculum development.
A supported curriculum includes in monthly or daily plan of the • Philip Phenix asserts that curriculum
classroom and out-of-classroom tools, curriculum. This will serve as a guide in should consist entirely of knowledge
resources, and learning opportunities. the implementation in the curriculum. which comes from various disciplines.
Textbooks, field excursions, software, (Planner).
and technology, as well as other 4. Initiates the curriculum. In cases Curriculum from Progressive
imaginative new ways to engage where the curriculum is recommended Points of View
pupils, are among them. The to the schools from DepEd, CHED, • John Dewey believes that education
supporting curriculum also includes TESDA or other educational agencies is experiencing. Reflective thinking is a
teachers and other people who are for improvement of quality education, means that unifies curricular elements
associated with the course. the teacher is obliged to implement. that are tested by application.
Learned Curriculum Implementation of a new curriculum • Holin Caswell and Kenn Campbell
How do we know if the student has requires the open-mindedness of the viewed curriculum as all experiences
learned? We always believe that if a teacher. (Initiator) children have under the guidance of
student changed behavior, he/she has 5.Innovates the curriculum. teachers.
learned. What students take away Creativity and innovation are • Othniel Smith, William Stanley and
from a course is referred to as learnt hallmarks of an excellent teacher. A Harlan Shore likewise defined
curriculum. This might involve changes curriculum is always dynamic, hence curriculum as a sequence of potential
in attitude and emotional well-being in keeps on changing. (Innovator) experiences, set up in school for the
addition to the subject matter and 6. Implements the curriculum. The purpose of disciplining children and
information gained during a course. curriculum that remains youth in group ways of thinking and
Teachers must close the gap between recommended or written will never acting.
what they anticipate their pupils to serve its purpose. Somebody has to • Colin Marsh and George Willis also
learn and what they actually learn. implement it. (Implementor) viewed curriculum as all the
Hidden/Implicit Curriculum 7. Evaluates the curriculum. How experiences in the classroom which
This curriculum is not deliberately can one determine if the desire are planned and enacted by the
planned, but has a greater impact on learning outcomes have been teacher and also learned by the
the behavior of the learner. Peer achieved? Is the curriculum working? students.
influence, school environment, media, These are some few questions that
cultural practices, natural calamities need the help of the curriculum Foundation of Curriculum
are some factors that create the evaluator (Evaluator) 1. Philosophical Foundations.
hidden curriculum. Curriculum development is centered
Curriculum from Traditional on philosophy. It aids educators in the
Unit 2: The Teacher as Curricularist Points of View formulation of beliefs, arguments, and
• Robert M. Hutchins view curriculum assumptions, as well as the
CURRICULARIST describes as
as “permanent studies” where rules of formulation of value judgements.
professional who is curriculum grammar, reading, rhetoric, logic and
specialist (Hayes, 1991; Ornstein & mathematics for basic education are There are two broad’s categories of
Hunkins, 2004; Hewitt, 2006). emphasized. The 3R’s (reading, philosophy: Traditional and Modern
. A curriculist is someone who is active writing,’ A’rithmetic) should be philosophies There are major
in curriculum research, writing, emphasized in basic education while philosophies such as idealism, realism,
planning, implementing, assessing, liberal education should be the pragmatism, and existentialism in
inventing, and initiating. emphasis college. each of those categories, as well as
• Arthur Bestor as an essentialist educational philosophies derived from
The Teacher as a curricularist: believes that the mission of the school those major ideas. Perennialism and
1.Know the curriculum. Learning should be intellectual training, hence essentialism are examples of classic
begins with knowing. The Teacher as a curriculum should focus on the philosophies, whereas progressivism
learner starts with knowing about fundamental intellectual disciplines of and reconstructionism are examples of
curriculum, the subject matter or the grammar, literature and writing. modern philosophies.
content. (Knower) • Joseph Schwab think that the sole
source of curriculum is adiscipline,
a. Idealism b. Essentialism • With the statement of objectives and
Idealism is one of the oldest The conventional subjects of reading, related learning activities, curriculum
philosophical systems, with the Greek writing, and mathematics are the should produce outcomes.
philosopher Plato as its prominent center of essentialism. The goal of this • Emphasized social studies and
proponent. Idealism holds that ideas concept is to implant the "essentials" suggested that the teacher plans
are the sole genuine reality, that they of academic knowledge and character curriculum in advance.
are what is real and everlasting. development in pupils. Hollis Csawell ( 1901- 1989)
Idealism also stresses man's spiritual c. Progressivism • Curriculum is organized around
aspect, implying that he is a spiritual One of the educational ideas that social functions of themes, organized
entity. emerged from pragmatism is knowledge and learner’s interest.
b. Realism progressivism. As a result, what we • Curriculum, instruction and learning
The realism school of thinking may be said about pragmatism also applies to are interrelated.
traced back to another important progressivism. Other researchers in • Curriculum is a set of experiences.
Greek philosopher, Aristotle. Matter or this field include Montessori, Subject matter is developed around
objects that we perceive, according to Cornelius, and Rousseau, in addition to social functions and learner’s interest.
this theory, exist by themselves, that Dewey. Ralph Tyler (1902-1994)
is, they exist totally with or without • Curriculum is a science and an
man. Five approaches to the extension of school’s philosophy. It is
c. Pragmatism teaching/learning process were based on students’ needs and interest.
John Dewey was a major proponent of stressed in progressive education • Curriculum is always related to
pragmatism (1859 -1952). The curriculum: instruction. Subject matter is
supporters of pragmatism were • teacher-pupil planning of organized in terms of knowledge,
reacting to what they saw as faults or curriculum activities, skills, and values.
flaws in the conventional educational • flexible curriculum and • The process emphasize problem
system, which was based on idealism individualized instruction, and solving, curriculum aims to educate
and realism. • learner-centered teaching and generalists and not specialists. Hilda
d. Existentialism learning methodology. Taba (1902-1967)
Existentialism is characterized as "the d.Reconstructionism • She contributed to the theoretical
philosophy of existence" by Akinpelu Reconstructionists adhere to an and pedagogical foundations of
(1981), and "man is nothing else but anthropological–sociological concepts development and critical
what he makes of himself" by Sartre worldview that places schools at the thinking in social studies curriculum.
(1957). A person is therefore free to center of societal transformation. • She helped lay the foundation for
select the sort of life to live and is in Reconstructionism arose from a diverse students population
charge of his or her fate. critique of progressivism's efforts, Peter Oliva (1992-2012)
which placed a strong emphasis on the • He described how curriculum
The fundamental consequence is that needs of children, often at the price of change is a cooperative endeavor.
personal decision is based on social requirements.
information and talents.
3.Psychological Foundation of
2. Historical Foundation
Educational Philosophies Curriculum
To begin, we must recognize that
Franklin Bobbit (1876- 1956)
educational ideologies may be divided Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
into two categories: conventional and • He started the curriculum • He is the father of the classical
modern. Perennialism and development movement. conditioning theory, the S-R theory.
essentialism are examples of Werret Charter ( 1875- 1952) Edward Thorndike (1874-1949)
traditional educational ideas, whereas • Like Bobbit, he posited that • He championed the Connectionism
progressivism and reconstructionism curriculum is a science and emphasize theory.
are examples of current educational students needs. • He proposed the three laws of
philosophies. William Kilpartick (1875- 1952) learning.
a. Perennialism • The purpose of the curriculum is ➢ Law of readiness
Perennialism is a combination of child development and growth. He ➢ Law of exercise
idealism and realism. Perennialists introduced this project method where ➢ Law of effect
think that "the common essence of teacher and students plan the
Robert Gagne (1916- 2002(
man is the cement of education" (Doll, activities
• He proposed the Hierarchical
1992:29). With that in mind, Harold Rugg (1886- 1960) learning theory learning follows a
everyone's education should be the • Curriculum should develop the hierarchy.
same whole child. It is child-centered.
 engage your pupils, especially since 4. Physical (kinesthetic)
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) that young people in the twenty-first Do you like to work with your hands?
• Theories of Jean Piaget century are surrounded by digital Learning occurs when the student
➢ Cognitive development has stages media. engages in a physical activity rather
from birth to maturity; ➢ Behavior Management- To earn than listening to a lecture or viewing a
➢ Sensorimotor stage(0-2) your students' respect and guarantee demonstration in this approach. Those
preoperational sta that all pupils have an equal that like kinesthetic learning are
➢ ge(2-7) concrete operation stage (7- opportunity of realizing their full referred to as "do-ers," and they prefer
11) and formal operation(11-onwards) potential, you must implement an hands-on learning.
• Keys to learning effective behavior control approach. 5. Logical (mathematical)
• Assimilation (incorporation of new ➢ Professional Development- Are you a natural mathematician?
experience) Regularly attending professional You're a logical learner if you enjoy
•Accommodation (learning development programs is an excellent utilizing your brain for logical and
modification and adaptation) approach to improve your classroom mathematical reasoning. You're good
• Equilibration (balance between teaching and learning. at recognizing patterns and connecting
previous and later learning) apparently unrelated ideas.
The 7 Learning Styles 6. Social (interpersonal)
Lev Vygotsky (1896- 1934) • Are you someone who enjoys
Cultural transmission and 1.Visual (Spatial) interacting with others?
development; children could, as a Others like to study in a social or
Do you need to draw things out?
result of their interaction with society, interpersonal setting. A social learner
Knowledge or concept maps use
actually perform certain cognitive is someone who excels in socializing
visual symbols as a way to express
actions prior to arriving at and communicating with others, both
knowledge, concepts, thoughts or
development stage. vocally and nonverbally.
ideas, and the relationships between
Garber’s multiple intelligences them. These are a great tool for visual 7.Solitary (intrapersonal)
• Humans have several different ways or spatial learners as you can draw Do you like to work on your own?
of processing information and these connections or use colour coding to If you like to be alone, autonomous,
ways are relatively independent of one group ideas. By representing and contemplative, you have a solitary
another. information spatially and with images, style. When you concentrate on your
students are able to focus on meaning, ideas and feelings without being
Daniel Goleman
reorganise and group similar ideas distracted by others, your attention is
• Emotion contains the power to affect at its peak. Solitary learning is common
action. easily, and utilise their visual memory
to learn. Visual learners often pursue among authors and academics. Many
• He called this emotional quotient great performers in a variety of
careers such as architecture,
engineering, project management, or disciplines, however, have a strong
7 Effective teaching strategies for solitary foundation.
design.
the classroom
2. Aural (auditory musical)
➢ Visualization – bring academic Do you have a problem with reading? Students-focused teaching
concepts to life with visual and You are an auditory learner if you strategies
practical learning experiences, helping
your students to understand how their
require someone to read something to ➢Gamification-classroom
you out loud in order to grasp it. You gamification is an effective way to take
schooling applies in the real world. must hear the material rather than a child’s love for play and turn it into a
➢ Cooperative Learning - reading it from a book to truly love of learning. Simply described,
Encourage mixed-ability students to comprehend it. For auditory learners, gamification is the application of game
collaborate by organizing small group group conversations are an excellent design aspects and principles to non-
or whole-class activities. approach to understand new concepts game environments.
➢ Inquiry-based Instruction – Pose 3. Verbal (linguistic) ➢ Convergent and Divergent
thought-provoking questions that Do you enjoy reading and writing? Thinking
encourage your pupils to think for Verbal learners are those who find it Although divergent and convergent
themselves and grow as learners. simpler to express themselves through thinking are diametrically opposed,
➢ Differentiation- To guarantee writing or speech. You enjoy writing both have a role in your everyday
that no one is left behind, differentiate and reading. You like using tongue learning.
your teaching by assigning activities twisters, rhymes, and other Convergent thinking begins with
based on students' ability. techniques to toy with the meaning or fragments of knowledge and
➢ Technology in the Classroom- sound of words. culminates in a solution.
Incorporating technology into your Divergent thinking, on the other hand,
teaching is a terrific method to actively starts with a prompt that encourages
students to think critically, diverging Here are some innovative What are the six approaches to
towards distinct answers. teaching strategies w/c very curriculum? According to Ornstein
➢ Project-based Learning Project- teacher can embrace and make and Hunkins (2009)
based learning, like any classes, their teaching way more 1.Behavioral Approach 2.Managerial
involves much planning and interesting; Approach
preparation. It all starts with a thought 1.Cross Over Teaching 3.System Approach
and a crucial question. It's necessary to 2.Teaching through Smart Boards 4.Academic Approach
note that various content standards 3.Teaching through Flipping 5.Reconceptualist Approach
will be covered while developing the Classrooms 6.Humanistic Approach
project and the main question that will 4.Teaching through Collaboration
kick off the activities. 5.Teaching through Virtual Reality Curriculum design is based on the
➢ Experimental Learning 6.Teaching through 3D Printing underlying philosophy that the child is
“Experiential [learning] is a philosophy Technology the center of the educational process.
and methodology in which educators It means that the curriculum is
purposefully engage with students in A 21th century educator is able to constructed based on the needs,
direct experience and focused anticipate the future and plan for it. interest, purpose and abilities of the
reflection in order to increase They are able to push their students to learners.
knowledge, develop skills, and clarify ensure that they will be able to
values” (Association for Experiential navigate their way through this ever- What are the 5 pedagogical
Education, para. 2). changing technological world. approaches?
➢ Peer Teaching
Peer learning is the process through How can a teacher be effective in Constructivism or Constructivist
which students learn from and the classroom; Approach
alongside one another. This is 1.Positive –keep your students Constructivist teaching is based on
frequently accomplished through engaged with a positive attitude constructivist learning theory. It based
student-led workshops, study groups, 2.Prepared-you should know the on the beliefthat learning occurs as
peer-to-peer learning partnerships, course materials learners are actively involved in a
and group work, among other teaching 3.Organized-have plan for what you process of meaning andknowledge
and learning activities. want to teach construction as opposed to passively
➢ Inquiry-based Learning 4.Clear receiving information.
Students are engaged in inquiry-based 5.Active
learning when they make real-world 6.Patient Collaborative Approach
connections via discovery and high- 7.Fair Collaborative learning is a situation in
level questions. It is a method of 8.Technology Tip which two or more people learn or
instruction that encourages pupils to attempt to learnsomething together.
engage in problem-solving and hands- Unit 3: The Teacher as a
on learning. Curriculum Designer Inquiry-Based Approach
➢ Problem-based Learning Curriculum design- is a term used to
Inquiry-based learning (also enquiry-
Problem-Based Learning (PBL) is a describe the purposeful, deliberate
based learning in British English) is a
teaching style in which students are and systematic organization of
form of activelearning that starts by
taught ideas and principles via the use curriculum (instructional blocks)
posing questions, problems or
of challenging real-world issues rather within a class or course.
scenarios—rather than
than the direct presentation of facts simplypresenting established facts or
and concepts. What are the 5 types of portraying a smooth path to
➢ Cooperative Learning curriculum? knowledge.
Cooperative Learning is a teaching 1.Traditional
style in which students cooperate in 2.Thematic Integrative Approach
small groups to achieve a common 3.Programmed Integrative learning is a learning
learning goal while being guided by the 4.Classical theory describing a movement toward
teacher. 5.Technological integrated lessons helping students
Teaching and Learning Strategies- can make connections across curricula.
include a range of whole class, group 3 basic types of curriculum design
and individual activities to 1. Subject-centered Reflective Approach
accommodate different abilities, skills, 2. Learner-centered Reflective teaching is a process where
learning rates and styles that allow 3. Problem-centered teachers think over their teaching
every student to participate and to practices, analyzing how something
achieve success. was taught and how the practice might
be improved or changed for better 1. Curriculum change is inevitable, subject matter content complemented
learning outcomes. necessary, and desirable. Earlier it was with references, set of procedures,
stated that one of the characteristics needed materials and resources and
What are the elements of of curriculum 1s its being dynamic. evaluation procedure which can be
curriculum? According to Tyler, Because of this, teachers should placed in a matrix.
demonstrating what aspects of respond to the changes that occur in 10. Curriculum development starts
curriculum will perform adequately as schools and in its context. from where the curriculum is.
organizing factors is an important part 2. Curriculum is a product of its time. Curriculum planners and designers
of a thorough theory of organization. A relevant curriculum. Should respond should begin with existing curriculum.
to changes brought about by current
1. Curriculum Objectives social forces, philosophical positions, A lesson plan or teaching guide
2. Content or Subject Matter psychological principles, new includes (1) Intended Learning
The curriculum's content is the second knowledge, and educational reforms. Outcomes (ILO) or the Desired Learning
component. It includes facts that This is also called timeliness. Outcome (DLO) formerly labelled as
should be learnt in school. It is a 3. Curriculum changes made earlier behavioral objectives, (2) Subject
component or a channel through can exist concurrently with newer Matter or Content, (3) Teaching and
which the goals are achieved. curriculum changes. A revision in a Learning Methods, and (4) Assessment
curriculum starts and ends slowly Evaluation
3. Learning Experiences (Methods
4. Curriculum change depends on
of Delivering Knowledge) people who will implement the I.Behavioral Objectives or Intended
The third component is the instructors' change. Teachers who will implement Learning Outcomes
teaching tactics and methods, as well the curriculum should be involved in Begin with the end in view. The
as the learning experiences they its development, hence should know objectives or intended learning
provide throughout class. It is how to design a curriculum. outcomes are the reasons for
concerned with the teaching-learning 5. Curriculum development is a undertaking the learning lesson from
process, encompassing teaching cooperative group activity. Group the student's point of view; it is desired
methods, learning experiences both decisions in some aspects of learning outcome that is to be
within and outside the institution, curriculum development are accomplished in a particular learning
learning settings, instructors' and suggested. Consultations with episode, engaged in by the learners
students' materials, and learning stakeholders, when possible, will add under the guidance of the teacher.
environments. to a sense of ownership.
4. Curriculum Evaluation 6. Curriculum development is a The statement should be SMART:
The practice of assigning a value to a decision-making process made from Specific, Measurable, Attainable.
curriculum is known as curriculum choices of alternatives. A curriculum Result oriented and Time bound. For a
evaluation. The design of a curriculum, developer or designer must decide beginner, it would help if you provide
including content and procedure, may what contents to teach, philosophy or the Condition, Performance and
be evaluated, as well as its point of view to support, how to Extent or Level of Performance in the
implementation and outcomes. It provide for multicultural groups, what statement of the intended earning
determines the program's quality, methods or strategies, and what type outcomes..
efficacy, and procedure as well as the of evaluation to use.
curriculum's product 7. Curriculum development is an II. Content/Subject Matter
What are the different approaches ongoing process. Continuous The content of the lesson or unit is the
to early childhood education? monitoring, examination, evaluation, topic or subject matter that will be
➢ Blended approach and improvement of curricula are to covered.
➢ Direct teaching/instruction be considered in the design of the *Subject matter should be relevant to
➢ Event-based approach curriculum. the outcomes of the curriculum. An
➢ Explicit instruction 8. Curriculum development is more effective curriculum is purposive and
effective if it is a Comprehensive clearly focused on the planned
➢ Inquiry learning
process, rather than a piecemeal". A learning outcomes.
➢ Play-based learning
curriculum design should be based on *Subject matter should be appropriate
➢ Project approach a careful plan, should clearly establish to the level of the lesson or unit. An
intended outcomes, support resources effective curriculum is progressive,
➢ Curriculum change is learning and needed time available and should leading students towards building on
process for teachers and for their equip teaching staff pedagogically. previous lessons.
schools…many curriculum reforms are 9. Curriculum development is more III. References
based on how the curriculum had effective when it follows a systematic The reference follows the content. It
traditionally been organized. process. A curriculum design is tells where the content or subject
composed of desired outcomes, matter has been taken. The reference
may be a book, a module, or any content of the curriculum. The subject- and nature; is simple, spontaneous
publication. centered design corresponds mostly to and natural, is open to different
the textbook because textbooks are experiences; possesses empathy and
IV. Teaching and Learning usually written based the specific sympathy towards the less fortunate
Methods subject or course. among the many others
These are the activities where the 1.1. Subject design. In humanistic curriculum design, the
learners derive experiences. It is Subject design curriculum is the oldest development of self is the ultimate
always good to keep in mind the and so far the most familiar design for objective of learning. It stresses the
teaching strategies that students will teachers, parents and other laymen. whole person and the integration of
experience (lectures, laboratory 1.2 Discipline design. This curriculum thinking, feeling and doing.
classes, fieldwork etc.) and make them design model is related to he subject 3. Problem-Centered Design
learn. design. However, while subject design Generally, problem-centered design
centers only on the cluster of content, draws on social problems, needs,
*Cooperative learning activities allow discipline design focuses on academic interest and abilities of the learners.
students to work together. Students disciplines. 3.1 Life-situations design. What makes
are guided to learn on their own to find 1.3 Correlation design. Coming from a the design unique is that the contents
solutions to their problems. core, correlated curriculum design are organized in ways that allow
* Independent learning activities allow 1links separate subject designs in students to clearly view problem
learners to develop personal order to reduce fragmentation. areas. It uses he past and the present
responsibility. The degree of Subjects are related to one another Experiences of learners as a means to
independence to learn how to learn is and still maintain their identity. analyze the basic areas of living
enhanced. This strategy is more 1.4 Broad field 3.2 Core problem design. Another
appropriate for fast learners. design/interdisciplinary. Broad field example of problem-centered design
*Competitive activities, where design or interdisciplinary is a variation is core design. It centers on general
students will test their competencies of the subject-centered design. This education and the problems are based
against another in a healthy manner design was made to cure the on the common human activities.
allow learners to perform to their compartmentalization of the separate
maximum. subjects and integrate the contents Child or Learner-Centered Approach.
that are related to one another. This approach to curriculum design is
VI.Assessment/Evaluation based on the underlying philosophy
Learning occurs most effectively when 2. Learner-Centered Design Among that the child or the learner is the
students receive feedback, 1.e. when the progressive educational center of the educational process.
they receive information on what they psychologists, the learner is the center
have already (and have not) learned. of the educative process. This Subject-Centered Approach. This is
The process by which this information emphasis is very strong in the anchored on a curriculum design
is generated is assessment. elementary level, however; more which prescribes separate distinct
concern has been placed on the subjects for every educational level:
*Self assessment, through which secondary and even the tertiary levels. basic education, higher education or
students learn to monitor and evaluate vocational-technical education.
their own learning. This should be a Here are some examples of
significant element in the curriculum curriculum designs which are learner Problem-Centered Approach. This
because we aim to produce graduates centered. approach is based on a design which
who are appropriately reflective and assumes that in the process of living.
self-critical. 2.1 Child-centered design. This design children experience problems.
*Peer assessment, in which students is often attributed to the influence of
provide feedback on each other's John Dewey, Rouseau, Pestallozi and Unit 5: The Teacher as a
learning. This can be viewed as an Froebel. This curriculum design is Curriculum Implementor
extension of self- assessment and anchored on the needs and interests of
presupposes trust and mutual respect. the child.
Ornstein and Hunkins in 1998
*Teacher assessment, in which the 2.2 Experience-centered design. This defined curriculum implementation as
teacher prepares and administers tests design is similar to the child centered the interaction between the
and gives feedback on the student's design. curriculum that has been written and
performance. 2.3 Humanistic design. The key
planned and the persons (teachers)
influence in this curriculum design is who are in charge to deliver it.
Unit 4: Approaches to Curriculum Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.
Loucks and Lieberman (1983)
Maslow's theory of self- actualization
Design define curriculum implementation as
explains that a person who achieves
1. Subject-Centered Design This is a the trying out of a new practice and
this level is accepting of self, others
curriculum design that focuses on the
what it looks like when actually used in
a school system.

Curriculum Implementation as a
Change Process

Kurt Levin's Force Field Theory and

Curriculum Change
Kurt Levin (1951), the father of
social psychology explains the
process of change.

According to Levin, change will be

better if the restraining forces shall be
decreased, rather than increasing the
driving force.

Categories of Curriculum Change

McNeil in 1990 categorized curriculum
change as follows:
1. Substitution. The current
curriculum wil1 be replaced or
substituted by a new one. Sometimes,
we call this a complete overhaul.
2. Alteration. In alteration, there is a
minor change to the current or existing
curriculum.
3. Restructuring. Building a new
structure would mean major change or
modification in the school system,
degree program or educational
system.
4. Perturbations. These are changes
that are disruptive, but teachers have
to adjust to them within a fairly short
time.
5. Value orientation. To McNeil, this
is a type of curriculum change. Perhaps
this classification will respond to shift
in the emphasis that the teacher
provides which are not within the
mission or vision of the school or vice
versa.

Participatory. For curriculum

implementation to succeed, it should
be participatory, specially because
other stakeholders like peers, school
leaders, parents and curriculum
specialists are necessary.
Supportive curriculum
implementation is required in the
process of change.
Time is an important commodity for a
successful change process.