Adult

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Adulthood" redirects here. For other uses, see Adult
(disambiguation) and Adulthood (disambiguation).

Adult moths and butterflies are easily

distinguished from their caterpillars.
An adult is an animal that has reached full growth.[1] The biological definition of the
word means an animal reaching sexual maturity and thus capable of reproduction. In
the human context, the term adult has meanings associated
with social and legal concepts. In contrast to a non-adult or "minor", a legal adult is
a person who has attained the age of majority and is therefore regarded as
independent, self-sufficient, and responsible. They may also be regarded as
"majors". The typical age of attaining legal adulthood is 18 although definition may
vary by legal rights, country, and psychological development.
Human adulthood encompasses psychological adult development. Definitions of
adulthood are often inconsistent and contradictory; a person may be biologically an
adult, and have adult behavior, but still be treated as a child if they are under the
legal age of majority. Conversely, one may legally be an adult but possess none of
the maturity and responsibility that may define an adult character.
In different cultures, there are events that relate passing from being a child to
becoming an adult or coming of age. This often encompasses passing a series of
tests to demonstrate that a person is prepared for adulthood, or reaching a specified
age, sometimes in conjunction with demonstrating preparation. Most modern
societies determine legal adulthood based on reaching a legally specified age without
requiring a demonstration of physical maturity or preparation for adulthood.
Biological adulthood
Historically and cross-culturally, adulthood has been determined primarily by the start
of puberty (the appearance of secondary sex characteristics such
as menstruation and the development of breasts in women, ejaculation, the
development of facial hair, and a deeper voice in men, and pubic hair in both sexes).
[2][3]
In the past, a person usually moved from the status of child directly to the status
of adult, often with this shift being marked by some type of coming-of-age test or
ceremony.[4] During the Industrial Revolution, children went to work as soon as they
could in order to help provide for their family. There was not a huge emphasis on
school or education in general. Many children could get a job and were not required
to have experience as adults are nowadays. In recent years, studies of adulthood
have identified characteristic traits that go far beyond mere physical maturity. [5] These
markers for a full, mentally developed, adult include traits of personal responsibilities
in multiple aspects of life.
Although few or no established dictionaries provide a definition for the two-word
term biological adult, the first definition of adult in multiple dictionaries includes "the
stage of the life cycle of an animal after reproductive capacity has been attained". [6]
[7]
Thus, the base definition of the word adult is the period beginning at physical
sexual maturity, which occurs sometime after the onset of puberty. Although this is
the primary definition of the base word "adult", the term is also frequently used to
refer to social adults. The two-word term biological adult stresses or clarifies that the
original definition, based on physical maturity (i.e. having reached reproductive
competency), is being used.[8]
The time of puberty varies from child to child, but usually begins between 10 and 12
years old. Girls typically begin the process of puberty at age 10 or 11, and boys at
age 11 or 12.[9][10][11] Girls generally complete puberty by 15–17, and boys by age 16
or 17.[11][12] Nutrition, genetics and environment also usually play a part in the onset of
puberty.[13] Girls will go through a growth spurt and gain weight in several areas of
their body. Boys will go through similar spurts in growth, though it is usually not in a
similar style or time frame. This is due to the natural processes of puberty, but
genetics also plays a part in how much weight they gain or how much taller they get.
[14]

One recent area of debate within the science of brain development is the most likely
chronological age for full mental maturity, or indeed, if such an age even exists.
Common claims repeated in the media since 2005 (based upon interpretations of
imaging data) have commonly suggested an "end-point" of 25, referring to
the prefrontal cortex as one area that is not yet fully mature at the age of 18.
However, this is based on an interpretation of a brain imaging study by Jay Giedd,
dating back to 2004 or 2005, where the only participants were aged up to 21 years,
and Giedd assumed this maturing process would be done by the age of 25 years,
whereas more recent studies show prefrontal cortex maturation continuing well past
the age of 30 years, marking this interpretation as incorrect and outdated.[15][16][17][18][19]
[20][21]

Legal adulthood
Main article: Age of majority
Legally, adulthood typically means that one has reached the age of majority – when
parents lose parental rights and responsibilities regarding the person concerned.
[22]
Depending on one's jurisdiction, the age of majority may or may not be set
independently of and should not be confused with the minimum ages applicable to
other activities, such as engaging in a contract, marriage, voting, having a job,
serving in the military, buying/possessing firearms, driving, traveling abroad,
involvement with alcoholic beverages, smoking, sexual activity, gambling, being a
model or actor in pornography, running for president, etc. Admission of a young
person to a place may be restricted because of danger for that person, concern that
the place may lead the person to immoral behavior, or because of the risk that the
young person causes damage (for example, at an exhibition of fragile items).
One can distinguish the legality of acts of a young person, or of enabling a young
person to carry out that act, by selling, renting out, showing, permitting entrance,
allowing participation, etc. There may be distinction between commercially and
socially enabling. Sometimes there is the requirement of supervision by a legal
guardian, or just by an adult. Sometimes there is no requirement, but rather a
recommendation.
Using the example of pornography, one can distinguish between:
 being allowed inside an adult establishment
 being allowed to purchase pornography
 being allowed to possess pornography
 another person being allowed to sell, rent out, or show the young person
pornography, see disseminating pornography to a minor
 being a pornographic actor: rules for the young person, and for other people,
regarding production, possession, etc. (see child pornography)
With regard to films with violence, etc.:
 another person being allowed to sell, rent out, or show the young person a
film; a cinema being allowed to let a young person enter
The age of majority ranges internationally from ages 15 to 21, with 18 being the most
common age. Nigeria, Mali, Democratic Republic of Congo and Cameroon define
adulthood at age 15, but marriage of girls at an earlier age is common.[23]
In most of the world, the legal adult age is 18 for most purposes, with some notable
exceptions:
1. The legal age of adulthood in British Columbia, New
Brunswick, Newfoundland and Labrador, Northwest Territories, Nova
Scotia, Nunavut, and Yukon in Canada is 19 (though there are some
exceptions in which Canadians may be considered legal adults in certain
situations like sexual consent, which is age 16, and criminal law, federal
elections and the military, which is at 18);[24][25]
2. The legal age of adulthood in Nebraska and Alabama in the United States is
19.[26]
3. The legal age of adulthood in South Korea is 19.
4. The legal age of adulthood in Mississippi and Puerto Rico in the U.S.
and Bahrain is 21.
Prior to the 1970s, young people were not classed as adults until 21 in most western
nations. For example, in the United States, young citizens could not vote in many
elections until 21 until July 1971 when the 26th Amendment passed mandating that
the right to vote cannot be abridged for anyone 18 or older. The voting age was
lowered in response to the fact that young men between the ages of 18 and 21 were
drafted into the army to fight in the Vietnam War, hence the popular slogan "old
enough to fight, old enough to vote" [27]
Young people under 21 in the US could also not purchase alcohol, purchase
handguns, sign a binding contract, or marry without permission from parents. After
the voting age was lowered, many states also moved to lower the drinking age (with
most states having a minimum age of 18 or 19) and also to lower the age of legal
majority (adulthood) to 18. However, there are legal activities where 18 is not the
default age of adulthood. There are still some exceptions where 21 (or even higher)
is still the benchmark for certain rights or responsibilities. For example, in the US the
Gun Control Act of 1968 prohibits those under 21 from purchasing a handgun from a
federally licensed dealer (although federal law makes an exception for individuals
between the ages of 18 and 20 to obtain one from a private dealer if state law
permits.) [28]
As of July 1984, the National Minimum Drinking Age Act mandated that all states
raise their respective drinking ages to 21 to create a uniform standard for legally
purchasing, drinking, or publicly possessing alcohol with exceptions made for
consumption only in private residences under parental supervision and permission.
This was done in response to reducing the number of drunk driving fatalities
prevalent among young drivers. States that choose not to comply can lose up to 10%
of highway funding.[29]
The Credit Card Act of 2009 imposed tougher safeguards for young adults between
the ages of 18 and 20 obtaining a credit card. Young adults under the age of 21 must
either have a co-signer 21 or older or show proof (usually a source of income) that
they can repay their credit card balance.[30] Unless that requirement is met, one must
wait until 21 to be approved for a credit card on their own.
The Affordable Care Act of 2010 expands the age that young adults can remain on
their parent's health insurance plan up to age 26.[31]
As of December 2019, the federal government raised the legal age to purchase
tobacco and vaping products from 18 to 21.[32] In states where recreational marijuana
is legalized, the default age is also 21, though those younger may be able to obtain
medical marijuana prescriptions or cards upon seeing a physician.[33]
Gambling also varies from 18 to 21 depending on the state and many rental
car companies do not rent cars to those under 21 and have surcharges for drivers
under 25 (although this is not codified, and is company policy).
In Quebec, Canada the Quebec legislature in 2020 raised the age one could
purchase recreational marijuana from 18 to 21 stepping out of line with most of the
country that set a minimum age of 19 (except Alberta, which is 18.) The Quebec
government cited the risk that marijuana poses to the brain development of people
under 21 as justification for the age raise.[34]
In March 2021, the state of Washington in a 5–4 decision, justices in the Supreme
Court of the State of Washington tossed the life without parole sentences of a 19-
year-old and a 20-year-old convicted in separate cases of first-degree aggravated
murder decades ago, saying, as with juveniles, the court must first consider the age
of those under 21 before sentencing them to die behind bars. This comes at a time
where there are ongoing debates about whether those between 18 and 20 should be
exempted from the death penalty.[35][36][37][38]
In Germany, courts largely sentence defendants under the age of 21 according
to juvenile law in a bid to help them reintegrate into society and mete out
punishments that fit the crime as well as the offender.
In May 2021, the state of Texas raised the age that one can be an exotic dancer and
work and patronize sexually oriented businesses from 18 to 21.[39]
In the UK, there have been many proposals to raise the age that one can buy
tobacco from 18 to 21 in an attempt to curb teen and young adult use to get to a
"smoke-free" UK by 2030.[40] All of these laws made over the years reflect the
growing awareness that young adults, while not children, are still in a transitional
stage between adolescence and full adulthood and that there should be policy
adjustments or restrictions where necessary, especially where it pertains to activities
that carry certain degrees of risk or harm to themselves or others.[41]
At the same time, however, even though the generally accepted age of majority is
18[42] in most nations, there are rights or privileges afforded to adolescents who have
not yet reached legal adulthood. In the United States, youth are able to get a part-
time job at 14 provided they have a work permit. At 16, one is able to obtain a driver's
permit or license depending on state laws and is able to work most jobs (except ones
requiring heavy machinery) and consent to sexual activity (depending on the state).
At 17, one is able to enlist in the armed forces with parental consent although they
cannot be deployed to be in combat roles until age 18.
The voting age for local elections in most American cities is 18. But in five localities
nationwide — four of which are in Maryland — 16 and 17-year-olds are eligible to
vote. The cities are Takoma Park, Riverdale, Greenbelt, and Hyattsville. [43]
In 2020, students 16 or older in Oakland, California gained the right to vote in school
board elections. There is a growing movement to lower the voting age in the US and
many other countries from 18 to 16 in hopes of engaging the youth vote and
encouraging greater electoral participation. Some countries already have a voting
age of 16 which include Austria, Scotland, Argentina, Brazil, Wales, Cuba, and
Ecuador.
In Germany, one can purchase beer and wine at the age of 16 although they cannot
purchase spirits or hard liquor until 18. The age of consent in Germany is 14 if both
partners are under 18. Sexual activity with a person under 18 is punishable if the
adult is a person of authority over the minor in upbringing, education, care, or
employment.
Social construction of adulthood
In contrast to biological perspectives of aging and adulthood, social scientists
conceptualize adulthood as socially constructed.[44][45] While aging is an established
biological process, the attainment of adulthood is social in its criteria. In contrast to
other perspectives that conceptualize aging and the attainment of adulthood as a
largely universal development, regardless of context, nation, generation, gender,
race, or social class. Social scientists regard these aspects as paramount in cultural
definitions of adulthood.[46]
Further evidence of adulthood as a social construction is illustrated by the changing
criteria of adulthood over time. Historically, adulthood in the U.S. has rested on
completing one's education, moving away from the family of origin, and beginning
one's career.[47][48][49] Other key historical criteria include entering a marriage and
becoming a parent. These criteria are social and subjective; they are organized by
gender, race, ethnicity, and social class, among other key identity markers. As a
result, particular populations feel adult earlier in the life course than do others. [50][51][52]
[53]

Contemporary experiences of and research on young adults today substitute more

seemingly subjective criteria for adulthood which resonate more soundly with young
adults' experiences of aging.[51][54] The criteria are marked by a growing "importance
of individualistic criteria and the irrelevance of the demographic markers of normative
conceptions of adulthood."[55] In particular, younger cohorts' attainment of adulthood
centers on three criteria: gaining a sense of responsibility, independent decision-
making, and financial independence.[56][57]
Jeffrey Arnett, a psychologist and professor at Clark University in Massachusetts,
studied the development of adults and argues that there is a new and distinct period
of development in between adolescence and adulthood. This stage, which he calls
"emerging adulthood", occurs between the ages of 18 and 25.[58] Arnett describes
these individuals as able to take some responsibility for their lives, but still not
completely feeling like an adult. Arnett articulates five distinct features that are unique
to this period of development: identity exploration, feeling in between, instability, self-
focus, and having possibilities.[59] Arnett makes it clear that these 5 aspects of
emerging adulthood are only relevant during the life stage of emerging adulthood.[60