Psychology Textbook FoR Crass XID sia were srquer six ufterr aRag NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND TRAININGPomoc) First Edition January 2007 Magha 1928 Reprinted October 2007 Kartika 1929 January 2009 Pausa 1980 December 2009 Agrahayana 1931 December 2010 Kartika 1932 January 2012 Magha 1923 November 2013 Kartika. 1985 December 2015 Pausa 1927 Februans 2017 Magha 1938 December 2017 Pausa 1939 December 2018 Agrahayana 1940 “August 2019 Bhadrapacla 1941 ALLRIGHTS RESERVED 2 Nopatet isputiaten rae reps strana trae Shompyng recta shenasshauhe per pormesana ee oe 2 Tstoskisslstinctoihaconstin that alo ay tad, tert fos eure chavs capo wow elas ‘Stat a) ma nage cbs antl eh 2 Thecus of spate ste pce etd pa Ay ‘Sonic sated oyna tyes oy yet DMISON, NCERT PD 707 BS ow Ox 10096 Prone 1 562708 order Same Benga 08 Prone om2era570 © National Council of Educational Researeh and Training, 2007 Publication Team Head, Publication M. Saj Anwar Division Chief Eattor Shoeta Uppat Chief Production Arun Chithara Officer Chief Business Bibash Kumar Das Manager Bator ‘Bgnan Sutar Printed on 80 GSM paper with NCERT watermark Published at the Publication Division by the Secretary, National Council of Educational Research and Training, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi 110.016 and printed at Production Assistant : Sun! Kumar Cover and Illustrations ‘Mahi WaethieaFOREWORD ‘The National Curriculum Framework, 2005, recommends that children’s life at school must be linked to their life outside the school. This principle marks a departure from the legacy of bookish learning which continues to shape our system and causes a gap between the school, home and community. The syllabi and textbooks developed on the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement this basic idea. They also attempt to discourage rote learning and the maintenance of sharp boundaries between different subject areas. We hope these measures will take us significantly further in the direction of a child-centred system of education outlined in the National Policy on Education (1986). ‘The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and teachers will take to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and to pursue imaginative activities and questions. We must recognise that given space, time and freedom, children generate new knowledge by engaging with the information passed on to them by adults. Treating the prescribed textbook as the sole basis of examination is one of the key reasons why other resources and sites oflearning are ignored. Inculeating creativity and initiative is possible if we perceive and treat children as participants in learning, not as receivers of a fixed body of knowledge. ‘These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode of functioning. Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour in implementing the annual calendar so that the required number of teaching days are actually devoted to teaching. The methods used for teaching and evaluation will also determine how effective this textbook proves for making children’s life at school a happy experience, rather than a source of stress or boredom. Syllabus designers have tried to address the problem of eurticular burden by restrueturing and reorienting knowledge at different stages with greater consideration for child psychology and the time available for teaching. The textbook attempts to enhance this cndeavour by giving higher priority and space to opportunities for contemplation and wondering, discussion in small groups, and activities requiring hands-on experience. NCERT appreciates the hard work done by the textbook development committee responsible for this book. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the advisory group of Social Sciences, Professor Hari Vasudevan (Department of History, Caleutta University, Kolkata) and the Chief Advisor for this textbook, Professor R.C. Tripathi (Director, G.B. Pant Social Science Institute, Allahabad) for guiding the work of this committee. Several teachers contributed to the development of this textbook: we are grateful to their principals for making this possible, We are indebted to the institutions and organisations which have generously permitted us to draw upon their resources, material and personnel. We are especially grateful to the members ofthe National Monitoring Committee, appointed by the Department of Secondary and Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development under theChairpersonship of Professor Mrinal Miri and Professor G.P, Deshpande, for their valuable time and contribution, As an organisation committed to the systemic reform and continuous improvement in the quality of its products, NCERT welcomes comments and suggestions which will enable us to undertake further revision and refinement Director New Delhi National Council of Educational 20 November 2006 Research and TrainingPREFACE Psychology is one of the youngest sciences but one of the fastest growing. There are many who believe that the 21st century is going to be the century of biological sciences along with psychological sciences. Development in the fields of neurosciences, as well as physical sciences have opened new doors to solve the mysteries of mind and human behaviour. There is no human endeavour which is going to remain unaffected by this new knowledge which is getting created. One only hopes that it will enable people to live their lives more meaningfully and to organise human systems better. In fact, as a consequence, a large number of new job opportunities have surfaced. Psychology already has made inroads into many new domains. ‘The writing of this textbook has been truly a collective effort. It has benefitted from the inputs received from various subject experts in various forms, from college and school teachers, and also students. In writing this textbook, we have tried to address some of the concerns raised by the evaluators of the previous edition of this textbook, while also making use of some portions of it. The textbook follows the National Curriculum Framework-2005. In keeping with the general guidelines, wwe have tried to reduce the load and attempted to make it more comprehensible for the students. In doing so, we have tried to relate psychological concepts with everyday human behaviourand also with various life experiences. How far one has succeeded in this, is left for the teachers and students to judge. One major challenge which teachers of psychology face is to make their students analyse human behaviour in scientific manner and to use explanations which are not commonsensical. More than any other scientific discipline, psychology runs the risk of trivialisation. It is our hope that students who go through this course will develop a proper scientific attitude for analysing others and their own behaviour and use it for personal growth. We take great pleasure in placing this textbook in the hands of students and teachers and also express our gratitude to all who have provided their unstinted support in its writing and production.Tue Littte Fisu “Excuse me,” said an ocean fish, “You are older than I so can you tell me where to find this thing they call the Ocean?” “The Ocean,” said the older fish, “is the thing you are in now.” “Oh, this? But this is water. What I'm seeking is the Ocean,” said the disappointed fish as he swam away to search elsewhere. Source : “The Song of the Bird” Anthony de Mello, S.J. (Anand: Gujarat Sahitya Prakash) 1987Texrpook DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE (Cuter Apvisor RC. Tripathi, Professor and Director, G.B. Pant Social Seience Institute, Jhusi, Allahabad ‘Team Memaers Anand Prakash, Professor, Department of Psychology, University of Delhi, Delhi Anuradha Bhandari, Professor, Department of Psychology, Panjab University, Chandigarh Damodar Suar, Professor, Department of Humanities & Social Seiences, IIT, Kharagpur Komila Thapa, Professor, Department of Psychology. University of Allahabad, Allahabad Lilavati Krishnan, Professor Department of Humanities & Social Sciences, IIT, Kanpur Neclam Srivastava, former PGT, Vasant Valley School, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi Poornima Singh, Professor, Department of Humanities & Social Sciences, IIT, New Delhi RC. Mishra, Professor, Department of Psychology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi Shobini L, Rao, Professor National Brain Research Centre, Gurgaon Sunita Arora, Senior Counsellor, Govt. Girls Sx. Sec. School No. 1, Roop Nagar, Delhi Sushma Gulati, Professor, DEPFE, NCERT, New Delhi U.N. Dash, Professor Department of Psychology, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar ‘MEMBER-COORDINATORS. Anjum Sibia, Reader, DEPFE, NCERT, New Delhi Prabhat K. Mishra, Lecturer, DEPFE, NCERT, New DelhiACKNOWLEDGEMENTS National Council of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi thanks Professor Sushma Gulati, Head, Department of Educational Psychology and Foundations of Education for her support during the various stages of textbook development. Acknowledgements are due to Dr. Shakuntla S, Jaiman, Principal, CSKM School, Satbari, Chattarpur, New Delhi; Rimjhim Jairath, Vasant Valley School, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi: Alka Kumar, Ryan International School. Vasant Kunj, New Delhi; Anuradha Narayan, DAV Public School, Pitampura, Delhi: Cimran Kher, Modern School, Barakhamba Road, New Delhi: Lovika Jain, DPS, Mathura Road. New Delhi: and Usha Anand, St. Thomas Girls Sr. Sec. School, Mandir Marg, New Delhi for their contributions during workshops at different stages of textbook development. The suggestions given by Dr. Prachi Ghildyal, Lecturer, NERIE, Shillong in finalising two chapters of this textbook are also acknowledged. Acknowledgements are also due to Professor C.B. Dwivedi (Retired), Department of Psychology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi for content editing the chapters and to Professor Sagar Sharma (Retired), H.P. University, Shimla for his valuable feedback and suggestions in finalising the textbook. Special thanks are due to Vandana Singh, Consultant Editor, for going through the manuscript and suggesting relevant changes. The Council also gratefully acknowledges the contributions of Pavnesh Verma and Neelam Walecha, DIP Operators; Rakesh Kumar, Proof Reader; Sumant Thapliyal, Incharge, Computer Station; and Purnendu Kumar Barik, Copy Editor, in shaping this textbook. Last but not the least, the efforts of the Publication Department, NCERT are also duly acknowledged.NOTE FOR THE TEACHERS As a teacher, one is always concerned about students’ learning and enhancing their understanding over and above what is in the textbook. The existing classroom practices largely focus on imparting knowledge and information. It is. however, important for us to reflect on what it means to teach, how we teach, and the carryover value of our teaching. Research shows that pedagogical practices are influenced by the nature and contents of the subject or discipline. The subject of psychology, which deals with human mind, behaviour and human relationship, can most appropriately lend itself to teaching with humanistic perspective. Such a perspective aims at enriching students’ knowledge as well as inspiring and awakening their curiosity, positive feelings, desire to learn, openness, exploration of self and others, ete, Such an approach is also conducive to their personal development and inculcation of positive attitude and love for the subject. This textbook has been so designed as to provide ample scope to build on the previous knowledge and experiences of the students. Meaningful contexts have been provided to relate the subject matter with day-to-day life. We suggest you to use interactive approach to engage the students, and to sustain their interest and enthusiasm in order to make the teaching-learning process joyful. Strategies like stories, discussions, examples, questioning, analogies, problem-solving situations, role play. etc. are in-built part of the text. It will be good if students bring in their own stories and examples. Special effort has been made to reduce the density of information to provide time and space to help students to relate knowledge gained in the classroom to their individual experiences as well as to their physical. social. political and economic environments. The transaction of the subject matter, therefore, should facilitate reflection among students to explore the applicability of knowledge to their own contexts. We suggest that you may encourage your students to maintain a record of interesting events /episodes in which they may have been involved personally or which they may have observed. They may try to make sense of these episodes using their learning from this textbook. This may be called a LEARNING DIARY. It would be important to dwell on the potential of the subject for Class XII students, its value in daily life and various career possibilities. Students, it is expected. will be made aware of the empirical nature of the discipline and the importance of adopting scientific approach in studying human behaviour: This textbook consists of nine chapters on topics considered essential for an introductory course in psychology. Each chapter begins with learning objectives. ‘An outline of the major contents to be covered give an overall view of the chapter. The introduction at the beginning of each chapter provides an informative and challenging start to build on the students’ previous knowledge. The main content in cach chapter is interspersed with examples, illustrations, tables, activities and boxes to facilitate better understanding of the concepts. These are integral part of the textbook and should be used, The summary at the end of each chapter helps to reinforce and consolidate what has been read or taught. Before you begin a particular chapter you should encourage the students to read the summary of the chapter.x ‘The chapter-end review questions cater to the areas of understanding, application, and skill, intended to promote higher order thinking. The project ideas given at the end of each chapter are aimed at engaging students in fieldwork and gaining hands-on experience. This also brings them to understand abstract concepts more meaningfully by relating these to their everyday life happenings. We hope that these will be appropriately used by you to create new learning opportunities, Although the contents of the textbook have been organised under different headings, like variations in psychological attributes, personality, attitude, psychological disorders, group processes etc., efforts have been made to provide linkages across and within the chapters to maintain continuity and holistic perspective. The activities given in the textbook have been carefully chosen to maximise students’ participation in the class. Most activities suggested are easy to carry out and require no special material. These can be conducted in the classroom situation or given as part of home assignments. While some of the activities are group-oriented, some of these are individual in nature. Group activities are important for team building, to experience the joy of sharing and to develop respect for each others’ viewpoint. While conducting activity sessions, particular care should be taken in buildinga classroom climate that is conducive to mutual respect, confidence and cooperation, Since every class is different and every teacher is different, these activities can be adapted according to the varied requirements and the contexts. The two new features of this textbook are the pedagogical hints and weblinks. Pedagogical hints are given at the end of each chapter with the aim to help teachers transact the contents in a manner to evoke students’ interest and curiosity, and provide scope for better interaction in the class. Weblinks related to each chapter would facilitate further exploration on the topies to know about the latest developments made in the area of psychology. It is critical that in teaching this course, we must strive to maintain balance between scientific and experiential approaches.NOTE FOR THE STUDENTS This textbook has been prepared to introduce you to the fundamentals of psychology. Besides providing basic disciplinary knowledge, it focuses on enhancing your curiosity and understanding of people's behaviour and that of your own. The interactive nature of the textbook will help you understand psychology as a discipline as well as the practical applications of psychology in day-to-day life. For this it is required that you participate in the classroom activities fully and also reflect on them. ‘To begin with, you must get familiar with the subject contents which will give you an idea of the topies to be covered and the sequence of chapters. Each chapter has objectives and the content outline, The objectives inform you what all you should be able to know after you have gone through the chapter. The chapters begin with an introduction which will give you a brief overview of what lies ahead, ‘The contents also include boxes and activities. These boxes contain information relating to the latest theories and experiments that have been conducted and its applications to everyday situations. They are integral to the book and you are required to read them to widen your horizon and to develop a quest for knowledge. Examples given in the textbook relate to real-life events and experiences. To consolidate all that has been taught and understood, you will find a summary after each chapter. This is then followed by review questions. These questions are likely to generate critical thinking and develop in you the power to question and reason. We encourage you to attempt these questions. Your responses to these questions will indicate both the degree of your mastery of the concepts taught and the depth of your knowledge. It is important that you learn the key terms given at the end of each chapter and their definitions. The glossary at the end of the textbook will prove to be an excellent aid to clarify and brush-up the fundamentals of the subject. Now let us focus on the activities and project ideas mentioned in each chapter. ‘These are intended to promote experiential learning. Your experience while taking up these activities will help you to know more about yourself and others. These will also help you to relate taught concepts in the class to real-life situations. Try to involve in as many activities as you can as this will facilitate your understanding of psychological concepts better. The project ideas also emphasise learning by doing. You may have to move out of your classroom to interview people or to gather information. It may not be possible for you to carry out all the projects but choose the ones you find interesting. Weblinks provided at the end of each chapter would help you to find out additional information on the related concepts covered in this textbook. You are going to embark on a journey towards exploring different realms of the subject. As you go along, the text will help you to explore your ‘self’ and the world of which you are a part. The doorway to psychology is open, make the best of it.-| sol to 7 WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having ‘SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC] and to secure this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949 do HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO | OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION. Bag by constunon rm. scond Ameren act. 1976,sec2, | | 2. Subs by te Constitution (ory-second Amendment Act, 1976, Sec.2 THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA PREAMBLE lemnly resolved to constitute India into a allits citizens : JUSTICE, social, economic and political; LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship; EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the “[unity and integrity of the Nation]; IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY |- Tor’ Sovereign Democratic Republic’ (w. for"Unity of the Nation’ (wef 3.1.1977)CONTENTS Foreword att Preface v Chapter 1 Variations in Psychological Attributes 1 Chapter 2 Self and Personality 23 Chapter 3 Meeting Life Challenges 50 Chapter 4 Psychological Disorders 69 Chapter 5 ‘Therapeutic Approaches 89 Chapter 6 Attitude and Social Cognition 106 Chapter 7 Social Influence and Group Processes 129 Chapter 8 Psychology and Life 152 Chapter 9 Developing Psychological Skills, 177 Guidelines for Practicals in Psychology 196 Glossary 200 Suggested Readings 209CONSTITUTION OF INDIA Part III (Articles 12 - 38) (Subject to certain conditions, some exceptions ‘and reasonable restrictions) ‘guarantees these Fundamental Rights Right to Equality *# before law and equal protection of laws: © irrespective of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth; * of opportunity in public employment; ‘by abolition of untouchability and titles Right to Freedom © of expression, assembly. association, movement, residence and profession: * of certain protections in respect of conviction for offences: ‘of protection of life and personal liberty: ‘office and compulsory education for children between the age of six and fourteen years: + of protection against arrest and detention in certain cases Right against Exploitation * for prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour; * for prohibition of employment of children in hazardous jobs. Right to Freedom of Religion * freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion; * freedom to manage religious affairs * freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion; * freedom asto attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in educational institutions wholly maintained by the State. Cultural and Edueational Rights + for protection of interests of minorities to conserve their language, script and culture; ‘for minorities to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice. Right to Constitutional Remedies * by issuance of directions or orders or writs by the Supreme Court and High Courts for enforcement of these Fundamental Rights. SeVARIATIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES After reading this chapter, you would be able to: J understand psychological attributes on which people differ from each other, _y learn about different methods that are used to assess psychological attributes, explain what constitutes intelligent behaviour, learn how psychologists assess intelligence to identify mentally challenged and gifted individuals, understand how intelligence has different meaning in different cultures, and understand the difference between intelligence and aptitude. GG GG Introduction Individual Differences in Human Functioning Assessment of Psychological Attributes Intelligence Theories of Intelligence Theory of Multiple Intelligences Triarchic Theory of Intelligence Planning, Attention-arousal, and Simultaneous- successive Model of Intelligence Individual Differences in Intelligence CONTENTS Variations of Intelligence Some Misuses of Intelligence Tests (Box 1.1) Culture and Intelligence Emotional Intelligence Ree ree Characteristics of Emotionally Intelligent a Persons (Box 1.2) ‘Summary Special Abilities Review Questions Aptitude : Nature and Measurement Project Ideas Creativity Weblinks Pedagogical HintsIntroduction If you observe your friends, classmates or relatives, you will find how they differ from each other in the manner they perceive, learn, and think, as iso in their performance on various tasks. Such individual differences can be noticed in every walk of life. That people differ from one another is obvious. In Class XI, you have learnt about psychological principles that are applied fo understand human behaviour. We also need to know how people differ, what brings about these differences, and how such differences can be assessed. You will recall how one of the main concerns of modern psychology has been the study of individual differences from the time of Galton. This chapter will introduce you to some of the fundamentals of individual differences. ‘One of the most popular psychological attributes which has been of interest to psychologists is Intelligence. People differ from each other in their ability to understand complex ideas, adapt to environment, learn from experience, engage in various forms of reasoning, and to overcome obstacles. Inthis chapter, you will study the nature of intelligence, changing definitions of intelligence, cultural differences in intelligence, range and variations in the intellectual competencies of people, and the nature of special abilities or aptitudes. Individual variations are common within and across all species. Variations add colour and beauty to nature. For a moment, think of a world around you where each and every object is of the same colour, say red or blue or green. How would the world appear to you? Certainly not a beautiful one! Would you prefer to live in such a world? In all likelihood, your answer will be ‘no’. Like objects, people too possess different combinations of traits. Variability is a fact of nature, and individuals are no exception to this. They vary in terms of physical characteristics, such as height, weight, strength, hair colour, and so on. They also vary along psychological dimensions. They may be intelligent or dull, dominant or submissive, creative or not so creative, outgoing or withdrawn, etc. The list of variations can be endless. Different traits can exist in varying degrees in an individual. In this sense, each one of us is unique as s/he be Psychology exemplifies a typical combination of various traits. The question which you may like to pose is how and why people differ. This, in fact, is the subject matter of the study of individual differences. For psychologists, individual differences refer to distinctiveness and variations among people's characteristics and behaviour patterns. While many psychologists believe that our behaviours are influenced by our personal traits, some others hold the view that our behaviours are influenced more by situational factors. This latter view is known as situationism, which states that situations and circumstances in which one is placed influence one’s behaviour. A person, who is generally aggressive, may behave in a submissive manner in the presence of her/his top boss. Sometimes, the situational influences are so powerful that individuals with differing personality traits respond to them in almost the same ways. The situationist perspective views human behaviour relatively more as a result of influence of external factors.Psychological attributes are involved in very simple phenomena like in time taken to react to a stimulus, i.e. reaction time, and also in highly global concepts like happiness. It is difficult to count and specify the number of psychological attributes that can be assessed. Assessment is the first step in understanding a psychological attribute. Assessment refers to the measurement of psychological attributes of individuals and their evaluation, often using multiple methods in terms of certain standards of comparison. Any attribute will be said to exist in a person only if it can be measured by using scientific procedures. For example, when we say, “Harish is dominant”, we are referring to the degree of ‘dominance’ in Harish. This statement is based on our own assessment of ‘dominance’ in him. Our assessment may be informal or formal. Formal assessment is objective, standardised, and organised. On the other hand, informal assessment varies from case to case and from one assessor to another and, therefore, is open to subjective interpretations. Psychologists are trained in making formal assessment of psychological attributes. Once assessment is done, we can use this information to predict how Harish will probably behave in future. We may predict that Harish, if given a chance to lead a team, will most likely be an authoritarian leader. If the predicted consequence is not what we want, we may want to intervene to effect a change in Harish’s behaviour. ‘The attribute chosen for assessment depends upon our purpose. In order to help a weak student perform well in examinations, we may assess her/his intellectual strengths and weaknesses. If a person fails to adjust with members of Chapter 1 + Variations in Psychological Attributes her/his family and neighbourhood, we may consider assessing her/his personality characteristics. For a poorly motivated person, we may assess her/his interests and preferences. Psychological assessment uses systematic testing procedures to evaluate abilities, behaviours, and personal qualities of individuals. Some Domains of Psychological Attributes Psychological attributes are not linear or unidimensional. They are complex and expressed in terms of dimensions. A line is a mere aggregate of many points. A point occupies no space. But think of a box. It ocetupies space. It can be described only in terms of its three dimensions, i.e. length, width, and height. Similar is the case with psychological attributes. They are usually multi-dimensional. If you want to have a complete assessment of a person, you will need to assess how s/he functions in various domains or areas, such as cognitive, emotional, social, ete. We will discuss in this chapter some important attributes that are of interest to psychologists. These attributes are categorised on the basis of varieties of tests used in psychological literature. 1. Intelligence is the global capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use available resources effectively when faced with challenges. Intelligence tests provide a global measure of a person's general cognitive competence including the ability to profit from schooling. Generally, students having low intelligence are not likely to do so well in school-related examinations, but their success in life is not associated only with their intelligence test scores. 2. Aptitude refers to an individual's underlying potential for acquiring skills. Aptitude tests are tsed to predict what an individual will be able to do if given bsproper environment and training. A person with high mechanical aptitude can profit from appropriate training and can do well as an engineer. Similarly, a person having high language aptitude can be trained to be a good writer. 3. Interest is an individual's preference for engaging in one or more specific activities relative to others. Assessment of interests of students may help to decide what subjects or courses they can pursue comfortably and with pleastire. Knowledge of interests helps us in making choices that promote life satisfaction and performance on jobs. 4, Personality refers to relatively enduring characteristics of a person that make her or him distinet from others. Personality tests try to assess an individual's unique characteristics, e.g. whether one is dominant or submissive, outgoing or withdrawn, moody or emotionally stable, etc. Personality assessment helps us to explain an individual's behaviour and predict how she/he will behave in future. Values are enduring beliefs about an ideal mode of behaviour. A person having a value sets a standard for guiding her/his actions in life and also for judging others. In value assessment, we try to determine the dominant values of a person (e.g., political, religious, social or economic) a Assessment Methods Several methods are used for psychological assessment. You have learnt about some of these methods in Class XI. Let us recall their key features * Psychological Test is an objective and standardised measure of an indtviduat’s mental and/or behavioural characteristics. Objective tests have been developed to measure all the dimensions of psychological attributes (e.g., intelligence, aptitude, ete.) described above. These tests are widely BE rescintgy used for the purposes of clinical diagnosis, guidance, personnel selection, placement, and training. Besides objective tests, psychologists have also developed certain projective tests, especially for the assessment of personality. You will learn about them in Chapter 2 Interview involves seeking information _from a person ona one-to-one basis. You may see it being used when a counsellor interacts with a client, a salesperson makes a door-to-door survey regarding the usefulness of a particular product, an employer selects employees for her/his organisation, or a Journalist interviews important people on issues of national and international importance. Case Study is an in-depth study of the individual in terms of her/his psychological attributes, psychological history in the context of her/his psychosocial and physical environment. Case studies are widely used by clinical psychologists. Case analyses of the lives of great people can also be highly illuminating for those willing to learn from their life experiences. Case studies are based on data generated by different methods, e.g. interview, observation, questionnaire, psychological tests, etc. Observation involves employing systematic, organised, and objective procedures to record behavioural phenomena occurring naturally in real time. Certain phenomena such as mother-child interactions can be easily studied through observation. The major problems with observational methods are that the observer has little control over the situation and the reports may suffer from subjective interpretations of the observer. Self-Report is a method in which a person provides factual information about herself/himself and/or opinions,beliefs, etc. that s/he holds. Such information may be obtained by using an interview schedule or a questionnaire, a psychological test. or a personal diary. Intelligence is a key construct employed to know how individuals differ from one another. It also provides an understanding of how people adapt their behaviour according to the environment they live in. In this section, you will read about intelligence in its various forms. Psychological notion of intelligence is quite different from the common sensical notion of intelligence. If you watch an intelligent person, you are likely to see in her/him attributes like mental alertness, ready wit, quickness in learning, and ability to understand relationships. The Oxford Dictionary explains intelligence as the power of perceiving, learning, understanding, and knowing. Early intelligence theorists also used these attributes in defining Intelligence. Alfred Binet was one of the first psychologists who worked on intelligence. He defined intelligence as the ability to judge well, understand well, and reason well. Wechsler, whose intelligence tests are most widely used, understood intelligence in terms of its functionality, Le. its value for adaptation to environment. He defined it as the global and aggregate capacity of an individual to think rationally, act purposefully, and to deal effectively with her/his environment. Other psychologists, such as Gardner and Sternberg have suggested that an intelligent individual not only adapts to the environment, but also actively modifies or shapes it. You will be able to understand the concept of intelligence and how it has evolved, when Chapter 1 + Variations in Psychological Attributes we discuss some important theories of intelligence. Discovering the Attributes of Intelligent Persons u 1. Who is the most intelligent of your classmates? Think of her/him in your mind's eye, and write down a few words/phrases describing that person. 2. Think of 3 other persons in your immediate environment, whom you consider intelligent, and write down a few words/phrases describing the attributes of each. 3. Judge the newer additions with reference to what you wrote in item, no. 1. 4. Make alist ofall the attributes you consider as manifestations of inteligent behaviours. Using these attributes, try to frame adefinition. 5. Discuss your report with your classmates and the teacher. 6. Compare it with what the researchers have to say about ‘intelligence’ Psychologists have proposed several theories of intelligence. Theories can be broadly classified as either representing a psychometric/structural approach or an information-processing approach. The psychometric approach considers intelligence as an aggregate of abilities. It expresses the individual's performance in terms of a single index of cognitive abilities. On the other hand, the information- processing approach describes the processes people use in intellectual reasoning and problem solving. The major focus of this approach is on how an intelligent person acts. Rather than focusing on structure of intelligence or its underlying dimensions, information- bsprocessing approaches emphasise studying cognitive functions underlying intelligent behaviour. We will discuss some representative theories of these approaches. We mentioned above that Alfred Binet was the first psychologist who tried to formalise the concept of intelligence in terms of mental operations. Prior to him, we find the notion of intelligence described in general ways in various philosophical treatises available in different cultural traditions. Binet’s theory of intelligence was rather simple as it arose from his interest in differentiating more intelligent from less intelligent individuals. He, therefore, conceptualised intelligence as consisting of one similar set of abilities which can be used for solving any or every problem in an individual’s environment. His theory of intelligence is called Uni or one factor theory of intelligence. This theory came to be disputed when psychologists started analysing data of individuals, which was collected using Binet's test. In 1927, Charles Spearman proposed a two-factor theory of intelligence employing a statistical method called factor analysis. He showed that intelligence consisted of a general factor (g-factor) and some specific factors (s-factors). The factor includes mental operations which are primary and common to all performances. In addition to the ¢-factor, he said that there are also many specific abilities. These are contained in what he called the s-factor. Excellent singers, architects, scientists, and athletes may be high on g-factor, but in addition to this, they have specific abilities which allow them to excel in their respective domains. Spearman's theory was followed by Louis Thurstone’s theory. He proposed the theory of primary mental abilities. It states that intelligence consists of seven primary abilities, each of which is relatively Ds Psychology independent of the others. These primary abilities are: (i) Verbal Comprehension (grasping meaning of words, concepts, and ideas), (ii) Numerical Abilities (speed and accuracy in numerical and computational skills), (iii) Spatial Relations (visualising patterns and forms). (iv) Perceptual Speed (speed in perceiving details), (v) Word Fluency (using words fluently and flexibly), (vi) Memory (accuracy in recalling information), and (vit) Inductive Reasoning (deriving general rules from presented facts) Arthur Jensen proposed a hierarchical model of intelligence consisting of abilities operating at two levels, called Level I and Level Il. Level I is the associative learning in which output ts more or less similar to the input (e.g.. rote learning and memory) Level II, called cognitive competence, involves higher-order skills as they transform the input to produce an effective output. J.P. Guilford proposed the strueture- of-intellect model which classifies intellectual traits among three dimensions: operations, contents, and products. Operations are what the respondent does. These include cognition, memory recording, memory retention, divergent production, convergent production, and evaluation. Contents refer to the nature of materials or information on which intellectual operations are performed. ‘These include visual, auditory, symbolic (e.g., letters, numbers), semantic (e.g., words) and behavioural (e.g., information about people's behaviour, attitudes, needs, etc). Products refer to the form in which information is processed by the respondent. Products are classified into units, classes, relations, systems, transformations, and implications. Since this classification (Guilford, 1988) includes 6x5x6 categories, therefore, the model has 180 cells. Each cell is expected to have at least one factor or ability; some cells may have more thanone factor. Each factor is described in terms of all three dimensions. The above mentioned theories are representations of psychometric approach to understand intelligent behaviour. Theory of Multiple Intelligences Howard Gardner proposed the theory of multiple intelligences. According to him, intelligence is not a single entity; rather distinct types of intelligences exist. Each of these intelligences are independent of each other. This means that, if a person exhibits one type of intelligence, it does not necessarily indicate being high or low on other types of intelligences. Gardner also put forth that different types of intelligences interact and work together to find a solution to a problem. Gardner studied extremely talented persons, who had shown exceptional abilities in their respective areas, and described eight types of intelligence. These are as follows: Linguistic (an ability to produce and use language) : It Is the capacity to use language fluently and flexibly to express one’s thinking and understand others. Persons high on this intelligence are ‘word-smart’, i.e. they are sensitive to different shades of word meanings, are articulate, and can create linguistic images in their mind. Poets and writers are very strong in this component of intelligence. Logical-Mathematical (an ability to think logically and critically, and solve problems) : Persons high on this type of intelligence can think logically and critically. They engage in abstract reasoning, and can manipulate symbols to solve mathematical problems. Scientists and Nobel Prize winners are likely to be strong in this component. Spatial (an ability to form visual images and patterns) : It refers to the abilities involved in forming, using, and transforming mental images. The person high on this intelligence can easily represent the spatial world in the mind. Chapter 1 + Variations in Psychological Attributes Pilots, sailors, sculptors, painters, architects, interior decorators, and surgeons are likely to have highly developed spatial intelligence Musical (an ability to produce and manipulate musical rhythms and patterns) : It is the capacity to produce, create and manipulate musical patterns. Persons high on this intelligence are very sensitive to sounds and vibrations, and in creating new patterns of sounds. Bodily-Kinaesthetic (an ability to use whole or portions of the body flexibly and creatively): This consists of the use of the whole body or portions of it for display or construction of products and problem solving. Athletes, dancers, actors, sportspersons, gymnasts, and surgeons are likely to have such kind of intelligence. Interpersonal (an ability to understand to subtle aspects of others’ behaviours) : This is the ability to understand the motives, feelings and behaviours of other people so as to bond into a comfortable relationship with others. Psychologists, counsellors. politicians, social workers, and religious leaders are likely to possess high interpersonal intelligence. Intrapersonal (an ability to understand of one’s own feelings, motives, and desires): This refers to the knowledge of one’s internal strengths and limitations and using that knowledge to effectively relate to others. Persons high on this ability have finer sensibilities regarding their identity, human existence, and meaning of life. Philosophers and spiritual leaders present examples of this type of intelligence. Naturalistic (an ability to identify the features of the natural world) : This involves complete awareness of our relationship with the natural world. It is useful in recognising the beauty of different species of flora and fauna, and making subtle discriminations in the natural world. Hunters, farmers, tourists, babotanists, zoologists, and bird watchers possess more of naturalistic intelligence. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence Robert Sternberg (1985) proposed the triarchic theory of intelligence. Sternberg views intelligence as “the ability to adapt, to shape and select environment to accomplish one’s goals and those of one’s society and culture”. According to this theory, there are three basic types of intelligence: Componential, Experiential, and Contextual. The elements of the triarchic theory of intelligence are shown in Figure 1.1 Componential Intelligence : Compo- nential or analytical intelligence is the analysis of information to solve problems. Persons high on this ability think analytically and critically and succeed in schools. This intelligence has three components, each serving a different function. First is the knowledge acquisition component, which is responsible for learning and acquisition of the ways of doing things. The second is the meta or a higher order component, which involves planning concerning what to do and how to do. The third is the performance component, which involves actually doing things. Experiential Intelligence: Experiential or creative intelligence is involved in using past experiences creatively to solve novel problems. It is reflected in creative performance. Persons high on this aspect integrate different experiences in an original way to make new discoveries and inventions. They quickly find out which information is crucial in a given situation. On the Practical’ Track a You have just been admitted into a school/college. You will take three examinations during the entire year You sincerely want to receive high marks in the course. How likely are yott to engage in cach of the following ‘actions? Rank the following courses of action. Match your answer with that of your classmates. + "Attend classes regularly. + Create study groups with your friends for weekly discussions, “Take detailed notes in the class. Join a tutorial/eoaching centre. Prepare written notes for each chapter. + Read the textbook chapters thoroughly, + Solve the questions of te last tree years. Talk to your teacher after the class. Fig.1.1 : Blements of Triarchic Theory of Intelligence PsychologyContextual Intelligence : Contextual or practical intelligence involves the ability to deal with environmental demands encountered on a daily basis. It may be called ‘street smartness’ or ‘business sense’. Persons high on this aspect easily adapt to their present environment or select a more favourable environment than the existing one, or modify the environment to fit their needs. Therefore, they turn out to be successful in life. Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence represents the information- processing approach to understand intelligence. Planning, Attention-arousal, and Simultaneous-successive (PASS) Model of Intelligence This model has been developed by J.P. Das, Jack Naglieri, and Kirby (1994) According to this model, intellectual activity involves the interdependent functioning of three neurological systems, called the functional units of brain. These units are responsible for arousal/attention, coding or processing, and planning respectively. Arousal/Attention : State of arousal is basic to any behaviour as it helps us in attending to stimuli. Arousal and attention enable a person to process information. An optimal level of arousal focuses our attention to the relevant aspects of a problem. Too much or too little arousal would interfere with attention. For instance, when you are told by your teacher about a test which s/he plans to hold, it would arouse you to attend to the specific chapters. Arousal forces you to focus your attention on reading, learning and revising the contents of the chapters. Simultaneous and Successive Processing : You can integrate the information into your knowledge system either simultaneously or successively. Simultaneous processing takes place Chapter 1 + Variations in Psychological Attributes when you perceive the relations among various concepts and integrate them into a meaningful pattern for comprehension. For example, in Raven's Progressive Matrices (RPM) Test, a design is presented from which a part has been removed. You are required to choose one of the six options that best completes the design. Simultaneous processing helps you in grasping the meaning and relationship between the given abstract figures. Successive processing takes place when you remember all the information serially so that the recall of one leads to the recall of another. Learning of digits, alphabets, multiplication tables, ete. are examples of successive processing. Planning : This is an essential feature of intelligence. After the information is attended to and processed. planning is activated. It allows us to think of the possible courses of action, implement them to reach a target, and evaluate their effectiveness. If a plan does not work, it is modified to suit the requirements of the task or situation. For example, to take the test scheduled by your teacher, you would have to set goals, plan a time schedule of study, get clarifications in case of problems and if you are not able to tackle the chapters assigned for the test, you may have to think of other ways (e.g., give more time, study with a friend, etc.) to meet your goal: ‘These PASS processes operate on a knowledge base developed either formally (by reading, writing, and experimenting) or informally from the environment. These processes are interactive and dynamic in nature; yet each has its own distinctive functions. Das and Naglieri have also developed a battery of tests, known as the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS). It consists of verbal as well as non-verbal tasks that measure basic cognitive functions presumed to be independent of schooling. The battery of tests is meant for individuals between 5 and 18 years bsof age. The results of assessment can be used to remedy cognitive deficits of children with learning problems. This model represents the information- processing approach to intelligence. Why are some people more intelligent than others? Is it due to their heredity, or is it due to the influence of environmental factors? You have already read about the influence of these factors in the development of an individual in Class XI Intelligence: Interplay of Nature and Nurture The evidence for hereditary influences on intelligence comes mainly from studies on twins and adopted children. The intelligence of identical twins reared together correlate almost 0.90. Twins separated early in childhood also show considerable similarity in their intellectual, personality and behavioural characteristics. The intelligence of identical twins reared in different environments correlate 0.72, those of fraternal twins reared together correlate almost 0.60, and those of brothers and sisters reared together correlate about 0.50, while siblings reared apart correlate about 0.25. Another line of evidence comes from the studies of adopted children, which show that children’s intelligence is more similar to their biological rather than adoptive parents. With respect to the role of environment, studies have reported that as children grow in age, their intelligence level tends to move closer to that of their adoptive parents. Children from disadvantaged homes adopted into families with higher socio- economic status exhibit a large increase in their intelligence scores. There is evidence that environmental deprivation bo Psychology lowers intelligence while rich nutrition, good family background, and quality schooling increases intelligence. There is a general consensts among psychologists that intelligence is a product of complex interaction of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture). Heredity can best be viewed as something that sets a range within which an individual's development is actually shaped by the support and opportunities of the environment. Assessment of Intelligence In 1905, Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon, made the first successful attempt to formally measure intelligence. In 1908, when the scale was revised, they gave the concept of Mental Age (MA), which is a measure of a person's intellectual development relative to people of her/his age group. A mental age of 5 means that a child’s performance on an intelligence test equals the average performance level of a group of 5-year olds. Chronological Age (CA) is the biological age from birth. A bright child’s MA is more than her/his CA; for a dull child, MA is below the CA. Retardation was defined by Binet and Simon as being two mental age years below the chronological age. In 1912, William Stern, a German psychologist, devised the concept of Intelligence Quotient (IQ). 1Q refers to mental age divided by chronological age, and multiplied by 100. MA Ig = @ x 100 ‘The number 100 is used as a multiplier to avoid the decimal point. When the MA equals the CA, the IQ equals 100. If MA is more than the CA, IQ is more than 100. 1Q becomes less than 100 when the MA is less than the CA. For example, a 10-year-old child with a mental age of 12 would have an IQ of 120 (12/10 x 100),‘Intelligent’ Numbers 13 (Computing 19) + Rind out the 19 of @ 14-year-old child with a mental age of 16. + Find out the mental age of a 12- year-old child with an IQ of 90. whereas the same child with an MA of 7 would have an IQ of 70 (7/10 x 100). The average IQ in the population is 100, irrespective of age. 1Q scores are distributed in the population in such a way that the scores of most people tend to fall in the middle range of the distribution. Only a few people have either very high or very low scores. The frequency distribution for the 1Q scores tends to approximate a bell- shaped curve, called the normal curve. This type of distribution is symmetrical around the central value, called the mean. The distribution of 1 scores in the form of a normal distribution is shown in Figure 1.2. ‘The mean IQ score in a population is 100. People with IQ scores in the range of 90-110 have normal intelligence. Those with 19 below 70 are suspected to have ‘intellectual disability’, while persons with IQ above 130 are considered to have exceptional talents. The IQ score of a person can be interpreted by referring to Table 1.1. Table 1.1 : Classification of People on the Basis of 19 1g Range Descriptive Label Per cent in the| Population Above 180 Very superior 22 120 ~ 130 Superior 67 110-119 High average 16.1 90-109 Average 50.0 80-89 Low average 16.1 70-79 Borderline 67 Below 70. Intellectually disabled 2.2 All persons do not have the same intellectual capacity; some are exceptionally bright and some are below average. One practical use of intelligence test is to identify persons at the extremes of intellectual functioning. If you refer to Table 1.1, you will notice that about 2 per cent of the population have IQ above 130, ‘Fig. 1.2 : Normal Curve Pattern Showing Distribution of 19 Scores in the Population Chapter 1 + Variations in Psychological Attributesand a similar percentage have 19 below 70. The persons in the first group are called intellectually gifted; those in the second group are termed intellectually disabled. These two groups deviate considerably from the normal population in respect of their cognitive, emotional. and motivational characteristics. Variations of Intelligence Intellectual Deficiency On the one hand are the gifted and creative persons we discussed briefly earlier. On the other hand, there are children who face enormous difficulty in learning even very simple skills. Those children who show intellectual deficiency are termed as ‘intellectually disabled’. As a group, there is wide variation among the intellectually disabled. The American Association on Mental Deficiency (AAMD) views intellectual disability as “significantly sub-average general intellectual functioning _ existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive behaviour and manifested during the developmental period”. This definition points to three basic features. First, in order to be judged as intellectually disabled, a person must show significantly sub-average intellectual functioning. Persons having IQs below 70 are judged to have sub-average intelligence. The second relates to deficits in adaptive behaviour. Adaptive behaviour refers to a person's capacity to be independent and deal effectively with one’s environment. The third feature is that the deficits must be observed during the developmental period, that is between 0 and 18 years of age. Individuals who are categorised as having intellectual disability show significant variation in their abilities, ranging from those who can be taught to work and function with special attention, bo Psychology to those who cannot be trained and require institutional care throughout their lives. You have learnt earlier that the mean 1Q score in the population is 100. These figures are used to understand the categories of intellectually disabled. The different levels of intellectual disability are: mild (IQs 55. to approximately 70), moderate (IQs 35-40 to approximately 50-55), severe (IQs 20- 25 to approximately 35-40), and profound (Is below 20-25). Although the development of people with mild disability is typically slower than that of their peers, they can function quite independently, hold jobs and families. As the level of disability increases, the difficulties are strongly marked. The people with moderate disability lag behind their peers in language and motor skills. ‘They can be trained in self-care skills, and simple social and communication skills. They need to have moderate degree of supervision in everyday tasks. Individuals with profound and severe disability are incapable of managing life and need constant care for their entire lives. You will read more about the characteristics of the intellectually disabled in Chapter 4. Intellectual Giftedness Intellectually gifted individuals show higher performance because of their outstanding potentialities. The study of gifted individuals began in 1925, when Lewis Terman followed the lives of about 1500 children with IQs of 130 and above to examine how intelligence was related to oceupational success and life adjustment. Although the terms ‘talent’ and ‘giftedness’ are often used inter- changeably, they mean different things. Giftedness is exceptional general ability shown in superior performance in a widevariety of areas. Talent is a narrower term and refers to remarkable ability in a specific field (e.g., spiritual, social, aesthetic, etc.). The highly talented are sometimes called ‘prodigies’ It has been suggested by psychologists that giftedness from the teachers’ point of view depends on a combination of high ability, high creativity, and high commitment. Gifted children show early signs of intellectual superiority. Even during infancy and early childhood, they show larger attention span, good recognition memory, preference for novelty, sensitivity to environmental changes, and early appearance of language skills. To equate giftedness with brilliant academic performance is not correct. Athletes who show superior psychomotor ability are also gifted. Each gifted student possesses different strengths, personalities and characteristics. Some important characteristics of gifted children are = * Advanced logical thinking, questioning and problem solving behaviour. + High speed in processing information. + Superior generalisation and diseri mination ability. + Advanced level of original and creative thinking. * High level of intrinsic motivation and self-esteem. * Independent and non-conformist thinking. * Preference for solitary academic activities for long periods. Performance on intelligence tests is not the only measure for identifying the gifted. Many other sources of information, stich as teachers’ judgment, school achievement record, parents’ interviews, peer and self- ratings, etc. can be used in combination with intellectual assessment. To reach their full potential, gifted children require special attention and different educational Chapter 1 + Variations in Psychological Attributes programmes beyond those provided to normal children in regular classrooms. These may include life enrichment programmes that can sharpen children’s skills in productive thinking, planning, decision-making, and communication. Types of Intelligence Tests Intelligence tests are of several types. On the basis of their administration procedure, they can be categorised as individual or group tests. They can also be classified as cither verbal or performance tests on the basis of the nature of items used Depending upon the extent to which an intelligence test favours one culture over another, it can be judged as either culture- fair or culture-biased. You can choose a test depending on the purpose of your tse. Indiwidual or Group Tests An individual intelligence test is one which can be administered to one person at a time. A group intelligence test can be administered to several persons simultaneously. Individual tests require the test administrator to establish a rapport with the subject and be sensitive to her/his feelings, moods and expressions during the testing session. Group tests, however, do not allow an opportunity to be familiar with the subjects’ feelings. Individual tests allow people to answer orally or in a written form or manipulate objects as per the tester’s instructions Group tests generally seek written answers usually in a multiple-choice format Verbal, Non-Verbal, or Performance Tests An intelligence test may be fully verbal, fully non-verbal or fully performance- based, or it may consist of a mixture of items from each category. Verbal tests require subjects to give verbal responses either orally or in a written form. bsTherefore, verbal tests can be administered only to literate people. The non- verbal tests use pictures or illustrations as test items. Raven’s Progressive Matrices (RPM) Test is an example of a non-verbal test. In this test, the subject examines an incomplete pattern and chooses a figure from the alternatives that will complete 's Progressive Matrices Test the pattern. A specimen item from RPM is given in Figure 1.3. Performance tests require subjects to manipulate objects and other materials to perform a task. Written language is not necessary for answering the items. For example, Kohs’ Block Design Test contains a number of wooden blocks. The subject is asked to arrange the blocks within a time period to produce a given design. A major advantage of, performance tests is that they can be easily administered to persons from different cultures. Culture-Pair or Culture-Biased Tests Intelligence tests can be culture-fair or culture-biased. Many intelligence tests show a bias to the culture in which they are developed. Tests developed in America and Europe represent an urban and middle class cultural ethos. Hence, educated middle class white subjects generally perform well on those tests. The items do not respect the cultural perspectives of Asia and Africa. The norms for these tests are also drawn from western cultural groups. You may be already familiar with the concept of norms discussed in Class XI It fs nearly impossible to design a test that can be applied equally meaningfully in all cultures. Psychologists have tried to develop tests that are culture-fair or culturally appropriate, i.e. one that does not discriminate against individuals belonging to different cultures. In such tests, items are constructed in a manner Box ‘Some Misuses of Intelligence Tests Wi = You might have learnt by now that intelligence tests serve many useful purposes such as selection, counselling, guidance, self-analysis, and diagnosis. Unless used by a trained investigator, they may be misused either intentionally or unintentionally, Some of the ill- effects of intelligence testing by naive testers are: ‘+ Poor performance on a test may attach a stigma to children and thereby adversely aflect their performance and self-respect. + The tests may invite discriminating practices from parents, teachers and elders in the society. ‘+ Administering a test biased in favour of the middle lass and higher class populations ‘may underestimate theIQ of children coming from disadvantaged sections of the society. ‘+ Intelligence tests do not capture creative potentialities and practical side of intelligence, and they also do not relate much to success in life. Intelligence can be a potential factor for achievement in various spheres of life. It 1s suggested that one should guard against erroneous practices associated with intelligence tests and take the help of trained psychologists to analyse an individual's strengths and weaknesses. bs Psychologythat they assess experiences common to all cultures or have questions in which language usage is not required. Non- verbal and performance tests help reduce the cultural bias usually associated with verbal tests. Intelligence Testing in India S.M. Mohsin made a pioneering attempt in constructing an intelligence test in (NCERT) has documented Indian tests. Critical reviews of Indian tests are published in the form of handbooks. NLEPT has brought out the handbooks in the area of intelligence, aptitude, personality, attitudes, and interests. Table 1.2 lists some tests developed in India. Among these, Bhatia’s Battery of Performance Tests is quite popular. Table 1.2 : Some Tests Developed in India Verbal + CIE Verbal Group Test of Intelligence by Uday Shankar + Group Test of General Mental Ability by S. Jalota + Group Test of intelligence by Prayag Mehta + TheBihar Test of nteligence by SM. Mohsin * Group Test of Intelligence by Bureau of Psychology, Allahabad + Indian Adaptation of Stanford-Binet Test (Third Edition) by S.K. Kulshrestha + Test of General Mental Ability (Hindi) by M.. Joshi. Performance ‘+ CIE Non-verbal Group Test of Intelligence ‘© Bhatia’s Battery of Performance Tests © Draw-a-Man Test by Pramila Pathak ‘+ Adaptation of Wechsler Adult Performance Intelligence Scale by R. Ramalingaswamy Hindi in the 1930s. C.H. Rice attempted to standardise Binet’s test in Urdu and Punjabi. At about the same time, Mahalanobis attempted to standardise Binet's test in Bengali. Attempts were also made by Indian researchers to develop Indian norms for some western tests including RPM, WAIS, Alexander's Passalong, Cube Construction, and Kohs’ Block Design. Long and Mehta prepared a Mental Measurement Handbook listing out 103 tests of intelligence in India that were available in various languages. Since then, a number of tests have either been developed or adapted from western cultures. The National Library of Educational and Psychological Tests (NLEPT) at the National Council of Educational Research and Training Chapter 1 + Variations in Psychological Attributes A major characteristic of intelligence is that it helps individuals to adapt to their environment. The cultural environment provides a context for intelligence to develop. Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, has argued that culture provides a social context in which people live, grow, and understand the world around them. For example, in less technologically developed societies, social and emotional skills in relating to people are valued, while in technologically advanced societies, personal achievement founded on abilities of reasoning and judgment is considered to represent intelligence. From your previous reading you know that culture is a collective system bs