Psychology

TEXTBOOK FOR CLASS XI

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11114 – PSYCHOLOGY
ISBN 81-7450-506-7
Textbook for Class XI

First Edition
February 2006 Phalguna 1927 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
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FOREWORD

The National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005, recommends that children’s life
at school must be linked to their life outside the school. This principle marks a
departure from the legacy of bookish learning which continues to shape our system
and causes a gap between the school, home and community. The syllabi and
textbooks developed on the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement this basic
idea. They also attempt to discourage rote learning and the maintenance of sharp
boundaries between different subject areas. We hope these measures will take us
significantly further in the direction of a child-centred system of education outlined
in the National Policy on Education (1986).
The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and
teachers will take to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and to
pursue imaginative activities and questions. We must recognise that given space,
time and freedom, children generate new knowledge by engaging with the
information passed on to them by adults. Treating the prescribed textbook as the
sole basis of examination is one of the key reasons why other resources and sites of
learning are ignored. Inculcating creativity and initiative is possible if we perceive
and treat children as participants in learning, not as receivers of a fixed body of
knowledge.
These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode of
functioning. Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour in
implementing the annual calendar so that the required number of teaching days
are actually devoted to teaching. The methods used for teaching and evaluation
will also determine how effective this textbook proves for making children’s life at
school a happy experience, rather than a source of stress or boredom. Syllabus
designers have tried to address the problem of curricular burden by restructuring
and reorienting knowledge at different stages with greater consideration for child
psychology and the time available for teaching. The textbook attempts to enhance
this endeavour by giving higher priority and space to opportunities for
contemplation and wondering, discussion in small groups, and activities requiring
hands-on experience.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) appreciates
the hard work done by the Textbook Development Committee responsible for this
textbook. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the advisory group of Social Sciences,
Professor Hari Vasudevan (Department of History, Calcutta University, Kolkata)
and the Chief Advisor for this textbook, Professor R.C. Tripathi (Director, G.B. Pant
Social Science Institute, Allahabad) for guiding the work of this committee. Several
teachers contributed to the development of this textbook; we are grateful to their
principals for making this possible. We are indebted to the institutions and
organisations which have generously permitted us to draw upon their resources,
material and personnel. We are especially grateful to the members of the
National Monitoring Committee, appointed by the Department of Secondary

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and Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development under the
Chairpersonship of Professor Mrinal Miri and Professor G.P. Deshpande, for their
valuable time and contribution. As an organisation committed to the systemic reform
and continuous improvement in the quality of its products, NCERT welcomes
comments and suggestions which will enable us to undertake further revision and
refinement.

Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
20 December 2005 Research and Training

iv

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RATIONALISATION OF CONTENT IN THE TEXTBOOKS

In view of the COVID-19 pandemic, it is imperative to reduce content load on

students. The National Education Policy 2020, also emphasises reducing the content
load and providing opportunities for experiential learning with creative mindset. In
this background, the NCERT has undertaken the exercise to rationalise the
textbooks across all classes. Learning Outcomes already developed by the NCERT
across classes have been taken into consideration in this exercise.

Contents of the textbooks have been rationalised in view of the following:

• Overlapping with similar content included in other subject areas in the

same class
• Similar content included in the lower or higher class in the same subject
• Difficulty level
• Content, which is easily accessible to students without much interventions from
teachers and can be learned by children through self-learning or peer-learning
• Content, which is irrelevant in the present context

This present edition, is a reformatted version after carrying out the changes
given above.

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PREFACE

Psychology is one of the youngest sciences but one of the fastest growing. There
are many who believe that the 21st century is going to be the century of biological
sciences along with psychological sciences. Development in the fields of
neurosciences, as well as physical sciences have opened new doors to solve the
mysteries of mind and human behaviour. There is no human endeavour which is
going to remain unaffected by this new knowledge which is getting created. One
only hopes that it will enable people to live their lives more meaningfully and to
organise human systems better. In fact, as a consequence, a large number of new
job opportunities have surfaced. Psychology already has made inroads into many
new domains.
The writing of this textbook has been truly a collective effort. It has benefitted
from the inputs received from various subject experts in various forms, from college
and school teachers, and also students. In writing this textbook, we have tried to
address some of the concerns raised by the evaluators of the previous edition of
this textbook, while also making use of some portions of it. The textbook follows
the National Curriculum Framework (NCF) – 2005. In keeping with the general
guidelines, we have tried to reduce the load and attempted to make it more
comprehensible for the students. In doing so, we have tried to relate psychological
concepts with everyday human behaviour and also with various life experiences.
How far one has succeeded in this, is left for the teachers and students to judge.
One major challenge which teachers of psychology face is to make their students
analyse human behaviour in a scientific manner and to use explanations which
are not commonsensical. More than any other scientific discipline, psychology runs
the risk of trivialisation. It is our hope that students who go through this course will
develop a proper scientific attitude for analysing others and their own behaviour
and use it for personal growth.
We take great pleasure in placing this textbook in the hands of students and
teachers and also express our gratitude to all who have provided their unstinted
support in its writing and production.

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 Change the World by Changing Me

The Sufi Bayazid says this about himself:

“I was a revolutionary when I was young
and all my prayer to God was: ‘Lord, give
me the energy to change the world.’ ”

“As I approached middle age and realised

that half my life was gone without my
changing a single soul, I changed my
prayer to: ‘Lord, give me the grace to
change all those who come in contact
with me. Just my family and friends,
and I shall be content.’ ”

“Now that I am an old man and my days

are numbered, my one prayer is: ‘Lord,
give me the grace to change myself.’
If I had prayed for this right from
the start I should not have wasted
my life.”

SOURCE : “THE SONG OF THE BIRD” ANTHONY DE MELLO, S.J.

(ANAND: GUJARAT SAHITYA PRAKASH), 1987

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TEXTBOOK DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE

CHIEF ADVISOR
R.C. Tripathi, Professor & Director, G.B. Pant Social Science Institute, Jhusi,
Allahabad
MEMBERS
A.K. Mohanty, Professor, Zakir Hussain Centre for Educational Studies, SSS II, JNU,
New Delhi
A.K. Srivastava, Reader, DERPP, NCERT, New Delhi
B.D. Tiwari, Professor, Department of Psychology, Mahatma Gandhi Kashi
Vidyapeeth, Varanasi
B.N. Puhan, Retired Professor, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar
C. Suvasini, Lecturer, Gargi College, New Delhi
Namita Pande, Professor, Department of Psychology, University of Allahabad,
Allahabad
Nandita Babu, Reader, Department of Psychology, University of Delhi, Delhi
Neelam Srivastava, PGT, Vasant Valley School, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi
Manas K. Mandal, Director, Defence Institute of Psychological Research (DIPR),
Timarpur, Delhi
R.C. Mishra, Professor, Department of Psychology, Benaras Hindu University,
Varanasi
Shakuntla S. Jaiman, Principal, CSKM School, Satbari, Chattarpur, New Delhi
Sunita Arora, Senior Counsellor, Govt. Girls Senior Secondary School No.1, Roop
Nagar, Delhi
Sushma Gulati, Professor, DEPFE, NCERT, New Delhi
Usha Anand, PGT, St. Thomas Girls Senior Secondary School, Mandir Marg, New
Delhi

MEMBER-COORDINATORS
Anjum Sibia, Reader, DEPFE, NCERT, New Delhi
Prabhat K. Mishra, Lecturer, DEPFE, NCERT, New Delhi

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

National Council of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi thanks

Professor Sushma Gulati, Head, Department of Educational Psychology and
Foundations of Education for her support during the various stages of textbook
development. Acknowledgements are due to Professor L.B. Tripathi (Retired, DDU
Gorakhpur University), Professor Sagar Sharma (Retired, H.P. University, Shimla),
Dr. Kailash Tuli (Zakir Hussain College, New Delhi) and Dr. Sarla Jawa (Lady Shri
Ram College, New Delhi) for the feedback and suggestions given for the improvement
of the textbook.
Special thanks are due to Shveta Uppal, Chief Editor, NCERT and Vandana
Singh, Consultant Editor for going through the manuscript and suggesting relevant
changes.
The Council also gratefully acknowledges the contributions of Pavnesh Verma,
DTP Operator, G.R. Upadhyaya, Copy Editor, Rakesh Kumar, Proof Reader and
Pankaj Kakkar, Incharge Computer Station, in shaping this textbook. Last but not
the least, the efforts of the Publication Department, NCERT are also duly
acknowledged.
The efforts of the Publication Department, NCERT in bringing out this publication
are also appreciated.

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NOTE FOR THE TEACHERS

As a teacher, one is always concerned about students’ learning and enhancing

their understanding over and above what is in the textbook. The existing classroom
practices largely focus on imparting knowledge and information. It is, however,
important for us to reflect on what it means to teach, how we teach, and the carry
over value of our teaching.
Research shows that pedagogical practices are influenced by the nature and
contents of the subject or discipline. The subject of psychology, which deals with
human mind, behaviour and human relationship, can most appropriately lend
itself to teaching with humanistic perspective. Such a perspective aims at enriching
students’ knowledge as well as inspiring and awakening their curiosity, positive
feelings, desire to learn, openness, exploration of self and others, etc. Such an
approach is also conducive to their personal development and inculcation of positive
attitude and love for the subject.
This textbook has been so designed as to provide ample scope to build on the
previous knowledge and experiences of the students. Meaningful contexts have
been provided to relate the subject matter with day-to-day life. We suggest you use
interactive approach to engage the students, and to sustain their interest and
enthusiasm in order to make the teaching-learning process joyful. Strategies like
stories, discussions, examples, questioning, analogies, problem solving situations,
role play, etc. are in-built part of the text. It will be good if students bring in their
own stories and examples. Special effort has been made to reduce the density of
information to provide time and space to help students to relate knowledge gained
in the classroom to their individual experiences as well as to their physical, social,
political and economic environments. The transaction of the subject matter,
therefore, should facilitate reflection among students to explore the applicability of
knowledge to their own contexts. We suggest that you may encourage your students
to maintain a record of interesting events/episodes in which they may have been
involved personally or which they may have observed. They may try to make sense
of these episodes using their learning from this book. This may be called a LEARNING
DIARY.
As for Class XI students psychology will be a new subject, it would be important
to dwell on the potential of the subject, its value in daily life and various career
possibilities. Students, it is expected, will be made aware of the empirical nature of
the discipline and the importance of adopting scientific approach in studying human
behaviour.
This textbook consists of eight chapters on topics considered essential for an
introductory course in psychology. Each chapter begins with learning objectives.
An outline of the major contents to be covered give an overall view of the chapter.
The introduction at the beginning of each chapter provides an informative and
challenging start to build on the students’ previous knowledge. The main content
in each chapter is interspersed with examples, illustrations, tables, activities and
boxes to facilitate better understanding of the concepts. These are integral part of
the book and should be used. The summary at the end of each chapter helps to

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reinforce and consolidate what has been read or taught. Before you begin a particular
chapter you should encourage the students to read the summary of the chapter.
The chapter-end review questions cater to the areas of understanding, application
and skill, intended to promote higher order thinking. The project ideas given at the
end of each chapter are aimed at engaging students in fieldwork and gaining hands
on experience. This also brings them to understand abstract concepts more
meaningfully by relating these to their everyday life happenings. We hope that
these will be appropriately used by you to create new learning opportunities.
Although the contents of the textbook have been organised under different
headings, like learning, thinking, memory, motivation and emotion, etc., efforts
have been made to provide linkages across and within the chapters to maintain
continuity and holistic perspective. The activities given in the textbook have been
carefully chosen to maximise students’ participation in the class. Most activities
suggested are easy to carry out and require no special material. These can be
conducted in the classroom situation or given as part of home assignments. While
some of the activities are group-oriented, some of these are individual in nature.
Group activities are important for team building, to experience the joy of sharing
and to develop respect for each others’ viewpoint. While conducting activity sessions,
particular care should be taken in building a classroom climate that is conducive
to mutual respect, confidence and cooperation. Since every class is different and
every teacher is different, these activities can be adapted according to the varied
requirements and the contexts.
It is critical that in teaching this course, we must strive to maintain balance
between scientific and experiential approaches.

xii

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NOTE FOR THE STUDENTS

This textbook has been prepared to introduce you to the fundamentals of Psychology.
Besides providing basic disciplinary knowledge, it focuses on enhancing your
curiosity and understanding of people’s behaviour and that of your own. The
interactive nature of the textbook will help you understand psychology as a discipline
as well as the practical applications of psychology in day-to-day life. For this it is
required that you participate in the classroom activities fully and also reflect on
them.
To begin with, you must get familiar with the subject contents which will give
you an idea of the topics to be covered and the sequence of chapters. Each chapter
has objectives and the content outline. The objectives inform you what all you
should be able to know after you have gone through the chapter. The chapters
begin with an introduction which will give you a brief overview of what lies ahead.
The contents also include boxes and activities. These boxes contain information
relating to the latest theories and experiments that have been conducted and its
applications to everyday situations. They are integral to the book and you are
required to read them to widen your horizon and to develop a quest for knowledge.
Examples given in the textbook relate to real life events and experiences. To
consolidate all that has been taught and understood, you will find a summary after
each chapter. This is then followed by review questions. These questions are likely
to generate critical thinking and develop in you the power to question and reason.
We encourage you to attempt these questions. Your responses to these questions
will indicate both the degree of your mastery of the concepts taught and the depth
of your knowledge.
It is important that you learn the key terms given at the end of each chapter
and their definitions. The glossary at the end of the textbook will prove to be an
excellent aid to clarify and brush-up the fundamentals of the subject.
Now let us focus on the activities and project ideas mentioned in each chapter.
These are intended to promote experiential learning. Your experience while taking
up these activities will help you to know more about yourself and others. These will
also help you to relate taught concepts in the class to real life situations. Try to
involve in as many activities as you can as this will facilitate your understanding of
psychological concepts better. The project ideas also emphasise learning by doing.
You may have to move out of your classroom to interview people or to gather
information. It may not be possible for you to carry out all the projects but choose
the ones you find interesting.
You are going to embark on a journey towards exploring different realms of the
subject. As you go along, you will find some sites in the text which will help you to
explore your ‘self ’ and the world of which you are a part. The doorway to psychology
is open, make the best of it. If you are an internet user, try to explore the sites with
the help of your teacher which provide information on the topics covered in this
textbook.

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 CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
Part III (Articles 12 – 35)
(Subject to certain conditions, some exceptions
and reasonable restrictions)
guarantees these
Fundamental Rights
Right to Equality
• before law and equal protection of laws;
• irrespective of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth;
• of opportunity in public employment;
• by abolition of untouchability and titles.
Right to Freedom
• of expression, assembly, association, movement, residence and profession;
• of certain protections in respect of conviction for offences;
• of protection of life and personal liberty;
• of free and compulsory education for children between the age of six and fourteen years;
• of protection against arrest and detention in certain cases.
Right against Exploitation
• for prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour;
• for prohibition of employment of children in hazardous jobs.
Right to Freedom of Religion
• freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion;
• freedom to manage religious affairs;
• freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion;
• freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in educational
institutions wholly maintained by the State.
Cultural and Educational Rights
• for protection of interests of minorities to conserve their language, script and culture;
• for minorities to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.
Right to Constitutional Remedies
• by issuance of directions or orders or writs by the Supreme Court and High
Courts for enforcement of these Fundamental Rights.

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CONTENTS

Page
Foreword iii
Rationalisation of Content in the Textbooks v
Preface vii
Note for the Teachers xi
Note for the Students xiii

Chapter 1
What is Psychology? 1
Chapter 2
Methods of Enquiry in Psychology 19
Chapter 3
Human Development 40
Chapter 4
Sensory, Attentional and Perceptual Processes 60
Chapter 5
Learning 77
Chapter 6
Human Memory 95
Chapter 7
Thinking 109
Chapter 8
Motivation and Emotion 126

Glossary 138

Suggested Readings 146

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 CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
Part IV A (Article 51 A)

Fundamental Duties
Fundamental Duties – It shall be the duty of every citizen of India —
(a) to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National
Flag and the National Anthem;
(b) to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle for
freedom;
(c) to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;
(d) to defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so;
(e) to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people
of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities; to
renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women;
(f) to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;
(g) to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers,
wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures;
(h) to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform;
(i) to safeguard public property and to abjure violence;
(j) to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity so
that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour and achievement;
(k) who is a parent or guardian, to provide opportunities for education to his child or,
as the case may be, ward between the age of six and fourteen years.

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 GLOSSARY

Absolute threshold: The minimum intensity Behaviourism: A school of thought that

necessary for a stimulus to be detected. emphasises objectivity, observable
Achievement need/motive: Need to succeed, behavioural responses, learning, and
to perform better than others, to excel, to take environmental determinants.
challenging tasks which demonstrate person’s Bilingualism: The acquisition of two languages
ability. that use different speech sounds,
Adolescence: The developmental period of vocabularies, and grammatical rules.
transition from childhood to early adulthood, Binocular cues: Depth cues, such as retinal
starting at approximately 11 to 12 years of age disparity and convergence, that depend on the
and ending at 18 to 20 years of age. use of two eyes.
Aerial perspective: A monocular cue to depth Biofeedback: A procedure that permits
perception consisting of the relative clearness individuals to monitor their own physiological
of objects under varying atmospheric
processes (e.g., heart rate, blood pressure),
conditions. Nearer objects are usually clearer
which they are normally unaware of, to learn
in detail and colour whereas farther objects
to control them.
are less distinct.
Bottom-up processing: In form perception,
Animism: A facet of preoperational thought; the
belief that inanimate objects have “lifelike” progression from individual elements to the
qualities and are capable of action. whole.
Anxiety: A general feeling of apprehension or Brainstorming: A problem-solving strategy in
dread accompanied by predictable which an individual or a group collects all
physiological changes. possible ideas and evaluates them only after
Arousal: A physiological state of the body. all items have been collected.
Artificial intelligence (AI): The field concerned Case study: A technique in which one person is
with creating machines (e.g., computers) that studied in depth.
can perform complex tasks formerly Cell: The most fundamental unit of a living
considered to require human intelligence. organism.
Associative learning: Learning that certain Centration: The focusing or centring of attention
events occur together. The events may be two on one characteristic to the exclusion of all
stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a others.
response and its consequences (as in operant Cephalocaudal pattern: The sequence in which
conditioning). the greatest growth occurs at the top-the head-
Attachment: A close emotional bond between with physical growth in size, weight, and
the infant and the parents or caregiver. feature differentiation gradually working from
Attribution: Inference about an individual’s top to bottom.
internal state based on the perception of Chronological age: The number of years that
external factors (cues). have elapsed since a person’s birth; what is
Authoritative parenting: A parenting style in usually meant by “age”.
which parents encourage children to be Chunking: A group of familiar stimuli stored as
independent but still place limits and control a single unit.
on their actions. Classical conditioning: A type of learning in
Basic emotions: Feeling states common to the
which an organism learns to associate
human species from which other feeling states
stimuli. The main feature is that the originally
are derived.
neutral conditioned stimulus (CS), through
Behaviour genetics: The study of the power and
repeated pairing with the unconditioned
limits of genetic and environmental influences
stimulus (US), acquires the response originally
on behaviour.
Behaviour: Any covert or overt action/reaction given to the US.
a person or animal does that can be observed Closure: Organisational process leading to
in some way. perception of incomplete figures as wholes.

138
Psychology

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Cognition: All the mental activities associated Conservation: A belief in the permanence of
with knowing; namely, perceiving, thinking, certain attributes of objects or situations in
and remembering, etc. These are associated spite of superficial changes.
with processing, understanding, and Content analysis: A procedure for analysing the
communicating information. themes in qualitative data by determining the
Cognitive approach: The view that emphasises frequency of specific ideas, concepts, or terms
human thought and all the processes of and their relationship.
knowing as central to the study of psychology. Control group: Subjects in a study who do not
Cognitive learning: Learning that involves receive the special treatment given to the
reorganisation of one’s perceptions, experimental group.
knowledge, and ideas. Control processes: Mechanisms which govern
Cognitive map: A mental representation of the transfer of information from one system of
layout of one’s environment. For example, after storage to another.
exploring a maze, rats act as if they have Convergent thinking: Thinking that is directed
learned a cognitive map of it. toward one correct solution to a problem.
Cognitive processes: Processes involving the Correlational research: Research with the goal
individual’s thought, intelligence, and of describing the strength of the relationship
language. between two or more events or characteristics
Colour constancy: The tendency to perceive a or variables.
well-known object as being a single colour, Creativity: The ability to think in novel and
even if its actual colour is modified by changes unusual ways and to come up with unique
in illumination. solutions to problems.
Concept: A general category of ideas, objects, Culture: The widely shared customs, beliefs,
people, or experiences whose members share values, norms, institutions, and other products
certain properties. of a community that are transmitted socially
Concrete operational stage: The third Piagetian across generations.
stage, lasting approximately from 7 to 11 years Data: Qualitative and quantitative information
of age. In this stage, children can perform related to mental processes and behaviour,
logical operations, and reasoning on concrete gathered from individuals.
examples but cannot deal with abstract Debriefing: The procedure for informing a
things. participant of the actual intent of an
Conditioned response (CR): In classical experiment after its successful completion. It
conditioning, the learned or acquired response is specially required if the participant was
to a conditioned stimulus (CS). seriously misled during the conduct of
Conditioned stimulus (CS): A neutral stimulus experiment.
that, through repeated association with an Decision-making: The process of evaluating
unconditioned stimulus, becomes capable of alternatives and making choices among them.
eliciting a conditioned response (CR). Deductive reasoning: Reaching a conclusion by
Conditioning: A systematic procedure through accepting the premises of an argument and then
which new responses are learned to stimuli. following the formal logical rules.
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): The genetic
Confidentiality: Researchers are responsible for
material of the cell, located in the nucleus.
keeping all of the data they collect completely
Dependent variable: The factor that is measured
anonymous.
in an experiment; it changes because of the
Confounding: A term used to describe the manipulation of the independent variable.
operation of variables in an experiment that Depth perception: The perception of the
confuse the interpretation of the data. If the distance of an object from the observer or the
independent variable is confounded with an distance from front to back of a solid object.
uncontrolled relevant variable, the Development: It is the pattern of progressive,
experimenter cannot separate the effects of orderly, and predictable changes that begin
the two variables on the dependent measure. at conception and continue throughout life.
Consciousness: Awareness of the general Difference threshold: The minimum difference
condition of one’s mind, awareness of between a pair of stimuli that can be
particular mental contents, or self-awareness. perceived.

139
Glossary

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Discrimination: In classical conditioning, the Experimental group: The subjects in study who
ability to distinguish between a conditioned receive some special treatment in regard to
stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal the independent variable.
an unconditioned stimulus. In operant Explicit memory: Memory of facts and
conditioning, responding differently to stimuli experiences that one can consciously know
that signal a behaviour will be reinforced or and “declare” (also called declarative memory).
will not be reinforced. Extinction: The diminishing of a conditioned
Divergent thinking: Thinking that meets the response; occurs in classical conditioning
criteria of originality, inventiveness, and when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does
flexibility. It calls for thinking in different not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs
directions, searching for a variety of answers in operant conditioning when a response is
to questions that can have several answers no longer reinforced.
and is characteristic of creativity. Feedback: Information regarding performance
Divided attention: The process by which on a learning task; also called knowledge of
attention is split between two or more sets of results.
stimuli. Field experiment: An experiment carried out in a
Dyslexia: A general term referring to difficulty natural “real world” setting in which variables
in reading. are manipulated in some manner and observed
Echoic memory: A momentary sensory memory for their reactions.
of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, Fine motor skills: Motor skills that involve more
sounds and words can still be recalled within finely tuned movements, such as finger
3 or 4 seconds. dexterity.
Egocentrism: A salient feature of pre- Formal operational stage: The fourth Piagetian
operational thought, which refers to the stage in which the individuals move beyond the
inability to distinguish between one’s own world of actual or concrete experiences and
perspective and someone else’s perspective. think in abstract and more logical terms.
Elaborative rehearsals: The linking of new Free recall: In memory experiments, retrieval of
information in short-term memory to familiar stored items in any order by the participant.
material stored in long-term memory. Fugue state: Amnesia accompanied by actual
Emotion: Complex pattern of changes in physical flight — the person may wander away
response to situation perceived as personally for several hours or move to another area and
significant, including physiological arousal, establish a new life.
feelings, thoughts, and behaviours. Functional fixedness: The tendency to think of
Encoding: The process of recording information things only in terms of their usual functions,
into the memory system for the first time. an impediment to problem solving.
Environment: The aggregate of external Functionalism: The school of psychology that
conditions – physical, biological, social and emphasised the utilitarian, adaptive functions
cultural that influence the functions of the of the human mind or consciousness.
organism. Gender: The social dimension of being male or
Episodic memory: LTM component that stores female.
autobiographic information coded for Gender identity: The sense of being male or
reference to a timeframe for past occurrences. female, which most children acquire by the time,
Esteem needs: In Maslow’s theory, needs for they are 3 years old.
prestige, success, and self-respect. They can Gender role: A set of expectations that prescribe
be fulfilled after belongingness and love needs how females and males should think, act and
are satisfied. feel.
Evolution: The theory proposed by Charles Generalisation: The tendency, once a response
Darwin that over time organisms originate and has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the
change in response to adaptational demands conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses.
of their unique environments. Genes: The units of hereditary information, short
Experiment: A series of observations conducted chromosome segments composed of DNA.
under controlled conditions to investigate the Genes act as blueprints for cells to reproduce
causal relationship between selected themselves and manufacture the proteins that
variables. maintain life.

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Gestalt: An organised whole, Gestalt Incubation: A stage in the creative process. The
psychologists emphasise our tendency to progress is not apparent at conscious level,
integrate pieces of information into meaningful the unconscious mind may work on any idea
wholes. or solution.
Gestalt psychology: A branch of psychology in Independent variable: The event or situation
which behaviour is viewed as an integrated manipulated by an experimenter to see if it
whole, greater than the sum of its parts. will have a predicted effect on some other event
Grammar: Is the set of rules indicating how the or situation.
elements of language may be combined to Individual test: A test which can be
make intelligible sentences. administered to only one person at a time. The
Gross motor skills: Motor skills that involve Stanford-Binet and the Wechsler intelligence
large muscle activities, such as walking. tests are examples of individual tests.
Group test: A test administered to several people Inductive reasoning: The logical process by
at one time by a single tester. which general principles are inferred from
Heredity: The biological transmission of traits particular instances.
from parents to offspring. Infancy: The developmental period extending
Hierarchy of needs: Maslow’s pyramid from birth to 24 months.
represents motivational needs in a hierarchy. Information-processing approach: An
The more basic needs, such as physiological approach concerned with how individuals
and safety needs, are at the bottom followed process information about their world, how
by the higher -level needs, such as love, and information enters our minds, how it is stored
esteem, and self-actualisation at the top. To and transformed, and how it is retrieved to
move up the hierarchy, a person must have perform problem solving and reasoning.
Informed consent: Agreement to an
the basic physiological needs met first.
experimental or therapeutic procedure on the
Homeostasis: The physiological tendency to
basis of the subject’s or patient’s
maintain an internal, bodily state of balance
understanding of its nature and possible
in ter ms of food, water, air, sleep, and
risks.
temperature.
Initiative vs guilt: Erikson’s stage of development
Homo sapiens: The scientific nomenclature of
in which pre-school children face a widening
modern human beings.
social world and are faced with the challenge
Hormones: Chemical substances secreted by
of developing purposeful behaviour to cope
glands into the bloodstream.
with challenges, failure to which leads to
Humanistic psychology: The approach to development of guilt and shame.
psychology that emphasises the person, or the Insight: The ability to deal effectively with novel
self, and personal growth and development. situations.
Hypothesis: A tentative statement of the Instinct: A complex universal behaviour that is
relationship between variables as answer to rigidly patterned throughout a species and is
the research question. unlearned.
Identification: The process of associating one’s Integrity vs despair: Erikson’s eighth and last
self closely with other persons and assuming developmental stage during which individuals
their characteristics or views. look back to evaluate what they have done
Identity vs role confusion: Erikson’s
with their lives, satisfaction leads to sense of
psychosocial developmental stage in which
integrity and dissatisfaction to despair.
adolescents are faced with conflicts as who
Interference: In learning theory, the activities
they are, what they are all about, and where
of the learner, either before, after, or during
they are going in life, resolution to these leads
the learning process interfere with learned
to identity formation.
material, that cause forgetting.
Illumination: A stage in the creative process.
Interposition: A depth perception cue based on
The idea, solution, or new relationship
the principle that if one object seems to be
emerges and all the facts fall into place.
covering another, it will be perceived as being
Incidental learning: Learning that is not
closer.
deliberate, or intentional and which is
acquired as a result of some other possibly Interview: A face-to-face dialogue for the purpose
unrelated, activity. of obtaining information, establishing a

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 diagnosis, assessing interpersonal behaviour Mind: Mind is a concept, which refers to unique
and personality characteristics, or counselling set of individual’s sensations, perceptions,
the individual. memories, thoughts, dreams, motives and
Intrinsic motivation: The internal desire to be emotional feelings.
competent and to do something for its own Mnemonics: Strategies or techniques that use
sake. familiar associations in storing new
Introspection: The process of looking inward to information to be more easily retrieved.
one’s feelings and conscious experience. Modeling: In social learning theory, the process
Judgment: Process of forming opinions, reaching by which a child learns social and cognitive
conclusions, and making evaluations based behaviours by observing and imitating others.
on available material; the product of the Monocular cues: Visual cues from one eye only.
evaluation process. Moral development: Development with respect
Juvenile delinquency: A variety of adolescent to rules and conventions about what people
behaviours ranging from socially unacceptable should do in their interaction with other
behaviour to status offenses (such as running people/situations.
away) to criminal offenses (such as theft). Morphemes: The smallest units of meaning in
Language: A set of symbols that convey meaning, a language.
and rules for combining those symbols, that Motivation: A need or desire that energises and
can be used to generate an infinite variety of directs behaviour.
messages. Motives: The factors that direct and energise
Law of proximity: Grouping law that asserts behaviour.
that nearest stimuli are grouped together. Motor development: The progression of muscular
Law of similarity: Grouping law that asserts coordination required for physical activities.
that stimuli are grouped together on the basis Natural selection: The evolutionary process that
of common elements. favors individuals of a species that is best
Learning disabilities: Children with learning adapted to survive and reproduce.
disabilities (1) are of normal intelligence or Need: Physiological (internal) or environmental
above, (2) have difficulties in several academic (external) imbalance or deficit that gives rise
areas but usually do not show deficits in to a drive.
others, and (3) are not suffering from some Negative correlation: Relationship between two
other conditions or disorders that could variables in which as one variable goes up,
explain their learning problems. the other goes down.
Learning: A relatively permanent change in an Negative reinforcer: An unpleasant stimulus
organism’s behaviour due to experience. whose removal leads to an increase in the
Linear perspective: A monocular cue for probability that a preceding response will
perceiving distance; we perceive the occur again in the future.
converging of what we know to be parallel lines Neuro psychology: It is the scientific study of
as indicating increasing distance. behaviour and mental processes as function
Maintenance rehearsal: Active repetition of of brain activity and the nervous system.
information to enhance subsequent access to it. Neurotic disorder: A psychological disorder that
Maturation: The orderly sequence of changes is usually distressing but that allows one to
dictated by each person’s genetic blueprint. think rationally and function socially. Freud
Memes: Are the DNA of human society, saw the neurotic disorders as ways of dealing
influencing every aspect of mind, behaviour with anxiety.
and culture. Norm: Standard or value, based on
Menarche: The first occurrence of menstruation.
measurements of a large group of people, used
Mental representation: A mental model of a
in interpreting scores on psychological tests;
stimulus or category of stimuli.
in social psychology, the group standard for
Mental set: Tendency to respond to a new
problem/situation in the manner used for a approved behaviour.
previous one. Null hypothesis: A prediction that an experiment
Metacognition: Knowledge and understanding will find no difference between conditions or
of one’s own mental processes. no relationship between variables.

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Object permanence: Understanding that objects then anticipating the measures of the
and events continue to exist even when they consequent events.
cannot directly be seen, heard, or touched. Prenatal period: The time from conception to
Observation: The intentional examination and birth.
recording of an object or process as it occurs. Pre-operational stage: The second Piagetian
Operant conditioning: A form of learning in stage in which children begin to represent
which voluntary responses come to be world with words, images, and drawings but
controlled by their consequences. cannot perform operations in logical manner.
Operationism: The viewpoint that each concept Primary sex characteristics: The sexual
must take its meaning as a single observable structures necessary for reproduction.
and measurable operation. Problem solving: Behaviour that is at an advanced
Operations: Internalised sets of actions that stage of thinking; it can be divided into four
allow the child to do mentally what was done stages: incubation, illumination, preparation,
physically before. and verification.
Proximity principle: The Gestalt principle, which
Paradigm: A model or a way of approaching or states that objects or stimuli that are close
studying a set of phenomena. together will be perceived as a unity. Also called
Peers: Children of about same age or the law of proximity.
maturity level. Proximodistal trend: The center -outward
Perception: Processes that organise sensory direction of motor development.
information and interpret it in terms of its Psychoanalysis : A method of psychotherapy in
environmental origins. which the therapist attempts to bring
Perceptual constancy: The ability, in repressed unconscious material into
perception, to draw similar inferences about conscious.
the world from different patterns of sensory Psychological motives: Personal and
activity (e.g., a person seen from many interpersonal motives that lead people to strive
different angles is still perceived as the same for such ends as power, self-esteem, affiliation,
person). and intimacy with other people.
Performance tests: Tests that do not involve Psychological test: A standardised measure of a
language. sample of a person’s behavior.
Phenotype: Observable features by which Psychophysics: Study of the relationship
individuals are recognised. between mental processes and the physical
Phi phenomenon: The illusion of movement world.
created by presenting visual stimuli in rapid Puberty: A period of rapid skeletal and sexual
succession. maturation that occurs mainly in early
Phonemes: Smallest meaningful units of sound adolescence.
in a language. Punishment: The application of an unpleasant,
Physiological psychology: A scientific study of or noxious, stimulus for the purpose of
human and animal behaviour based on the suppressing behaviour.
relationship of physiological processes like Randomisation: A procedure by which a variable
those of nervous system, hormones, sensory may be selected, assigned, or scheduled, in a
organs and the behavioural parameters. completely unbiased manner. Randomisation
Positive reinforcement: A stimulus or event involves the use of the table of random
which, when its onset is made contingent on numbers so that no predictable sequence can
a particular response, increases the be established.
likelihood of that response. Reasoning: Realistic thinking process that draws
Power motive: The desire to influence others, a conclusion from a set of facts.
to be in charge, and to have status and Reinforcement: An event following a response
prestige. that strengthens the tendency to make that
Prediction: One element of the scientific process response.
of describing the relationship between Reliability: A statement about the degree of
antecedent variables and consequent events. consistency of a measurement technique.
Prediction works forward in time, beginning Reliable techniques yield similar measures
with measuring the antecedent variables and upon repeated measurement under similar

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 conditions. Size constancy: A tendency to perceive familiar
Retrieval cues: Available internal or external objects as being the same size even when they
stimuli that help in recovering information cast a different sized image on the retina
from storage in memory system. because of one’s distance from them.
Retroactive interference: Memory process in Sociobiology: The systematic study of the
which newly learned information prevents biological basis for social behaviour.
retrieval of previously stored, similar material. Sociology: Study of people in groups; the group
Schema: A cognitive structure; a network of rather than the individual is the unit of study.
associations that organises and guides an Species: A biological classification of different
individual’s perceptions. living organisms.
Script: A memory representation of procedural Spontaneous recovery: In classical
knowledge (e.g., eating in a restaurant). conditioning, the reappearance of an
Secondary sex characteristics: Physical extinguished response after a period of
features that are associated with gender but nonexposure to the conditioned stimulus.
that are not directly involved in reproduction. Standardisation: A method of establishing
Selective attention: The focusing of conscious norms or standards and uniform procedures
awareness on a particular stimulus. for a test by administering it to a large group
Self: The individual’s perception or awareness of representative individuals.
of herself or himself - of her or his body, Stimulus: Any well-defined element in the
abilities, personality traits, and ways of doing environment affecting the organism, which
things. may lead to an overt or a covert response.
Self-actualisation: It is a state of self-fulfillment Structuralism: Associated with Wilhelm Wundt,
in which people realise their highest potential the approach to psychology that seeks to
in their own unique way. understand the structure and operation of
Self-esteem: The global evaluative dimension of consciousness, or the human mind.
the self. Survey: A research method utilising written
Semantic memory: LTM component that stores questionnaires or personal interviews to
memory for basic meanings of words and obtain data of a given population.
concepts. Syntax: Refers to the rules for combining words
Sensation: Experience of a physical stimulation. to form acceptable phrases and sentences.
Sensorimotor stage: The first Piagetian stage Temperament: An individual’s behavioural
in which infants construct an understanding style and characteristic way of responding.
of the world by coordinating sensory Texture gradient: Distance cues based on the
experiences with physical and motor actions. fact that objects lose definition and detail the
Sensory memory: Initial process that preserves farther away they are.
brief impressions of stimuli, also called Thinking: The mental, or cognitive,
sensory register. rearrangement or manipulation of both
Serial learning: The learning of a sequence of information from the environment and of
responses in the precise order of their symbols stored in long-term memory.
presentation. Language, symbols, concepts and images are
Sex hormones: Substances secreted by the used, and thinking is said to mediate, or go
between, stimuli and responses.
gonads for reproductive functions and
Top-down processing: In form perception, a
determination of secondary sex
progression from the whole to the elements.
characteristics, e.g. estrogen in the female and
Trace decay theory: The idea that learned
testosterone in the male.
Shape constancy: The knowledge that even material leaves in the brain a trace or
when an object is viewed from a different impression, which eventually disappears
angle, its shape remains the same. unless it is practiced and used.
Similarity: The Gestalt principle, which states Traumatic experience: A injury, either physical
that objects or stimuli that are similar in or psychological; psychological traumas
shape, size or intensity, etc. are perceived as include emotional shocks that have a more or
a unit. less permanent effect on the personality, such

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 as rejection, divorce, combat, experience, Validity: The ability of a test to measure what it
civilian catastrophes, etc. was designed to measure.
Trust vs mistrust: Erikson’s first psychosocial Variable: Any measurable conditions, events,
stage; development of a sense of trust requires characteristics, or behaviours that are
controlled or observed in a study.
a feeling of physical comfort and a minimal
Verbal learning: The process of learning to respond
amount of fear and apprehension about verbally to verbal stimuli, which may include
future. symbols, nonsense syllables, and lists or words.
Unconditioned response (UR): The unlearned Verbal test: Test in which a subject’s ability to
or involuntary response to an unconditioned understand and use words and concepts is
stimulus. important in making the required responses.
Unconditioned stimulus (US): A stimulus that Visual illusions: Physical stimuli that consistently
normally produces an involuntary measurable produce errors in perception.
response. Word associations: Personality assessment
Unobtrusive measures: Observation and techniques in which individual generates
measurement procedures specifically selected responses triggered by common words.
not to interfere with the natural behaviour or Working memory: Memory pr ocesses that
enter the conscious awareness of the subject. preserve recently perceived events or
experiences, also called short-term memory.

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 SUGGESTED READINGS

For developing further understanding on the topics, you may

like to read the following books :
• Baron, R.A. (2001/Indian reprint 2002). Psychology (5th ed.). Allyn
& Bacon.
• Das, J.P. (1998). The Working Mind : An Introduction to Psychology.
Sage Publications.
• Davis, S.F., & Palladino, J.H. (1997). Psychology. Prentice Hall, Inc.
• Gerow, J.R. (1997). Psychology : An Introduction. Addison Wesley
Longman, Inc.
• Gleitman, H. (1996). Basic Psychology. W.W. Norton & Company.
• Khandwalla, P.N. (1984). Fourth Eye : Excellence through Creativity.
A.H. Wheeler and Co.
• Malim, T., & Birch, A. (1998). Introductory Psychology. Macmillan
Press Ltd.
• Morgan, C.T., King, R.A., Weisz, J.R., & Schopler, J. (1986).
Introduction to Psychology (7th ed.). McGraw-Hill Book Company.
• Weiten, W. (2001). Psychology : Themes and Variations. Wadsworth.
• Zimbardo, P.G., & Weber, A.L. (1997). Psychology. New York:
Longman.
• Zimbardo, P.G. (1985). Psychology and Life. Harper Collins
Publishers.

SOURCE BOOKS

• Dash, U.N., Mohanty, P.K., Mohanty, S.C., Pattanaik, L.K.,

Nanda, G.K., Misra, G., & Kar, C. (2004). Psychology - Part I. Orissa
State Bureau of Textbook Preparation and Production. Pustak
Bhawan, Bhubaneswar.

• Gleitman, H., Fridlund, A.J., & Reisberg, D. (2004). Basic

Psychology (5th ed.). W.W. Norton & Company.

• Mandal, M.K. (2004). Emotion : Basic Issues and Current Trends.

Affiliated East-West Press.

• Santrock, J.W. (1999). Life-Span Development (7th ed.). Boston:

McGraw-Hill College.

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NOTES

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 NOTES

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 Chapter
1 What is Psychology?

After reading this chapter, you would be able to

• understand the nature and role of psychology in understanding mind
and behaviour,
• state the growth of the discipline,
• know the different fields of psychology, its relationship with other
disciplines, and professions, and
• appreciate the value of psychology in daily life to help you understand
yourself and others better.

Contents
Introduction
What is Psychology?
Psychology as a Discipline
Psychology as a Natural Science
Psychology as a Social Science
Understanding Mind and Behaviour
Popular Notions about the Discipline of Psychology
Evolution of Psychology
Some Interesting Landmarks in the Evolution of
Modern Psychology (Box 1.1)
Development of Psychology in India
Branches of Psychology
Psychology and Other Disciplines
Psychology in Everyday Life

The growth of the human mind Key Terms

Summary
is still high adventure,
Review Questions
in many ways the highest Project Ideas
adventure on earth.

– Norman Cousins

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 Introduction
You were, perhaps, asked by your teacher in the first class why you opted for
psychology over other subjects. What do you hope to learn? If you were asked this
question, what was your response? Generally, the range of responses which surface
in class to this question are truly bewildering. Most students give inane responses,
like they want to know what others are thinking. But then one also comes across
such responses as knowing oneself, knowing others or more specific responses like
knowing why people dream, why people go out of their way to help others or beat
each other up. All ancient traditions have engaged themselves with questions about
human nature. The Indian philosophical traditions, in particular, deal with questions
relating to why people behave in the manner in which they do. Why are people
generally unhappy? What changes should they bring about in themselves if they
desire happiness in their lives? Like all knowledge, psychological knowledge too
is intended to contribute to human well-being. If the world is full of misery, it is
largely due to humans themselves. Perhaps, you have asked why a 9/11 or war
in Iraq happened. Why innocent people in Delhi, Mumbai, Srinagar or in the North-
East have to face bombs and bullets? Psychologists ask what is in the experiences
of young men which turn them into terrorists seeking revenge. But there is another
side to human nature. You may have heard the name of Major HPS Ahluwalia,
paralysed waist down because of an injury he suffered in a war with Pakistan,
who climbed the Mt. Everest. What moved him to climb such heights? These are not
only questions about human nature which psychology addresses as a human
science. You will be surprised to learn that modern psychology also deals with
somewhat nebulous micro-level phenomenon like consciousness, focusing attention
in the face of noise, or supporters trying to burn down a shopping complex after
their team had scored victory in a football game over its traditional rival. Psychology
cannot claim that answers have been found to these complex questions. But it
surely has improved upon our understanding and how we make sense of these
phenomena. The most striking aspect of the discipline, unlike other sciences, lies in
the study of psychological processes which are largely internal and available to
humans for observation within themselves.

psychology was a study of the soul or mind.

WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?
But since then it has moved away considerably
Any knowledge discipline is hard to define. from this focus and established itself as a
Firstly, because it evolves continuously. scientific discipline which deals with processes
Secondly, because the range of phenomena it underlying human experience and behaviour.
studies cannot be captured by any one The range of phenomena it studies, some of
definition. This is even more true of psychology. which we mentioned above, are spread over
Long time back, students like yourself were told several levels, viz. individual, dyadic (two
that the term psychology is derived from two person) group, and organisational. They also
Greek words psyche meaning soul and logos have biological as well as social bases.
meaning science or study of a subject. Thus, Naturally, therefore, the methods required to

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study them also vary greatly depending on the try to understand how the mind works and to
phenomenon one wants to study. A discipline help us improve the uses and applications of
is defined both in terms of what it studies and these mental capacities.
how it studies. In fact, more in terms of how or Psychologists also study experiences of
method/s it uses. Keeping this in view, people. Experiences are subjective in nature.
psychology is defined formally as a science We cannot directly observe or know someone
which studies mental processes, experiences else’s experience. Only the experiencing person
and behaviour in different contexts. In doing can be aware or be conscious of her or his
so, it uses methods of biological and social experiences. Thus, experiences are embedded
sciences to obtain data systematically. It makes in our awareness or consciousness.
sense of these data so that they can be Psychologists have focused on experiences of
organised as knowledge. Let us try to pain being experienced by terminally ill
understand the three terms used in the patients or of psychological pain felt in
definition, namely, mental processes, bereavement, besides experiences which lead
experience, and behaviour. to positive feelings, such as in romantic
When we say experiences are internal to encounters. There are some esoteric
the experiencing person, then we refer to states experiences also which attract the attention of
of consciousness or awareness or mental psychologists, such as when a Yogi meditates
processes. We use our mental processes when to enter a different level of consciousness and
we think or try to solve a problem, to know or creates a new kind of experience or when a
remember something. One level at which these drug addict takes a particular kind of drug to
mental processes are reflected is the brain get a high, even though such drugs are
activity. As we think or solve a mathematical extremely harmful. Experiences are influenced
problem, our brain activities can be observed by internal and the external conditions of the
using different techniques of brain imaging. experiencer. If you are travelling in a crowded
However, we cannot say that brain activities bus during a hot summer day, you may not
and mental processes are the same, although experience the usual discomfort if you are
they are interdependent. Mental activities and going for a picnic with some close friends. Thus,
neural activities are mutually overlapping the nature of experience can only be understood
processes but, they are not identical. Unlike by analysing a complex set of internal and
the brain, the mind does not have a physical external conditions.
structure or has a location. Mind emerges and Behaviours are responses or reactions we
evolves as our interactions and experiences make or activities we engage in. When
in this world get dynamically organised in the something is hurled at you, your eyes blink in
form of a system which is responsible for the a simple reflex action. You are taking an
occurrence of various mental processes. examination and can feel your heart pounding.
Brain activities provide important clues as to You decide to go for a particular movie with a
how our mind functions. But the friend. Behaviours may be simple or complex,
consciousness of our own experiences and short or enduring. Some behaviours are overt.
mental processes are much more than the They can be outwardly seen or sensed by an
neural or brain activities. Even when we are observer. Some are internal or covert. When
asleep some mental activities go on. We you are in a difficult situation while playing a
dream, and receive some information such game of chess you almost feel your hand
as a knock on the door while we are asleep. muscles twitching, trying to experiment with
Some psychologists have shown that we also a move. All behaviours, covert or overt, are
learn and remember in our sleep. Mental associated with or triggered by some stimulus
processes, such as remembering, learning, in the environment or changes that happen
knowing, perceiving, feeling are of interest to internally. You may see a tiger and run or think
psychologists. They study these processes to that there is a tiger and decide to flee. Some

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psychologists study behaviour as an Many students go on to earn a B.Sc. or M.Sc.
association between stimulus (S) and response degree in universities. In fact, two of the most
(R). Both stimulus and response can be sought after emerging disciplines which
internal or external. continuously borrow from psychology are
Neuroscience and Computer Science. Some of
Psychology as a Discipline us would be aware of the fast developing brain
imaging techniques like fMRI, EEG, etc. which
As we have discussed above, psychology
make it possible to study brain processes in real
studies behaviour, experience and mental
time, i.e. when they are actually taking place.
processes. It seeks to understand and explain
Similarly, in IT areas, both human-computer
how the mind works and how different mental
interaction and artificial intelligence cannot
processes result in different behaviours. When
possibly grow without psychological knowledge
we observe others as lay or common persons,
in cognitive processes. Thus, psychology as a
our own points of view or our ways of
discipline today has two parallel streams. One
understanding the world influence our
which makes use of the method in physical and
interpretations of their behaviours and
biological sciences and the other which makes
experiences. Psychologists try to minimise
use of the method of social and cultural
such biases in their explanations of behaviour
sciences in studying various psychological and
and experience in various ways. Some do so
social phenomena. These streams sometimes
by seeking to make their analysis scientific
converge only to drift apart and go their
and objective. Others seek to explain
separate ways. In the first case, psychology
behaviour from the point of view of the
considers itself as a discipline, which focuses
experiencing persons because they think that
largely on biological principles to explain
subjectivity is a necessary aspect of human
human behaviour. It assumes that all
experience. In the Indian tradition, self-
behavioural phenomena have causes which can
reflection and analysis of our conscious
be discovered if we can collect data
experiences, is held to be a major source of
systematically under controlled conditions.
psychological understanding. Many western
Here the aim of the researcher is to know the
psychologists have also begun to emphasise
cause and effect relationship so that a prediction
the role of self-reflection and self-knowledge
of the behavioural phenomenon can be made
in understanding human behaviour and
and behaviour can be controlled if need be. On
experience. Regardless of the differences in the
the other hand, psychology as a social science
way psychologists go about the study of
focuses on how behavioural phenomena can be
behaviour, mental processes and experiences,
explained in terms of the interaction that takes
they seek to understand and explain them in
place between the person and the socio-
a systematic and verifiable manner.
cultural context of which s/he is a part. Each
Psychology, though it is a very old
behavioural phenomenon is assumed to have
knowledge discipline, is a young science, if one
multiple causes. Let us now discuss these two
were to take the year of the founding of the
streams separately.
first laboratory of psychology in 1879 in
Leipzig. However, what kind of science is
Psychology as a Natural Science
psychology, still remains a matter of debate,
particularly because of the new interfaces of It has been mentioned earlier that psychology
it that have emerged in recent times. has its roots in philosophy. However, modern
Psychology is generally categorised as a social psychology has developed because of the
science. But it should not come to you as a application of the scientific method to study
surprise that, not only in other countries, but psychological phenomenon. Science places a
in India also, it is also a subject of study offered great deal of emphasis on objectivity which
in the faculty of science, both at the can be obtained if there is consensus on the
undergraduate and post-graduate levels. definition of a concept and how it can be

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measured. Psychology was influenced by from a farmer’s family. Her grandparents,
Descartes and later on by the developments in parents and elder brother worked on their farm.
physics has grown by following what is called They lived together in their house in the village.
a hypothetico-deductive model. The model Ranjita was a good athlete and was the best
suggests that scientific advancement can take long distance runner in the school. She loved
place if you have a theory to explain a meeting people and making friends.
phenomenon. For example, physicists have Unlike her, Shabnam lived with her mother
what is called a Big-bang theory to explain in the same village. Her father worked in an
how the universe came to be formed. Theory office in a town nearby and came home during
is nothing else but a set of statements about holidays. Shabnam was a good artist and loved
how a certain complex phenomenon can be staying home and taking care of her younger
explained with the help of propositions which brother. She was shy and avoided meeting
are interrelated. Based on a theory, scientists people.
deduce or propose a hypothesis, that offers a Last year there was very heavy rain and
tentative explanation of how a certain the river nearby overflowed into the village.
phenomenon takes place. The hypothesis then Many houses in the low lying areas were
is tested and proved true or false based on flooded. The villagers got together and
empirical data that one has gathered. The organised help and gave shelter to people in
theory is revised if data gathered point in a distress. Shabnam’s house was also flooded
different direction than the one suggested by and she came to live in Ranjita’s house with
the hypothesis. Using the above approach her mother and brother. Ranjita was happy
psychologists have developed theories of helping the family and making them feel
learning, memory, attention, perception, comfortable in her house. When the flood water
motivation and emotion, etc. and have made receded, Ranjita’s mother and grandmother
significant progress. Till date, most of the helped Shabnam’s mother to set-up their house.
research in psychology follows this approach. The two families became very close. Ranjita
Apart from this, psychologists have also been and Shabnam also became very good friends.
considerably influenced by the evolutionary In this case of Ranjita and Shabnam, both
approach which is dominant in biological are very different persons. They grew up in
sciences. This approach has also been used different families under complex social and
to explain diverse kinds of psychological cultural conditions. You can see some
phenomenon such as attachment and regularity in the relationship of their nature,
aggression to mention just a few. experience and mental processes with their
social and physical environment. But at the
Psychology as a Social Science same time, there are variations in their
We mentioned above that psychology is behaviours and experiences which would be
recognised more as a social science because dif ficult to predict using the known
it studies the behaviour of human beings in psychological principles. One can understand
their socio-cultural contexts. Humans are not why and how individuals in communities
only influenced by their socio-cultural become quite helpful and self-sacrificing in
contexts, they also create them. Psychology crisis as was the case with the people in the
as a social science discipline focuses on village of Ranjita and Shabnam. But, even in
humans as social beings. Consider the that case, not every villager was equally helpful
following story of Ranjita and Shabnam. and also under similar circumstances not
Ranjita and Shabnam were in the same every community is so forthcoming; in fact,
class. Although, they were in the same class, sometimes, the opposite is true – people
they were just acquainted with each other and become antisocial under similar
their lives were quite different. Ranjita came circumstances indulging in looting and

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exploitation when some crisis occurs. This relationship between the mind and the body
shows that psychology deals with human and that they were parallel to each other.
behaviour and experience in the context of Recent studies in affective neuroscience have
their society and culture. Thus, psychology is clearly shown that there is a relationship
a social science with focus on the individuals between mind and behaviour. It has been
and communities in relation to their socio- shown that using positive visualisation
cultural and physical environment. techniques and feeling positive emotions, one
can bring about significant changes in bodily
processes. Ornish has shown this in a number
UNDERSTANDING MIND AND BEHAVIOUR
of studies with his patients. In these studies a
You will recall that psychology was once person with blocked arteries was made to
defined as a science of the mind. For many visualise that blood was flowing through her/
decades, the mind remained a taboo in his blocked arteries. After practicing this over
psychology because it could not be defined in a period of time, significant relief was obtained
concrete behavioural terms or its location by these patients as the degree of blockage
could not be indicated. If the term “mind” has became significantly less. Use of mental
returned to psychology, we should thank imagery, i.e. images generated by a person in
her/his mind, have been used to cure various
neuroscientists like Sperry and physicists like
kinds of phobias (irrational fears of objects and
Penrose, who have given it the respect which
situations). A new discipline called
it deserved and now has. There are scientists
Psychoneuroimmunology has emerged which
in various disciplines including psychology,
emphasises the role played by the mind in
who think that a unified theory of the mind is
strengthening the immune system.
a possibility, although it still is far away.
What is mind? Is it the same as brain? It
is true that mind cannot exist without brain, Activity 1.1
but mind is a separate entity. This can be
Imagine and visualise yourself in the following
appreciated on account of several interesting situations. Mention three psychological processes
cases that have been documented. Some involved in each situation.
patients whose occipital lobes, which are 1. You are writing an essay for a competition.
responsible for vision, were surgically removed 2. You are chatting with a friend on an
have been found to be responding correctly to interesting topic.
3. You are playing football.
location and configuration of visual cues.
4. You are watching a soap opera on TV.
Similarly, an amateur athlete lost his arm in 5. Your best friend has hurt you.
a motorcycle accident but continued to feel 6. You are appearing in an examination.
an “arm” and also continued to feel its 7. You are expecting an important visitor.
movements. When of fered cof fee, his 8. You are preparing a speech to deliver in your
school.
“phantom arm” reached out to the coffee cup
9. You are playing chess.
and when someone pulled it away, he 10. You are trying to figure out the answer of a
protested. There are other similar cases difficult mathematics problem.
documented by neuroscientists. A young man Discuss your answers with the teacher and
who suffered brain injury in an accident, after classmates.
he returned home from the hospital, claimed
that his parents had been replaced by their
“duplicates”. They were imposters. In each of POPULAR NOTIONS ABOUT THE DISCIPLINE
these cases, the person had suffered from OF PSYCHOLOGY
damage of some part of the brain but his
“mind” had remained intact. It was earlier We mentioned above that everyday, almost
believed by scientists that there is no everyone of us acts like a psychologist. We

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try to understand why someone behaved in confidence. Dweck’s study tested this. She took
the manner in which s/he did and come up two groups of students who were trained for
with ready explanations. Not only this, most 25 days in solving math problems. The first
of us have developed our own theory of group was given easy problems which they were
human behaviour. If we want some worker always able to solve. The second group had a
to perform better than s/he has in the past, mix of easy and difficult problems. Obviously,
we know that we will need to push her/him. in case of difficult problems, they failed.
Maybe even use a stick because people are Whenever this happened Dweck told them that
basically lazy. Such popular theories of their failure was because they had not tried
human behaviour based on common sense hard enough and persuaded them not to give
may or may not be true if investigated up and keep trying. After the training period
scientifically. In fact, you will find that was over, a new set of math problems were
common sensical explanations of human given to the two groups. What Dweck found
behaviour are based on hindsight and explain goes against common belief. Those who had
very little. For example, if a friend you love always succeeded because they were given
goes away to a distant place, what will easy problems, gave up much faster when they
happen to your attraction for her/him? There faced failure than those who had experience
are two sayings which you may recall to of both success and failure and were taught
answer this question. One of them is “Out of to attribute failure to their lack of effort.
sight, out of mind”. The second one is There are many other common sense
“Distance makes the heart grow fonder”. Both notions which you may not find to be true.
of them make opposite statements, so which Not too long ago it was believed in some
one is true. The explanation you choose will cultures that men are more intelligent than
depend on what happens in your life after women or women cause more accidents than
your friend leaves. Suppose you are able to men. Empirical studies have shown that both
find a new friend, the saying “Out of sight, of these are untrue. Common sense also tells
out of mind” will be used by you or others to us that one is not able to give one’s best if you
explain your behaviour. If you are unable to are asked to perform before a large audience.
find a new friend, you will keep remembering Psychological studies have shown that if you
your friend fondly. In this case, the saying have practiced well, you may actually perform
“Distance makes the heart grow fonder” will better because the presence of others helps
explain your behaviour. Notice that in both your performance.
cases the explanation follows the occurrence It is hoped that as you go through this
of behaviour. Common sense is based on textbook you will discover that many of your
hindsight. Psychology as a science looks for beliefs and understanding of human behaviour
patterns of behaviour which can be predicted will change. You will also gather that
and not explained after the behaviour occurs. psychologists are different from astrologers,
Scientific knowledge generated by tantriks and palm readers because they
psychology often runs against common sense. systematically examine propositions based on
One such example is a study performed by data to develop principles about human
Dweck (1975). She was concerned with behaviour and other psychological phenomena.
children who gave up too easily when faced
with a difficult problem or failure. She Activity 1.2
wondered how they could be helped. Common
sense tells us to give them easy problems in Ask a cross-section of students about what they
order to increase their success rate so that think psychology is? Draw a comparison between
their confidence goes up. Only later should what they say and what the textbook tells you.
we give them difficult problems which they What conclusion can you draw?
will be able to solve because of their new-found

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 In the early 20th century, a new perspective
EVOLUTION OF PSYCHOLOGY
called Gestalt psychology emerged in
Psychology as a modern discipline, which is Germany as a reaction to the structuralism of
influenced to a large extent by Western Wundt. It focused on the organisation of
developments, has a short history. It grew out perceptual experiences. Instead of looking at
of ancient philosophy concer ned with the components of the mind, the Gestalt
questions of psychological significance. We psychologists argued that when we look at the
mentioned earlier that the formal beginning world our perceptual experience is more than
of modern psychology is traced back to 1879 the sum of the components of the perception.
when the first experimental laboratory was In other words, what we experience is more
established in Leipzig, Germany by Wilhelm than the inputs received from our environment.
Wundt. Wundt was interested in the study of When, for example, light from a series of
conscious experience and wanted to analyse flashing bulbs falls on our retina, we actually
the constituents or the building blocks of the experience movement of light. When we see a
mind. Psychologists during Wundt’s time movie, we actually have a series of rapidly
analysed the structure of the mind through moving images of still pictures falling on our
introspection and therefore were called retina. Thus, our perceptual experience is more
structuralists. Introspection was a procedure than the elements. Experience is holistic; it is
in which individuals or subjects in a Gestalt. We will learn more about the Gestalt
psychological experiments were asked to psychology when we discuss about the nature
describe in detail, their own mental processes of perception in Chapter 5.
or experiences. However, introspection as a Yet another reaction to structuralism came
method did not satisfy many other in the form of behaviourism. Around 1910,
psychologists. It was considered less scientific John Watson rejected the ideas of mind and
because the introspective reports could not consciousness as subject matters of
be verified by outside observers. This led to psychology. He was greatly influenced by the
the development of new perspectives in work of physiologists like Ivan Pavlov on
psychology. classical conditioning. For Watson, mind is not
An American psychologist, William James, observable and introspection is subjective
who had set up a psychological laboratory in because it cannot be verified by another
Cambridge, Massachusetts soon after the observer. According to him, scientific
setting up of the Leipzig laboratory, developed psychology must focus on what is observable
what was called a functionalist approach to and verifiable. He defined psychology as a study
the study of the human mind. William James of behaviour or responses (to stimuli) which
believed that instead of focusing on the can be measured and studied objectively.
structure of the mind, psychology should Behaviourism of Watson was further developed
instead study what the mind does and how by many influential psychologists who are
behaviour functions in making people deal known as behaviourists. Most prominent
with their environment. For example, among them was Skinner who applied
functionalists focused on how behaviour behaviourism to a wide range of situations and
enabled people to satisfy their needs. popularised the approach. We will discuss
According to William James, consciousness Skinner’s work later in this textbook.
as an ongoing stream of mental process Although behaviourists dominated the field
interacting with the environment formed the of psychology for several decades after Watson,
core of psychology. A very influential a number of other approaches and views about
educational thinker of the time, John Dewey, psychology and its subject matter were
used functionalism to argue that human developing around the same time. One person
beings seek to function effectively by adapting who shook the world with his radical view of
to their environment. human nature was Sigmund Freud. Freud

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viewed human behaviour as a dynamic unfold their inner potential. They argued that
manifestation of unconscious desires and behaviourism with its emphasis on behaviour
conflicts. He founded psychoanalysis as a as determined by environmental conditions
system to understand and cure psychological undermines human freedom and dignity and
disorders. While Freudian psychoanalysis takes a mechanistic view of human nature.
viewed human beings as motivated by These different approaches filled the
unconscious desire for gratification of pleasure history of modern psychology and provided
seeking (and often, sexual) desires, the multiple perspectives to its development. Each
humanistic perspective in psychology took of these perspectives has its own focus and
a more positive view of human nature. draws our attention to the complexity of
Humanists, such as Carl Rogers and Abraham psychological processes. There are strengths
Maslow, emphasised the free will of human as well as weaknesses in each approach. Some
beings and their natural striving to grow and of these approaches have led to further

Box 1.1 Some Interesting Landmarks in the E volution of Modern PPsychology

Evolution sychology

1879 Wilhelm Wundt establishes the first behaviourism as a major approach to

psychology laboratory in Leipzig, psychology.
Germany. 1954 Humanistic psychologist Abraham Maslow
1890 William James publishes Principles of publishes ‘Motivation and Personality’.
Psychology. 1954 Bureau of Psychology is established at
1895 Functionalism is formulated as a system Allahabad.
of psychology. 1955 National Institute of Mental Health and
1900 Sigmund Freud develops Psychoanalysis. Neurosciences (NIMHANS) is established at
1904 Ivan Pavlov wins the Nobel Prize for his Bangalore.
work on digestive system that led to 1962 Hospital for Mental Diseases in Ranchi is
understanding of principles of established.
development of responses. 1973 Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen win the
1905 Intelligence test developed by Binet and Nobel Prize for their work on built-in species-
Simon. specific animal behaviour patterns that
1912 Gestalt psychology is born in Germany. emerge without any prior experience/
1916 First Psychology Department at Calcutta learning.
University is established. 1978 Herbert Simon wins the Nobel Prize for work
1922 Psychology is included in Indian Science on decision-making.
Congress Association. 1981 David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel win the Nobel
1924 Indian Psychological Association is Prize for their research on vision cells in the
founded. brain.
1924 John B. Watson publishes ‘Behaviourism’, 1981 Roger Sperry wins the Nobel Prize for split-
a book that led to the foundation of brain research.
behaviourism. 1989 National Academy of Psychology (NAOP) India
1928 N.N. Sengupta and Radhakamal Mukerjee was founded.
publish the first textbook on Social 1997 National Brain Research Centre (NBRC) is
Psychology (London : Allen & Unwin). established at Gurgaon, Haryana.
1949 Psychological Research Wing of the 2002 Daniel Kahneman wins the Nobel Prize for
Defence Science Organisation of India is research on human judgment and decision-
established. making under uncertainty.
1951 Humanistic psychologist Carl Rogers 2005 Thomas Schelling wins the Nobel Prize for his
publishes Client-Centred Therapy. work in applying Game Theory to
1953 B.F. Skinner publishes ‘Science and understanding of conflict and cooperation in
Human Behaviour’, strengthening economic behaviour.

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developments in the discipline. Aspects of departure both within the country and abroad.
Gestalt approach and structuralism were These attempts have tried to establish the
combined and led to the development of the truth value of various assertions in Indian
cognitive perspective which focuses on how philosophical traditions through scientific
we know about the world. Cognition is the studies.
process of knowing. It involves thinking, The modern era of Indian psychology
understanding, perceiving, memorising, began in the Department of Philosophy at
problem solving and a host of other mental Calcutta University where the first syllabus
processes by which our knowledge of the world of experimental psychology was introduced
develops, making us able to deal with the and the first psychology laboratory was
environment in specific ways. Some cognitive established in 1915. Calcutta University
psychologists view the human mind as an started the first Department of Psychology in
information processing system like the the year 1916 and another Department of
computer. Mind, according to this view is like Applied Psychology in 1938. The beginning of
a computer and it receives, processes, modern experimental psychology at Calcutta
transforms, stores and retrieves information. University was greatly influenced by the Indian
Modern cognitive psychology views human psychologist Dr. N.N. Sengupta who was
beings as actively constructing their minds trained in USA in the experimental tradition
through their exploration into the physical and of Wundt. Professor G. Bose was trained in
the social world. This view is sometimes called Freudian psychoanalysis, another area which
constructivism. Piaget’s view of child influenced the early development of
development which will be discussed later is psychology in India. Professor Bose
considered a constructivist theory of established Indian Psychoanalytical
development of the mind. Another Russian Association in 1922. Departments of
psychologist Vygotsky went even further to Psychology in the Universities of Mysore and
suggest that the human mind develops Patna were other early centres of teaching and
through social and cultural processes in which research in psychology. From these modest
the mind is viewed as culturally constructed beginnings, modern psychology has grown as
through joint interaction between adults and a strong discipline in India with a large number
children. In other words, while for Piaget of centres of teaching, research and
children actively construct their own minds, applications. There are two centers of
Vygotsky took a view that mind is a joint excellence in psychology supported by the
cultural construction and emerges as a result UGC at Utkal University, Bhubaneswar and
of interaction between children and adults. at the University of Allahabad. About 70
universities offer courses in psychology.
DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY IN INDIA Durganand Sinha in his book Psychology
in a Third World Country: The Indian
The Indian philosophical tradition is rich in Experience published in 1986 traces the
its focus on mental processes and reflections history of modern psychology as a social
on human consciousness, self, mind-body science in India in four phases. According to
relations, and a variety of mental functions him, the first phase till independence was a
such as cognition, perception, illusion, phase with emphasis on experimental,
attention and reasoning, etc. Unfortunately, psychoanalytic and psychological testing
philosophical roots in the Indian tradition have research, which primarily reflected the
not influenced the development of modern development of the discipline in western
psychology in India. The development of the countries. The second phase till the 1960s was
discipline in India continues to be dominated a phase of expansion of psychology in India
by wester n psychology, although some into different branches of psychology. During
attempts have been made to find points of this phase Indian psychologists showed a

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desire to have an Indian identity by seeking to
BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY
link western psychology to the Indian context.
They did this by using western ideas to Various fields of specialisation in psychology
understand the Indian situation. However, have emerged over the years. Some of these
psychology in India sought to become relevant are discussed in this section.
for Indian society in the post 1960s phase of
problem-oriented research. Psychologists Cognitive Psychology investigates mental
became more focused on addressing the processes involved in acquisition, storage,
problems of the Indian society. Further, the manipulation, and transfor mation of
limitations of excessive dependence on information received from the environment
western psychology for our social context were along with its use and communication. The
also realised. Leading psychologists major cognitive processes are attention,
emphasised the significance of research, which perception, memory, reasoning, problem
is of relevance to our situation. The search for solving, decision-making and language. You
a new identity of psychology in India led to will be studying these topics later in this
the phase of indigenisation, which started textbook. In order to study these cognitive
during the late 1970s. Besides rejecting the processes, psychologists conduct experiments
western framework, Indian psychologists in laboratory settings. Some of them also follow
stressed the need for developing an an ecological approach, i.e. an approach which
understanding based on a framework, which focuses on the environmental factors, to study
was culturally and socially relevant. This trend cognitive processes in a natural setting.
was also reflected in some attempts to develop Cognitive psychologists often collaborate with
psychological approaches based on traditional neuroscientists and computer scientists.
Indian psychology, which came from our
Biological Psychology focuses on the
ancient texts and scriptures. Thus, this phase
relationship between behaviour and the
is characterised by development in indigenous
physical system, including the brain and the
psychology, which originated from the Indian
rest of the nervous system, the immune
cultural context and was relevant for society
system, and genetics. Biological psychologists
and Indian psychology based on the Indian
often collaborate with neuroscientists,
traditional knowledge system. While these
zoologists, and anthropologists.
developments continue, psychology in India
Neuropsychology has emerged as a field of
is making significant contributions to the field
research where psychologists and
of psychology in the world. It has become more
neuroscientists are working together.
contextual emphasising the need for
Researchers are studying the role of
developing psychological principles, which are
neurotransmitters or chemical substances
rooted in our own social and cultural context.
which are responsible for neural
Alongside, we also find that new research
communication in different areas of the brain
studies involving interfaces with neuro-
and therefore in associated mental functions.
biological and health sciences are being carried
They do their research on people with normal
out.
functioning brain as well as on people with
Psychology in India is now being applied
damaged brain by following advanced
in diverse professional areas. Not only have
technologies like EEG, PET and fMRI, etc.
psychologists been working with children
about which you will study later.
having special problems, they are employed
in hospitals as clinical psychologists, in Developmental Psychology studies the
corporate organisations in the HRD and physical, social and psychological changes
advertising departments, in sports that occur at different ages and stages over a
directorates, in the development sector and life-span, from conception to old age. The
in IT industry. primary concer n of developmental

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psychologists is how we become what we are. Health Psychology focuses on the role of
For many years the major emphasis was on psychological factors (for example, stress,
child and adolescent development. However anxiety) in the development, prevention and
today an increasing number of developmental treatment of illness. Areas of interest for a
psychologists show strong interest in adult health psychologist are stress and coping, the
development and ageing. They focus on the relationship between psychological factors and
biological, socio-cultural and environmental health, patient-doctor relationship and ways
factors that influence psychological of promoting health enhancing factors.
characteristics such as intelligence, cognition,
Clinical and Counselling Psychology deals
emotion, temperament, morality, and social with causes, treatment and prevention of
relationship. Developmental psychologists different types of psychological disorders such
collaborate with anthropologists, as anxiety, depression, eating disorders and
educationists, neurologists, social workers, chronic substance abuse. A related area is
counsellors and almost every branch of counselling, which aims to improve everyday
knowledge where there is a concern for growth functioning by helping people solve problems
and development of a human being. in daily living and cope more effectively with
Social Psychology explores how people are challenging situations. The work of clinical
psychologists does not differ from that of
affected by their social environments, how
counselling psychologists although a
people think about and influence others.
counselling psychologist sometimes deals with
Social psychologists are interested in such
people who have less serious problems. In
topics as attitudes, conformity and obedience
many instances, counselling psychologists
to authority, interpersonal attraction, helpful
work with students, advising them about
behaviour, prejudice, aggression, social personal problems and career planning. Like
motivation, inter-group relations and so on. clinical psychologists, psychiatrists also study
Cross-cultural and Cultural Psychology the causes, treatment, and prevention of
examines the role of culture in understanding psychological disorders. How are clinical
behaviour, thought, and emotion. It assumes psychologists and psychiatrists different? A
that human behaviour is not only a reflection clinical psychologist has a degree in
psychology, which includes intensive training
of human-biological potential but also a
in treating people with psychological disorders.
product of culture. Therefore behaviour should
In contrast, a psychiatrist has a medical degree
be studied in its socio-cultural context. As you
with years of specialised training in the
will be studying in different chapters of this
treatment of psychological disorders. One
book, culture influences human behaviour in
important distinction is that psychiatrists can
many ways and in varying degrees. prescribe medications and give electroshock
Environmental Psychology studies the treatments whereas clinical psychologist
interaction of physical factors such as cannot.
temperature, humidity, pollution, and natural Industrial/Organisational Psychology deals
disasters on human behaviour. The influence with workplace behaviour, focusing on both the
of physical arrangement of the workplace on workers and the organisations that employ
health, the emotional state, and interpersonal them. Industrial/organisational psychologists
relations are also investigated. Current topics are concerned with training employees,
of research in this field are the extent to which, improving work conditions, and developing
disposal of waste, population explosion, criteria for selecting employees. For example,
conservation of energy, efficient use of an organisational psychologist might
community resources are associated with and recommend that a company may adopt a new
are functions of human behaviour. management structure that would increase

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communication between managers and staff. psychology, forensic psychology, rural
The background of industrial and psychology, engineering psychology,
organisational psychologists often includes managerial psychology, community
training in cognitive and social psychology. psychology, psychology of women, and political
psychology, to name a few. Try the Activity 1.3
Educational Psychology studies how people to reflect upon your interest areas in psychology.
of all ages learn. Educational psychologists
primarily help develop instructional methods PSYCHOLOGY AND OTHER DISCIPLINES
and materials used to train people in both
educational and work settings. They are also Any discipline, which deals with people, would
concerned with research on issues of relevance definitely recognise the relevance of the
for education, counselling and learning knowledge of psychology. Similarly
problems. A related field, school psychology, psychologists also acknowledge the relevance
focuses on designing programmes that of other disciplines in understanding human
promote intellectual, social, and emotional behaviour. This trend has led to the emergence
development of children, including those with of interdisciplinary approach in the field of
special needs. They try to apply knowledge of psychology. Researchers and scholars in
psychology in a school setting. science, social science and humanities have felt
the significance of psychology as a discipline.
Sports Psychology applies psychological
Figure 1.1 clearly shows the relationship of
principles to improve sports performance by
psychology with other disciplines. In studying
enhancing their motivation. Sports psychology
brain and behaviour, psychology shares its
is a relatively new field but is gaining
acceptance worldwide. knowledge with neurology, physiology,
biology, medicine and computer science. In
Other Emerging Branches of Psychology : studying human behaviour (its meaning,
The interdisciplinary focus on research and growth and development) in a socio-cultural
application of psychology has led to the context, psychology shares its knowledge with
emergence of varied areas like aviation anthropology, sociology, social work, political
psychology, space psychology, military science and economics. In studying mental
activities involved in creation of literary texts,
music and drama, psychology shares its
Activity 1.3 knowledge with literature, art and music. Some
Think about the areas of psychology that you have
of the major disciplines linked to the field of
read in the text. Go through the list given below psychology are discussed below:
and rank them from 1 (most interesting) to 11 (least
interesting). Philosophy : Until the end of the 19th century,
Cognitive psychology certain concerns that are now part of
Biological psychology contemporary psychology like, what is the
Developmental psychology nature of the mind or how do humans come to
Social psychology
Cross-cultural and cultural psychology
know their motivations and emotions were the
Environmental psychology concerns of philosophers. In the later part of
Health psychology the 19th century, Wundt and other
Clinical and counselling psychology psychologists adopted an experimental
Industrial/Organisational psychology approach to these questions and contemporary
Educational psychology
Sports psychology
psychology emerged. Despite the emergence of
psychology as a science, it greatly draws from
After going through this textbook and completing
the course you may like to return to this activity philosophy, particularly with respect to
and mark the changes in your ranking. methods of knowing, and various domains of
human nature.

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Medicine : Doctors have realised that the terms of how a ‘computer’ is structured, its
maxim, healthy body requires a healthy mind, memory organised, sequential and
is actually true. A large number of hospitals simultaneous (read parallel) processing of
now employ psychologists. The role of information. Computer scientists and
psychologists in preventing people from engineers are seeking to make computers not
engaging in health hazardous behaviours and only more and more intelligent but also
in adhering to the prescribed doctors’ regimen machines which can sense and feel.
are some of the important areas where the two Developments in both these disciplines have
disciplines have come together. While treating brought about significant advancement in the
patients suffering from cancer, AIDS, and the field of cognitive sciences.
physically challenged, or handling patients in
the Intensive Care Unit, and patients during Law and Criminology : A skilled lawyer and
post operative care doctors have also felt the a criminologist requires knowledge of
need for psychological counselling. A psychology in answering such questions as:
successful doctor looks at the psychological How well a witness remembers an accident, a
street fight, or a murder? How well can s/he
as well as physical well-being of the patients.
report such facts when taking the witness
Economics, Political Science and stand in the court? What factors influence the
decision which is taken by the jury? What are
Sociology : As sister social science disciplines,
the dependable signs of guilt and falsehood?
these three have drawn considerably from
What factors are held important in holding a
psychology and have enriched it as well.
culprit responsible for her/his action? What
Psychology has contributed a great deal to the
degree of punishment is considered just for a
study of micro-level economic behaviour,
criminal act? Psychologists seek to answer
particularly in understanding consumer
these questions. Currently, a number of
behaviour, savings behaviour and in decision-
psychologists are involved in research on such
making. American economists have used data issues, the answers to which would help the
on consumer sentiments to predict economic legal system of the country in the future.
growth. Three scholars who have worked on
such problems have received the Nobel Prize Mass Communication : The print and the
in Economics, namely H. Simon, D. Kahneman electronic media have entered in our lives in a
and T. Schelling. Like economics, political very big way. They have a major influence on
science too draws considerably from our thinking, attitudes and our emotions. If
psychology, particularly, in understanding they have brought us closer together, they
issues related to exercise of power and have also reduced cultural diversities. The
authority, nature of political conflicts and their impact of media on the formation of attitudes
resolutions, and voting behaviour. Sociology of children and their behaviour is a domain
and psychology come together to explain and where both these disciplines come together.
understand the behaviour of individuals within Psychology also helps in developing strategies
different socio-cultural contexts. Issues related for better and effective communication. A
to socialisation, group and collective behaviour, journalist in reporting news must know the
and intergroup conflicts gain from both these reader’s interests in the story. Since most stories
disciplines. deal with human events, knowledge of their
motives and emotions is very important. A story
Computer Science : From the very beginning, will have more impact if it is based on a
the effort of computer science has been in background of psychological knowledge and
mimicking the human mind. One can see it in insight.

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 Political Science Education Economics

Philosophy Music and Fine Arts

Psychology

Computer Science Law/Criminology

Medicine/Psychiatry Mass Communication

Architecture and Engineering Sociology

Fig.1.1 : Psychology and Other Disciplines

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Music and Fine Arts : Music and psychology social reforms, interventions at the individual
have converged in many areas. Scientists have levels are also needed in order to change. Many
made use of music in raising work of these problems are largely of psychological
performance. Music and emotions is another nature and they result from our unhealthy
area in which a number of studies have been thinking, negative attitude towards people and
carried out. Musicians in India have recently self and undesirable patterns of behaviour. A
started experimenting with what they call psychological analysis of these problems helps
‘Music Therapy’. In this they use different both in having a deeper understanding of these
‘Ragas’ for curing certain physical ailments. problems and also in finding their effective
The efficacy of music therapy still remains to solutions.
be proven. The potential of psychology in solving the
problems of life is being realised more and
Architecture and Engineering : At first glance more. Media has played a vital role in this
the relationship between psychology and respect. You may have seen on television
architecture and engineering would appear counsellors and therapists suggesting
improbable. But such is actually not the case. solutions to a variety of problems related to
Ask any architect, s/he must satisfy her/his children, adolescents, adults and the elderly
clients by providing mental and physical space people. You may also find them analysing vital
through her design and satisfy aesthetically. social problems relating to social change and
Engineers must also take into account human development, population, poverty,
habits in their plans for safety, for example, interpersonal or intergroup violence, and
on streets and highways. Psychological environmental degradation. Many
knowledge helps in a big way in designing of psychologists now play an active role in
all mechanical devices and displays. designing and executing intervention
To sum up, psychology is located at the programmes in order to provide people with a
intersection of many fields of knowledge better quality of life. Hence, it is no surprise
pertaining to human functioning. that we find psychologists working in diverse
settings such as schools, hospitals, industries,
PSYCHOLOGY IN EVERYDAY LIFE prisons, business organisations, military
establishments, and in private practice as
The discussion above may have clarified that consultants helping people solve problems in
psychology is not only a subject that satisfies their respective settings.
some of the curiosities of our mind about Besides helping you in rendering social
human nature, but it is also a subject that service to others, the knowledge of psychology
can offer solutions to a variety of problems. is also personally relevant to you in your day-
These may range from purely personal (for to-day life. The principles and methods of
example, a daughter having to face an alcoholic psychology that you will learn in this course
father or a mother dealing with a problem child) should be made use of in analysing and
to those that may be rooted within the family understanding yourself in relation to others.
set up (for example, lack of communication and It is not that we do not think about ourselves.
interaction among family members) or in a But very often, some of us think very highly
larger group or community setting (for example, of ourselves and any feedback that contradicts
terrorist groups or socially isolated our opinion about ourselves is rejected
communities) or may have national or because we engage in what is called a
international dimensions. Problems related to defensive behaviour. In some other cases,
education, health, environment, social justice, persons come to acquire a habit of running
women development, intergroup relations, etc. down themselves. Both conditions do not
are pervasive. While the solution of these permit us to grow. We need to have a positive
problems may involve political, economic and and balanced understanding of ourselves. You

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may use psychological principles in a positive
manner to develop good habits of study for
improving your learning and memory, and for Key Terms
solving your personal and interpersonal Behaviour, Behaviourism, Cognition,
problems by using appropriate decision- Cognitive approach, Consciousness,
making strategies. You will also find it of use Constructivism, Developmental psychology,
to reduce or alleviate the stress of Functionalism, Gestalt, Gestalt psychology,
examination. Thus, the knowledge of Humanistic approach, Introspection, Mind,
psychology is quite useful in our everyday life, Neuropsychology, Physiological psychology,
Psychoanalysis, Sociology, Stimulus,
and is rewarding from personal as well as Structuralism
social points of view.

Summary
• Psychology is a modern discipline aimed at understanding the complexities of mental
processes, experiences and behaviour of individuals in different contexts. It is treated as a
natural as well as a social science.
• The major schools of psychological thought are structuralism, functionalism, behaviourism,
Gestalt school, psychoanalysis, humanistic psychology and cognitive psychology.
• Contemporary psychology is multivocal as it is characterised by many approaches or
diverse views, which explain behaviour at different levels. These approaches are not
mutually exclusive. Each provides valuable insights into the complexities of human
functioning. The cognitive approach uses thought processes as central to psychological
functions. The humanistic approach views human functioning as characterised by a desire
to grow, be productive and fulfill human potential.
• Today psychologists work in many specialised fields which have their own theories and
methods. They make efforts to develop theories and solve problems in specific domains.
Some of the major fields of psychology are: cognitive psychology, biological psychology,
health psychology, developmental psychology, social psychology, educational and school
psychology, clinical and counselling psychology, environmental psychology, industrial/
organisational psychology, sports psychology.
• More recently a need is felt to have multi/interdisciplinary initiatives to arrive at a better
understanding of reality. This has led to a collaboration across disciplines. Interests of
psychology overlap with social sciences (e.g., economics, political science, sociology),
biosciences (e.g., neurology, physiology, medicine), mass communication, and music and
fine arts. Such efforts have led to fruitful research and application.
• Psychology is a discipline not merely contributing to the development of theoretical
knowledge about human behaviour, but contributing to the solution of problems at different
levels. Psychologists are employed to help in diverse activities in a variety of settings
including schools, hospitals, industries, training institutes, military and government
establishments. Many of them are doing private practice and are consultants.

Review Questions
1. What is behaviour? Give examples of overt and covert behaviour.
2. How can you distinguish scientific psychology from the popular notions about the discipline
of psychology?
3. Give a brief account of the evolution of psychology.

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 4. What are the problems for which collaboration of psychologists with other disciplines
can be fruitful? Take any two problems to explain.
5. Differentiate between (a) a psychologist and a psychiatrist (b) a counsellor and a clinical
psychologist.
6. Describe some of the areas of everyday life where understanding of psychology can be put
to practice.
7. How can knowledge of the field of environmental psychology be used to promote
environment friendly behaviour?
8. In terms of helping solve an important social problem such as crime, which branch of
psychology do you think is most suitable. Identify the field and discuss the concerns of
the psychologists working in this field.

Project Ideas
1. This chapter tells you about several professionals in the field of psychology. Contact a
psychologist who fits into one of the categories and interview the person. Have a list of
questions prepared beforehand. Possible questions could be: (i) What kind of education is
necessary for your particular job? (ii) Which college/university would you recommend for
the study of this discipline? (iii) Are there many jobs available today in your area of work?
(iv) What would a typical day at work be like for you – or is there no such thing as
“typical”? (v) What motivated you to enter this line of work?
Write a report of your interview and include your specific reactions.
2. Go to the library or some bookstore or surf the internet and obtain names of some books
(fiction/non-fiction or films), which have reference to applications of psychology.
Prepare a report giving a brief synopsis.

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 Methods of Enquiry
Chapter
2 in Ps
Psyychology

After reading this chapter, you would be able to

• explain the goals and nature of psychological enquiry,
• understand different types of data used by psychologists,
• describe some important methods of psychological enquiry,
• understand the methods of analysing data, and
• learn about the limitations of psychological enquiry and ethical
considerations.

Contents
Introduction
Goals of Psychological Enquiry
Steps in Conducting Scientific Research
Alternative Paradigms of Research
Nature of Psychological Data
Some Important Methods in Psychology
Observational Method
Example of an Experiment (Box 2.1)
Experimental Method
Correlational Research
Survey Research
Example of Survey Method (Box 2.2)
Psychological Testing
Case Study
Analysis of Data
Quantitative Method
Qualitative Method
Limitations of Psychological Enquiry
Ethical Issues
An idea that is developed and put
Key Terms
into action is more important than
Summary
an idea that exists only as an idea. Review Questions
Project Ideas
– Gautam Buddha

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 Introduction
You have read in the first chapter that psychology is the study of experiences,
behaviours, and mental processes. You may now be curious to know how
psychologists study these phenomena. In other words, what methods are used to
study behaviour and mental processes? Like all scientists, psychologists seek to
describe, predict, explain and control what they study. For this, psychologists rely
on formal, systematic observations to address their questions. It is the methodology
that makes psychology a scientific endeavour. Psychologists use a variety of research
methods because questions about human behaviour are numerous and all of them
cannot be studied by a single method. Methods such as observation, experimental,
correlational research, survey, psychological testing and case study are more
frequently used to study the problems of psychology. This chapter will familiarise
you with the goals of psychological enquiry, the nature of information or data that
we collect in psychological studies, the diverse range of methodological devices
available for the study of psychology, and some important issues related to
psychological studies.

Prediction : The second goal of scientific

GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ENQUIRY
enquiry is prediction of behaviour. If you are
Like any scientific research, psychological able to understand and describe the behaviour
enquiry has the following goals: description, accurately, you come to know the relationship
prediction, explanation, and control of of a particular behaviour with other types of
behaviour, and application of knowledge so behaviours, events, or phenomena. You can
generated, in an objective manner. Let us try then forecast that under certain conditions
to understand the meaning of these terms. this particular behaviour may occur within a
certain margin of error. For example, on the
Description : In a psychological study, we basis of study, a researcher is able to establish
attempt to describe a behaviour or a a positive relationship between the amount of
phenomenon as accurately as possible. This study time and achievement in different
helps in distinguishing a particular behaviour subjects. Later, if you come to know that a
from other behaviours. For example, the particular child devotes more time for study,
researcher may be interested in observing
you can predict that the child is likely to get
study habits among students. Study habits
good marks in the examination. Prediction
may consist of diverse range of behaviours,
becomes more accurate with the increase in
such as attending all your classes regularly,
the number of persons observed.
submitting assignments on time, planning
your study schedule, studying according to Explanation : The third goal of psychological
the set schedule, revising your work on a daily enquiry is to know the causal factors or
basis etc. Within a particular category there determinants of behaviour. Psychologists are
may be further minute descriptions. The primarily interested in knowing the factors
researcher needs to describe her/his meaning that make behaviour occur. Also, what are the
of study habits. The description requires conditions under which a particular behaviour
recording of a particular behaviour which does not occur. For example, what makes
helps in its proper understanding. some children more attentive in the class? Why

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some children devote less time for study as increase efficiency. Scientific enquiry is also
compared to others? Thus, this goal is conducted to develop new theories or
concerned with identifying the determinants constructs, which leads to further research.
or antecedent conditions (i.e. conditions that
led to the particular behaviour) of the Steps in Conducting Scientific Research
behaviour being studied so that cause-effect Science is not so defined by what it
relationship between two variables (objects) or
investigates as by how it investigates. The
events could be established. scientific method attempts to study a
Control : If you are able to explain why a particular event or phenomenon in an
particular behaviour occurs, you can control objective, systematic, and testable manner.
that behaviour by making changes in its The objectivity refers to the fact that if two
antecedent conditions. Control refers to three or more persons independently study a
things: making a particular behaviour happen, particular event, both of them, to a great
reducing it, or enhancing it. For example, you extent, should arrive at the same conclusion.
can allow the number of hours devoted to For instance, if you and your friend measure
study to be the same, or you can reduce them the length of a table using the same measuring
or there may be an increase in the study hours. device, it is likely that both of you would arrive
The change brought about in behaviour by at the same conclusion about its length.
psychological treatment in terms of therapy The second characteristic of scientific
in persons, is a good example of control. research is that it follows systematic
procedure or steps of investigation. It includes
Application : The final goal of the scientific
the following steps: conceptualisation of a
enquiry is to bring out positive changes in the
problem, collection of data, drawing
lives of people. Psychological research is
conclusions, and revising research conclusions
conducted to solve problems in various
and theory (see Fig.2.1). Let us discuss these
settings. Because of these efforts the quality
steps in some detail.
of life of people is a major concer n of
psychologists. For example, applications of (1) Conceptualising a Problem : The process
yoga and meditation help to reduce stress and of scientific research begins when a researcher

1 2
Conceptualising a Problem Collecting Data
Selecting a topic for study Participants, methods,
tools and procedure

4
3
Revising Research
Conclusions Drawing Conclusions

Restating existing hypothesis/ Using statistical methods

formulating revised or a
new theory

Fig.2.1 : Steps in Conducting Scientific Enquiry

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selects a theme or topic for study. Then s/he on television, higher is the degree of aggression
narrows down the focus and develops specific displayed by them’. In your research, you shall
research questions or problems for the study. now try to prove whether the statement is true
This is done on the basis of review of past or false.
research, observations, and personal
experiences. For example, earlier you read that (2) Collecting Data : The second step in
a researcher was interested in observing the scientific research is to collect data. Data
study habits of students. For this purpose, collection requires developing a research
s/he may identify different facets of study design or a blueprint of the entire study. It
habits first, and then decide whether s/he is requires taking decisions about the following
interested in study habits shown in the class four aspects: (a) participants in the study,
or at home. (b) methods of data collection, (c) tools to be
In psychology we study a diverse range of used in research, and (d) procedure for data
problems related to behaviour and collection. Depending upon the nature of the
experiences. These problems may be related study, the researcher has to decide who would
to (a) understanding our own behaviour (for be the participants (or informants) in the
example, how do I feel and behave when I am study. The participants could be children,
in a state of joy or grief? How do we reflect on adolescents, college students, teachers,
our own experiences and behaviour? Why do managers, clinical patients, industrial
workers, or any group of individuals in whom/
we forget?); (b) understanding other
where the phenomenon under investigation
individual’s behaviour (for example, Is Abhinav
is prevalent. The second decision is related to
more intelligent than Ankur? Why is someone
the use of methods of data collection, such as
always not able to complete her or his work on
observation method, experimental method,
time? Can the habit of smoking be controlled?
correlational method, case study, etc. The
Why do some people suffering from chronic
researcher needs to decide about appropriate
illness not take medicines?); (c) group
tools (for example, interview schedule,
influences on individual behaviour (for
observation schedule, questionnaire, etc.) for
example, why does Rahim spend more time
data collection. The researcher also decides
meeting with people than doing his work?,
about how the tools need to be administered
Why does a cyclist perform better when cycling
to collect data (i.e. individual or group). This
before a group of persons than when cycling
is followed by actual collection of data.
alone?); (d) group behaviour (for example, why
does risk-taking behaviour increase when (3) Drawing Conclusions : The next step is to
people are in a group?), and (e) organisational analyse data so collected through the use of
level (for example, why are some organisations statistical procedures to understand what the
more successful than others? How can an data mean. This can be achieved through
employer increase the motivation of graphical representations (such as preparation
employees?). The list is long and you will learn of pie-chart, bar -diagram, cumulative
about these various facets in subsequent frequencies, etc.) and by the use of different
chapters. If you are inquisitive, you can write statistical methods. The purpose of analysis
down a number of problems which you may is to verify a hypothesis and draw conclusions
like to probe. accordingly.
After identification of the problem, the
researcher proceeds by developing a tentative (4) Revising Research Conclusions : The
answer of the problem, which is called researcher may have begun the study with a
hypothesis. For example, based on the earlier hypothesis that there exists a relationship
evidence or your observation, you might between viewing violence on television and
develop a hypothesis ‘greater is the amount aggression among children. S/he has to see
of time spent by children in viewing violence whether the conclusions support this

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hypothesis. If they do, the existing hypothesis/ attempting to disturb its natural flow. For
theory is confirmed. If not, s/he will revise or example, an explorer does not know what s/
state an alternative hypothesis/theory and he is looking for, how to look for it, and what
again test it based on new data and draw to expect. Rather, s/he tries to map an
conclusions which may be verified by future uncharted wilderness, with little or no prior
researchers. Thus, research is a continuous knowledge of the area, and her/his main task
process. is to record detailed descriptions of what is
found in a particular context.
Alternative Paradigms of Research Both scientific and interpretive traditions
are concerned with studying behaviour and
Psychologists suggest that human behaviour
experiences of others. What about our own
can and should be studied following the
personal experiences and behaviour? As a
methods adopted by sciences like physics,
student of psychology, you may ask yourself
chemistry, and biology. The key assumption
the question: why am I feeling sad? Many times
of this view is that human behaviour is
you take a pledge that you will control your
predictable, caused by internal and external diet or devote more time to studies. But when
forces, and can be observed, measured, and it actually comes to eating or studying you
controlled. In order to achieve these goals, the forget this. You might be wondering why one
discipline of psychology, for larger part of the does not have control over one’s behaviour.
twentieth century, restricted itself to the study Should psychology not help you in analysing
of overt behaviour, i.e. the behaviour that your own experiences, thought processes, and
could be observed and measured. It did not behaviour? It certainly should. The
focus on personal feelings, experiences, psychological enquiry does aim at
meanings, etc. understanding the self by reflecting on one’s
In recent years, a different method known own experiences and insights.
as interpretive has emerged. It emphasises
understanding over explanation and
prediction. It takes the stand that, in view of NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DATA
complex and variable nature of human
You may want to consider how psychological
behaviour and experience, its method of data are different as compared to other
investigation should be different from the sciences. Psychologists collect a variety of
method of investigation of the physical world. information from different sources employing
This viewpoint emphasises the importance of diverse methods. The information, also called
how human beings give meaning to events and data (singular = datum), relate to the
actions and interpret them as they occur in a individuals’ covert or overt behaviour, their
particular context. Let us take the experiences subjective experiences, and mental processes.
that may occur in some unique contexts, such Data form an important input in psychological
as persons experiencing suffering due to enquiry. They in fact approximate the reality
external factors (for example, people affected to some extent and provide an opportunity to
by tsunami, earthquake, cyclone) or internal verify or falsify our ideas, hunches, notions,
factors (for instance, prolonged illness, etc.). etc. It should be understood that data are not
In such types of situations, objective independent entities. They are located in a
measurement is neither possible nor desirable. context, and are tied to the method and theory
Everyone interprets reality in her/his own way that govern the process of data collection. In
based on past experiences and contexts. other words, data are not independent of the
Therefore, we need to understand the physical or social context, the persons
subjective interpretation of the reality. The goal involved, and the time when the behaviour
here is to explore the different aspects of occurs. We behave differently when alone than
human experiences and behaviour without in a group, or at home and in office. You may

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hesitate to talk in front of your parents and areas as intelligence, personality, interest,
teachers but not when you are with friends. values, creativity, emotions, motivation,
You may have also noticed that not all people psychological disorders, illusions,
behave in exactly the same manner in the same delusions, hallucinations, perceptual
situation. The method of data collection (survey, judgment, thought processes,
interview, experiment, etc.) used and the consciousness, subjective experiences, etc.
characteristics of respondents (such as,
individual or group, young or old, male or The above information could be from the
female, rural or urban, etc.) also influence the point of view of measurement somewhat crude.
nature and quality of data. It is possible that Like, in the form of categories (such as high/
when you interview a student, s/he may report low, yes/no), ranks which provide ordinal data,
behaving in a particular manner in a given viz. first, second, third, fourth, etc., or scores
situation. But when you go for actual (10, 12, 15, 18, 20, etc.) on scales. We also
observation you may find just the opposite of obtain verbal reports, observation records,
what s/he had reported. Another important personal diaries, field notes, archival data, etc.
feature of data is that it does not in itself speak Such types of information is analysed
about reality. Inferences have to be made from separately using qualitative methods. You will
data. A researcher attaches meaning to the data get some idea about this later in this chapter.
by placing it in its proper context.
In psychology, different types of data or SOME IMPORTANT METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY
information are collected. Some of these types
are : In the previous section you read about wide
i) Demographic Information : This information variety of data that we collect in psychological
generally includes personal information like studies. All these varieties of data cannot be
name, age, gender, birth order, number of collected through a single method of enquiry.
siblings, education, occupation, marital Psychologists use a variety of methods like
status, number of children, locality of Observation, Experimental, Correlational,
residence, caste, religion, parental Survey, Psychological Testing, and Case Study
education, occupation, and family income, to collect data. The aim of this section is to
etc. guide you to select the methods which may be
ii) Physical Information : This category appropriate for different research purposes. For
includes information about ecological example:
conditions (hilly/desert/forest), mode of
• You can observe the behaviour of spectators
economy, housing conditions, size of rooms,
watching a football match.
facilities available at home, in the
• You can conduct an experiment to see if
neighbourhood, in the school, mode of
children taking an examination do better
transportation, etc.
in the classroom in which they had studied
iii) Physiological Data : In some studies
the subject or in the examination hall
physical, physiological and psychological
(cause-effect relationship).
data are collected about height, weight,
• You can correlate intelligence with, say, self-
heart rate, level of fatigue, Galvanic Skin
esteem (for prediction purposes).
Resistance (GSR), electrical activity of the
brain measured by Electro-encephalograph • You can survey students’ attitude towards
(EEG), blood oxygen levels, reaction time, privatisation of education.
duration of sleep, blood pressure, pattern • You can use psychological tests to find out
of dream, amount of salivation, running and individual differences.
jumping rates (in case of animal studies), • You can conduct a case study on the
etc., are collected. development of language in a child.
iv) Psychological Information : Psychological The main characteristics of these methods
information collected, may relate to such are described in the following sections.

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Observational Method needs to be made, in what for m the
observation will be recorded, and what
Observation is a very power ful tool of
methods will be used to analyse the observed
psychological enquiry. It is an effective method
behaviour.
of describing behaviour. In our daily life, we
remain busy with observing numerous things
Types of Observation
throughout the day. Many times, we do not
take notice of what we are seeing or what we Observation can be of the following types :
have seen. We see but we do not observe. We (a) Naturalistic vs Controlled Observation :
remain aware of only a few things that we see When observations are done in a natural or
daily. Have you experienced such a thing? You real-life settings (in the above example, it was
may also have experienced that if you carefully a school in which observation was made), it is
observe a person or event for some time, you called naturalistic observation. In this case
come to know many interesting things about the observer makes no effort to control or
the person or the event. A scientific manipulate the situation for making an
observation dif fers from day-to-day observation. This type of observation is
observation in many respects. These are : conducted in hospitals, homes, schools, day
(a) Selection : Psychologists do not observe all care centers, etc. However, many a times you
the behaviour that they encounter. Rather, might need to control certain factors that
they select a particular behaviour for determine behaviour as they are not the focus
observation. For example, you may be of your study. For this reason, many of the
interested to know how children studying in studies in psychology are conducted in the
laboratory. For example, if you read Box 2.1,
Class XI spend their time in school. Two things
you will come to know that smoke could only
are possible at this stage. As a researcher, you
be introduced in a controlled laboratory
might think that you have a fairly good idea
situation. This type of observation, called
about what happens in school. You might
Controlled Laboratory Observation, actually,
prepare a list of activities and go to the school
is obtained in laboratory experiments.
with a view to finding out their occurrences.
Alternatively, you might think that you do not (b) Non-Participant vs Participant Observation :
know what happens in the school and, by your Observation can be done in two ways. One,
observation you would like to discover it. you may decide to observe the person or event
from a distance. Two, the observer may
(b) Recording : While observing, a researcher
become part of the group being observed. In
records the selected behaviour using different
the first case, the person being observed may
means, such as marking tallies for the already
not be aware that s/he is being observed. For
identified behaviour whenever they occur,
example, you want to observe the pattern of
taking notes describing each activity in greater
interaction between teachers and students in
detail using short hand or symbols,
a particular class. There are many ways of
photographs, video recording, etc.
achieving this goal. You can install a video
(c) Analysis of Data : After the observations camera to record the classroom activities,
have been made, psychologists analyse which you can see later and analyse.
whatever they have recorded with a view to Alternatively, you may decide to sit in a corner
derive some meaning out of it. of the class without interfering or participating
It is important to know that making good in their everyday activities. This type of
observations is a skill. A good observer knows observation is called non-participant
what s/he is looking for, whom s/he wants to observation. The danger in this type of set-
observe, when and where the observation up is that the very fact that someone

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 B o x 2.1 Example of an Experiment

Two American psychologists, Bibb Latane and ignored; within four minutes the room contained
John Darley, conducted a study in 1970. In order enough smoke to interfere with vision and breathing.
to participate in this study, the students of Latane and Darley were primarily interested in
Columbia University arrived individually at a knowing how frequently students simply got up and
laboratory. They were given the impression that left the room to report the emergency. Most (75 per
they would be interviewed on a certain topic. cent) of the students who were waiting alone reported
Each student was sent to a waiting room to the smoke, but those reporting in groups were far
complete a preliminary questionnaire. Some of less. Groups consisting of three naïve students
them found two other people already seated in reported it only 38 per cent of the time. When the
the room, while others sat down alone. Soon after students waited with two other confederates, who
the students had started working on the were instructed before hand by the researchers to
questionnaire, smoke began filling the room do nothing, only 10 per cent students reported
through a wall vent. The smoke could hardly be smoke.

(an outsider) is sitting and observing may bring

a change in the behaviour of students and the Activity 2.1
teacher.
In participant observation, the observer A few students can observe one period when the
psychology teacher is teaching in the class. Note
becomes a part of the school or the group of
down, in detail, what the teacher does, what the
people being observed. In participant students do, and the entire pattern of interaction
observation, the observer takes some time to between the teacher and the students. Discuss
establish a rapport with the group so that they the observations made with other students and
start accepting her/him as one of the group teacher. Note the similarities and differences in
members. However, the degree of involvement observation.
of the observer with the group being observed
would vary depending upon the focus of the
study. Experimental Method
The advantage of the observation method
Experiments are generally conducted to
is that it enables the researcher to study
establish cause-effect relationship between
people and their behaviour in a naturalistic
two sets of events or variables in a controlled
situation, as it occurs. However, the
setting. It is a carefully regulated procedure
observation method is labour intensive, time
in which changes are made in one factor and
consuming, and is susceptible to the
its effect is studied on another factor, while
observer’s bias. Our observation is influenced
keeping other related factors constant. In the
by our values and beliefs about the person or
experiment, cause is the event being changed
the event. You are familiar with the popular
or manipulated. Effect is the behaviour that
saying: "We see things as we are and not as
changes because of the manipulation.
things are". Because of our biases we may
interpret things in a different way than what
The Concept of Variable
the participants may actually mean.
Therefore, the observer should record the You read earlier that in the experimental
behaviour as it happens and should not method, a researcher attempts to establish
interpret the behaviour at the time of causal relationship between two variables.
observation itself. What is a variable? Any stimulus or event

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which varies, that is, it takes on different values other. Also, independent variable chosen by
(or changes) and can be measured is a the researcher is not the only variable that
variable. An object by itself is not a variable. influences the dependent variable. Any
But its attributes are. For example, the pen behavioural event contains many variables. It
that you use for writing is NOT a variable. But also takes place within a context. Independent
there are varieties of pens available in different and dependent variables are chosen because
shapes, sizes, and colour. All of these are of the researcher’s theoretical interest.
variables. The room in which you are sitting However, there are many other relevant or
is NOT a variable but its size is as there are extraneous variables that influence the
rooms of different sizes. The height of the dependent variable, but the researcher may
individuals (5' to 6') is another variable. not be interested in examining their effects.
Similarly, people of different races have These extraneous variables need to be
different colours. Young people have started controlled in an experiment so that a
dyeing their hair in different colours. Thus, researcher is able to pin-point the cause and
colour of hair becomes a variable. Intelligence effect relationship between independent and
is a variable (there are people with varying dependent variables.
levels of intelligence — high, moderate, low).
The presence or absence of persons in the Experimental and Control Groups
room is a variable as shown in the experiment
Experiments generally involve one or more
in Box 2.1. Thus, the variation can be in the
experimental groups and one or more control
quality or quantity of objects/events.
groups. An experimental group is a group in
Variables are of many types. We will
however focus on independent and dependent which members of the group are exposed to
independent variable manipulation. The
variables. Independent variable is that
variable which is manipulated or altered or control group is a comparison group that is
its strength varied by the researcher in the treated in every way like the experimental
experiment. It is the effect of this change in group except that the manipulated variable is
the variable which the researcher wants to absent in it. For example, in the study by
observe or note in the study. In the experiment Latane and Darley, there wer e two
conducted by Latane and Darley (Box 2.1), the experimental groups and one control group.
researchers wanted to examine the effect of As you may have noted, the participants in
the presence of other persons on reporting of the study were sent to three types of rooms.
the smoke. The independent variable was In one room no one was present (control
presence or absence of other persons in the group). In the other two rooms, two persons
room. The variables on which the effect of were already seated (experimental groups). Of
independent variable is observed is called the two experimental groups, one group was
dependent variable. Dependent variable instructed not to do anything when smoke
represents the phenomenon the researcher filled in the room. The other group was not
desires to explain. It is expected that change given any instructions. After the experimental
in the dependent variable will ensue from manipulation had occured the performance
changes in the independent variable. The of the control group measured in terms of
frequency of reporting of smoke in the above reporting of smoke was compared with that
case was the dependent variable. Thus, the of the experimental group. It was found that
independent variable is the cause, and the control group participants reported in
dependent variable the ef fect in any maximum numbers about the emergency,
experimental situation. followed by the first experimental group
One must remember that independent and members where the participants were not
dependent variables are interdependent. given any instructions, and the second
Neither of them can be defined without the experimental group (consisting of

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confederates) reported the emergency • Elimination is not always possible. In such
situation, the least. cases, effort should be made to hold them
It should be noted that in an experiment, constant so that their effect remains the
except for the experimental manipulation, same throughout the experiment.
other conditions are kept constant for both • For controlling organismic (e.g., fear,
experimental and control groups. One motivation) and background variables
attempts to control all those relevant variables (such as rural/urban, caste, socio-
which can influence the dependent variable. economic status) matching is also used.
For example, the speed with which smoke In this procedure the relevant variables in
started entering the rooms, the total amount the two groups are equated or are held
of smoke in the rooms, physical and other constant by taking matched pairs across
conditions of the rooms were similar in case conditions of the experiment.
of all the three groups. The distribution of • Counter-balancing technique is used to
participants to experimental and control
minimise the sequence effect. Suppose
groups was done randomly, a method that
there are two tasks to be given in an
ensures that each person has an equal chance
experiment. Rather than giving the two
of being included in any of the groups. If in
tasks in the same sequence the
one group the experimenter had included only
experimenter may interchange the order
males and in the other group females, the
of the tasks. Thus, half of the group may
results obtained in the study, could be due to
the differences in gender rather than due to receive the tasks in the order of A and B
experimental manipulation. All relevant while the other half in order of B and A or
variables in experimental studies that might the same individual may be given the task
influence the dependent variable need to be in A, B, B, A order.
controlled. These are of three major types: • Random assignment of participants to
organismic variables (such as anxiety, different groups eliminates any potential
intelligence, personality, etc.), situational or systematic differences between groups.
environmental variables operating at the time
The strength of a well-designed experiment
of conducting the experiment (such as noise,
is that it can provide, relatively speaking, a
temperature, humidity), and sequential
convincing evidence of a cause-effect
variables. The sequence related variables
relationship between two or more variables.
assume significance when the participants in
However, experiments are often conducted in
experiments are required to be tested in
a highly controlled laboratory situation. In this
several conditions. Exposure to many
sense, they only simulate situations that exist
conditions may result in experimental fatigue,
in the outside world. They are frequently
or practice effects, which may influence the
results of the study and make the criticised for this reason. The experiments may
interpretation of the findings difficult. produce results that do not generalise well,
In order to control relevant variables, or apply to real situations. In other words, they
experimenters use several control techniques. have low external validity. Another limitation
Some illustrations are given below. of the laboratory experiment is that it is not
• Since the goal of an experiment is to always feasible to study a particular problem
minimise extraneous variables, the best experimentally. For example, an experiment
way to handle this problem is to eliminate to study the effect of nutritional deficiency on
them from the experimental setting. For intelligence level of children cannot be
example, the experiment may be conducted as it would be ethically wrong to
conducted in a sound-proof and air- starve anyone. The third problem is that it is
conditioned room to eliminate the effect of difficult to know and control all the relevant
noise and temperature. variables.

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Field Experiments and Quasi Experiments the control group children who experienced the
earthquake but did not lose their parents.
If a researcher wants to have high
Thus, a quasi experiment attempts to
generalisability or to conduct studies which
manipulate an independent variable in a
are not possible in laboratory settings, s/he
may go to the field or the natural setting where natural setting using naturally occurring
the particular phenomenon actually exists. In groups to form experimental and control
other words, s/he may conduct a field groups.
experiment. For example, a researcher may
want to know which method would lead to Correlational Research
better learning among students—lecture or In psychological research, we often wish to
demonstration method. For this, a researcher determine the relationship between two
may prefer to conduct an experiment in the variables for prediction purposes. For
school. The researcher may select two groups example, you may be interested in knowing
of participants; teach one group by whether “the amount of study time” is related
demonstration method and another group by to the “student’s academic achievement”. This
the normal teaching method for sometime. S/ question is different from the one which
he may compare their performance at the end experimental method seeks to answer in the
of the learning session. In such types of sense that here you do not manipulate the
experiments, the control over relevant amount of study time and examine its impact
variables is less than what we find in on achievement. Rather, you simply find out
laboratory experiments. Also, it is more time- the relationship between the two variables to
consuming and expensive. determine whether they are associated, or
Many variables cannot be manipulated in covary or not. The strength and direction of
the laboratory settings. For example, if you the relationship between the two variables is
want to study the effect of an earthquake on represented by a number, known as
children who lost their parents, you cannot correlation coefficient. Its value can range from
create this condition artificially in the +1.0 through 0.0 to –1.0.
laboratory. In such situations, the researcher As you can see, the coef ficient of
adopts the method of quasi (the Latin word correlation is of three types: positive, negative,
meaning “as if ”) experimentation. In such and zero. A positive correlation indicates that
types of experiments, the independent variable as the value of one variable (X) increases, the
is selected rather than varied or manipulated
value of the other variable (Y) will also increase.
by the experimenter. For example, in the
Similarly when variable X decreases, a
experimental group we can have children who
decrease in Y too takes place. Suppose, it is
lost their parents in the earthquake and in found that more time the students spend on
studying, the higher was their achievement
Activity 2.2 score. Also the less they studied, the lower
was their achievement score. This type of
Identify the independent and dependent variables association will be indicated by a positive
from the given hypotheses.
1. Teachers’ classroom behaviour affects
number, and the stronger the association
students’ performance. between studying and achievement, the closer
2. Healthy parent-child relationship facilitates the number would be to +1.0. You may find a
emotional adjustment of children. correlation of +.85, indicating a strong positive
3. Increase in the level of peer pressure increases association between study time and
the level of anxiety.
achievement. On the other hand, a negative
4. Enriching the environment of young children
with special books and puzzles enhances their correlation tells us that as the value of one
performance. variable (X) increases, the value of the other
(Y) decreases. For example, you may

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hypothesise that as the hours of study time panchayati raj institutions for running
increase, the number of hours spent in other programmes related to health, education,
activities will decrease. Here, you are expecting sanitation, etc. However, they have now
a negative correlation, ranging between 0 and evolved into a sophisticated technique which
–1.0. It is also possible that sometimes no helps in inferring various kinds of causal
correlation may exist between the two relationships. Box 2.2 provides an example of
variables. This is called zero correlation. a study using the survey method.
Generally, it is difficult to find zero correlation The survey research uses differ ent
but the correlations found may be close to techniques for collecting information. Included
zero, e.g., -.02 or +.03. This indicates that no among these techniques are: personal
significant relationship exists between two interviews, questionnaires, telephonic surveys,
variables or the two variables are unrelated. and controlled observations. These techniques
are discussed here in some detail.
Survey Research
Personal Interviews
You may have read in the newspapers or seen
on the television that during elections surveys The interview method is one of the most
are conducted to find out if people would vote frequently used methods for obtaining
for a particular political party, or favour a information from people. It is used in diverse
particular candidate. Survey research came kinds of situations. It is used by a doctor to
into existence to study opinions, attitudes and obtain information from the patient, an
social facts. Their main concern initially was employer when meeting a prospective
to find out the existing reality or baseline. So employee, a sales person interviewing a
they were used to find out facts such as the housewife to know why she uses a certain
literacy rate at a particular time, religious brand of soap. On television, we often see
affiliations, income level of a particular group media persons interviewing people on issues
of people, etc.They were also used to find out of national and international importance.
the attitude of people towards family planning, What happens in an interview? We see that
the attitude towards giving powers to the two or more persons sit face-to-face with each

B o x 2.2 Example of Survey Method

In December 2004, a survey was conducted by nor unhappy, and 7 per cent each fell in the last
“Outlook Saptahik” magazine (10 January 2005) two categories, more or less unhappy, and extremely
to know what makes the people of India happy. unhappy. The second question (Can you buy
The survey was conducted in eight big cities, happiness with money?) had three alternatives (Yes,
namely Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Bangalore, No, Don’t know). About 80 per cent people expressed
Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, Jaipur, and Ranchi. that money can’t buy happiness. Another question
817 persons in the age group of 25-55 years tried to know “what gives them maximum
participated in the study. The questionnaire happiness?” More than 50 per cent respondents
used in the survey contained different types of reported that peace of mind (52 per cent) and health
questions. The first question (Are you happy?) (50 per cent) gave them maximum happiness. This
required respondents to give their views on a was followed by responses such as success in work
5-point scale (5=extremely happy, 4=more or less (43 per cent), and family (40 per cent). Another
happy, 3=neither happy nor unhappy, 2=more question asked was to know ‘what do they do when
or less unhappy, 1=extremely unhappy). About they feel unhappy or sad?” It was reported that 36
47 per cent people reported that they were per cent people opted for listening to music, 23 per
extremely happy, 28 per cent were more or less cent found respite in the company of friends, and
happy, 11 per cent said they were neither happy 15 per cent went for a movie.

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other, in which one person (generally called (c) Group to Individuals : It is a situation
interviewer) asks the questions and the other where one group of interviewers interview
person (called interviewee or respondent) one person. You may experience this type
answers the questions related to a problem. of situation when you appear for a job
An interview is a purposeful activity conducted interview.
to derive factual information, opinions and (d) Group to Group : It is a situation where
attitudes, and reasons for particular one group of interviewers interview another
behaviour, etc. from the respondents. It is group of interviewees.
generally conducted face-to-face but sometimes
Interviewing is a skill which requires proper
it can also take place over the phone. training. A good interviewer knows how to make
There can be two broad types of interviews: the respondent at ease and get the optimal
structured or standardised, and answer. S/he remains sensitive to the way a
unstructured or non-standardised. This person responds and, if needed, probes for
distinction is based upon the type of more information. If the respondent gives vague
preparation we make before conducting the
answers, the interviewer may try to get specific
interview. As we have to ask questions during
and concrete answers.
the interview, it is required that we prepare a
The interview method helps in obtaining
list of questions before-hand. The list is called
in-depth information. It is flexible and
an interview schedule. A structured interview
adaptable to individual situations, and can
is one where the questions in the schedule
often be used when no other method is
are written clearly in a particular sequence.
possible or adequate. It can be used even with
The interviewer has little or no liberty to make
changes in the wordings of the questions or children, and non-literate persons. An
the order in which they are to be asked. The interviewer can know whether the respondent
responses to these questions are also, in some understands the questions, and can repeat or
cases, specified in advance. These are called paraphrase questions. However, interviews
close-ended questions. In contrast, in an require time. Often getting information from
unstructured interview the interviewer has the one person may take an hour or more which
flexibility to take decisions about the questions may not be cost-effective.
to be asked, the wording of the questions, and
the sequence in which questions are to be Questionnaire Survey
asked. Since responses are not specified in The questionnaire is the most common,
such type of interviews, the respondent can simple, versatile, and low-cost self-report
answer the questions in the way s/he chooses
method of collecting information. It consists
to. Such questions are called open-ended
of a predetermined set of questions. The
questions. For example, if the researcher
respondent has to read the questions and
wants to know about the happiness level of a
mark the answers on paper rather than
person, s/he may ask: How happy are you?
The respondent may reply to this question the respond verbally to the interviewer. They are
way s/he chooses to answer. in some ways like highly structured interviews.
An interview may have the following Questionnaires can be distributed to a group
combinations of participants in an interview of persons at a time who write down their
situation: answers to the questions and return to the
(a) Individual to Individual : It is a situation researcher or can be sent through mail.
where one interviewer interviews another Generally, two types of questions are used in
person. the questionnaire: open-ended and closed-
(b) Individual to Group : In this situation, one ended. With open-ended questions, the
interviewer interviews a group of persons. respondent is free to write whatever answer
One variant of it is called a Focus Group s/he considers appropriate. In the closed-
Discussion (FGD). ended type, the questions and their probable

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answers are given and the respondent is for conducting surveys. Each method has its
required to select the correct answer. own advantages and limitations. The
Examples of closed-ended questions require researcher needs to exercise caution in
responses like: Yes/No, True/False, Multiple selecting a particular method.
choice, or using a rating scale. In case of rating The survey method has several
scale, a statement is given and the respondent advantages. First, information can be gathered
is asked to give her/his views on a 3-point quickly and efficiently from thousands of
(Agree, Undecided, Disagree), or 5-point persons. Second, since surveys can be
(Strongly Agree, Agree, Undecided, Disagree, conducted quickly, public opinions on new
Strongly Disagree) or 7-point, 9-point, 11- issues can be obtained almost as soon as the
point or 13-point scale. In some cases, the issues arise. There are some limitations of a
participants are asked to rank a number of survey too. First, people may give inaccurate
things in a preferential order. The information because of memory lapses or they
questionnaire is used for collecting may not want to let the researcher know what
background and demographic information, they really believe about a particular issue.
information about past behaviour, attitudes Second, people sometimes offer responses they
and opinions, knowledge about a particular think the researcher wants to hear.
topic, and expectations and aspirations of the
persons. Sometimes a survey is conducted by Psychological Testing
sending the questionnaire by mail. The main
problem of a mailed questionnaire is poor Assessment of individual differences has
response from the respondents. remained one of the important concerns of
psychology from the very beginning.
Activity 2.3 Psychologists have constructed different types
of tests for assessment of various human
An investigator wants to study people’s attitude characteristics, such as intelligence, aptitude,
towards welfare programmes by circulating a personality, interest, attitudes, values,
questionnaire via the Internet. Is this study likely educational achievement, etc. These tests are
to reflect the views of the general population used for various purposes, such as personnel
accurately? Why or why not?
selection, placement, training, guidance,
diagnosis, etc., in multiple contexts including
Telephone Survey educational institutions, guidance clinics,
industries, defence establishments, and so
Surveys are also conducted through forth. Have you ever taken a psychological
telephone, and now-a-days you must have test? If you have, you might have seen that a
seen programmes asking you to send your test contains a number of questions, called
views through mobile phones’ SMS. The items, with their probable responses, which
telephone survey helps in reducing time. are related to a particular human
However, since the respondents do not know characteristic or attribute. It is important here
the interviewer, the technique is fraught with that the characteristic for which a test has
uncooperativeness, reluctance, and superficial been developed, should be defined clearly and
answers by the respondents. There is also a unambiguously, and all items (questions)
possibility that those responding may differ should be related to that characteristic only.
from those not responding, e.g., on age, You might also notice that often a test is meant
gender, income levels, education levels, etc., for a particular age group. It may or may not
besides their psychological characteristics. have a fixed time limit for answering the
This will lead to very biased kinds of results. questions.
The method of observation have been Technically speaking, a psychological test
discussed earlier. This method is also used is a standardised and objective instrument

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which is used to assess an individual’s standing divided into two equal halves employing odd-
in relation to others on some mental or even method (items 1,3,5,— in one group and
behavioural characteristics. Two things are items 2,4,6,— in another gr oup) and
worth noting in this definition: objectivity and correlation is computed between the scores
standardisation. Objectivity refers to the fact of odd and even items.
that if two or more researchers administer a For a test to be usable, it should also be
psychological test on the same group of people, valid. Validity refers to the question : “Does
both of them would come up with more or the test measure what it claims to measure”?
less the same values for each person in the For example, if you have constructed a test of
group. In order for a psychological test to mathematics achievement, whether the test
become an objective measure, it is essential is measuring mathematical achievement or
that items should be worded in such a manner for example, language proficiency.
that they communicate the same meaning to Finally, a test becomes a standardised test
different readers. Also, the instructions to the when norms are developed for the test. As
test takers about how to answer the test items mentioned earlier, norm is the normal or
should be specified in advance. The procedure average performance of the group. The test is
of administering the test such as administered on a large number of students.
environmental conditions, time limit, mode of Their average performance standards are set
administration (individual or group) should be based on their age, sex, place of residence,
spelt, and the procedure for scoring of the etc. This helps us in comparing the
participants’ responses need to be described. performance of an individual student with
The construction of a test is a systematic others of the same group. It also helps in
process and involves certain steps. It involves interpreting individuals’ score obtained on a
detailed analysis of items, and estimating test.
reliability, validity, and norms of the whole
test. Types of Tests
Reliability of the test refers to the
consistency of scores obtained by an individual Psychological tests are classified on the basis
on the same test on two different occasions. of their language, mode of administration, and
For example, you administer the test to a difficulty level. Depending upon the language,
group of students today and re-administer it we have verbal, non-verbal, and performance
on the same set of students after some time, tests. Literacy is required for taking verbal
let us say 20 days. If the test is reliable, there tests as the items have to be written in some
should not be any variation in the scores language. In non-verbal tests, items are made
obtained by the students on the two occasions. of symbols or pictures. Performance tests
For this, we can compute test-retest require movement of objects from their
reliability, which indicates the temporal respective places in a particular order.
stability (or stability of the test scores over Depending upon the mode of
time). It is computed by finding out co-efficient administration, psychological tests are divided
of correlation between the two sets of scores into individual or group tests. An individual
on the same set of persons. Another kind of test is administered by the researcher to one
test reliability is called split-half reliability. It person at a time, while group tests can be
gives an indication about the degree of internal administered to large number of persons at
consistency of the test. This is based on the the same time. In individual tests, the
assumption that items of a test if they are from researcher administers the test face to face
the same domain should correlate with each and remains seated before the test taker and
other. If they are from different domains, e.g., notes down the responses. In the group test,
apples and oranges, then they would not. For the instructions about answering the items,
finding out internal consistency, the test is etc., are written on the test, which the test

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taker reads and answers the questions with information about a person’s background,
accordingly. The test administrator explains interests, and past performance.
the instructions to the entire group. Individual
tests are time consuming, but are important Case Study
ways of getting responses from children, and
In this method, the emphasis is given on in-
from those who do not know the language.
depth study of a particular case. Researchers
Group tests are easy to administer and are
focus on cases which can provide critical
also less time consuming. However, the
responses are fraught with certain limitations. information or new lear ning on less
The respondent may not be motivated enough understood phenomena. The case can be an
to answer the questions and may give fake individual with distinguishing characteristics
responses. (for example, a patient showing psychological
Psychological tests are also classified into disorders) or a small group of individuals
speed and power tests. In a speed test, there having some commonality among them (for
is a time limit within which the test taker is example, creative writers like Rabindra Nath
required to answer all the items. Such a test Tagore, and Mahadevi Verma), institutions (for
evaluates the individual on the basis of time example, poorly or successfully functioning
taken to answer the items accurately. In a school or a corporate office), and specific
speed test, all the items are of the same degree events (for example, children exposed to
of difficulty. On the other hand, power test devastation by tsunami, war or vehicular
assesses the underlying ability (or power) of pollution, etc.). The cases that we select for
the individuals by allowing them sufficient study are unique and, therefore, are rich in
time, i.e. these tests do not have any time limit. information. A case study employs multiple
In a power test, the items are generally methods for collecting information, such as
arranged in an increasing order of difficulty. interview, observation, and psychological tests
If a person, for example, is unable to solve the from a variety of respondents who in some
6th item, s/he will have difficulty in answering way or the other might be associated with the
the subsequent items. It is, however, difficult case and can provide useful information. With
to construct a pure speed or power test. the help of case studies, psychologists have
Majority of the tests are a combination of both done research to understand feelings,
speed and power. fantasies, hopes, fears, traumatic experiences,
While tests are often used in research and parental upbringing and so on, that helps to
for making decisions about people, tests must understand a person’s mind and behaviour.
be selected and used with great care. The test Case studies provide a narrative or detailed
user or the decision maker should not rely on descriptions of the events that take place in a
any single test. Test data should be combined person’s life.
A case study is a valuable research tool in
Activity 2.4 the field of clinical psychology and human
development. Freud’s insights that led to the
Take a test with its manual and read it carefully, development of psychoanalytic theory emerged
and identify the following : from his observations and showed that
• Number and type of items
• Information about reliability, validity, and
meticulous records must be maintained on
norms individual cases. Similarly, Piaget developed
• Type of test: verbal or otherwise, individual his theory of cognitive development on the
or group basis of observations of his three children.
• Type of test: Speed, power, or mixed Case studies have been conducted to
• Any other characteristics understand the pattern of socialisation of
Discuss these with other students and the
teacher.
children. For example, Minturn and Hitchcock
conducted a case study of socialisation of

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children among Rajputs of Khalapur. data. We generally use two methodological
S. Anandalakshmy studied aspects of approaches for the analysis of data. These are:
childhood in a weavers’ community in Varanasi. quantitative and qualitative methods. In this
Case studies provide detailed in-depth section, we will briefly discuss these
depictions of people’s lives. However, while approaches.
generalising on the basis of individual cases
one needs to be very cautious. The problem of
Quantitative Method
validity in a single case study is quite
challenging. It is recommended that the As you may have gathered by now,
information should be collected using multiple psychological tests, questionnaires, structured
strategies from different sources of information interviews, etc. contain a series of close-ended
by a number of investigators. Careful planning questions. That is, the questions and their
of data collection is also very necessary. probable responses are given in these
Throughout the process of data collection the measures. Generally, these responses are
researcher is required to maintain a chain of given in scaled forms. That is, they indicate
evidence for linking various data sources the strength and magnitude of the response.
having bearing on the research questions. For example, they may vary from 1 (low) to 5,
As you have read, each method has its own 7 or 11 (high). The participants’ task is to select
limitations and advantages. Therefore, it is the most appropriate response. Sometimes
desirable that the researcher should not there are right and wrong responses. A
depend upon only one method. A combination researcher assigns a number to each answer
of two or more methods should be used to get (normally “1” for right answers, and “0” for
the real picture. If the methods converge, i.e. wrong answers). At the end, the researcher
they give the same results, one can certainly calculates the total of all these numbers and
be more confident. arrives at an aggregate score, which tells about
the participants’ level on that particular
Activity 2.5 attribute (for example, intelligence, academic
intelligence, etc.). In doing so, the researcher
Identify the most appropriate method of enquiry converts the psychological attributes into a
for the following research problems. quantity (usually numbers).
• Does noise influence the problem solving For the purpose of drawing conclusions,
ability of the people? a researcher may compare individual’s score
• Should there be a dress code for college with that of the group, or compare the scores
students?
• Studying the attitude of students, teachers,
of two groups. This requires use of certain
and parents towards homework. statistical methods about which you will study
• Studying the behaviour of a student in a later. You have already read in mathematics
playgroup and in a classroom. in Class X about the methods of central
• Tracing the major life events of your favourite tendency (mean, median, and mode), methods
leader. of variability (range, quartile deviation,
• Assessing the anxiety level of Class XI
students of your school.
standar d deviation), co-efficients of
correlation, and so forth. These and some
other advanced statistical methods enable a
researcher to make inferences and to give
ANALYSIS OF DATA meaning to the data.

In the earlier section, we discussed different

Qualitative Method
methods for collecting information. After data
are collected, the next job of the researcher is Human experiences are very complex. This
to draw conclusions. This requires analysis of complexity is lost when one elicits information

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from a respondent on the basis of a question. decide a point as zero point and proceed
If you want to know how a mother feels about further. As a result, whatever scores we
the loss of her child, you will need to hear her get in psychological studies, are not
story to understand how her experience is absolute in nature; rather, they have
organised and what meaning she has given to relative value.
her suffering. Any attempt at its quantification In some of the studies ranks are used
will not enable you to get at the principles of as scores. For example, on the basis of
organising such experiences. Psychologists marks obtained in some test, the teacher
have developed various qualitative methods arranges the students in an order — 1, 2,
to analyse such data. One of them is Narrative 3, 4, … , and so on. The problem in such
Analysis. Also data are not always available type of assessment is that the difference
in the form of scores. When the researcher between first and second rank holders may
uses the method of participant observation or not be the same as is the difference
unstructured interview, the data are generally between the second and third rank
in a descriptive form—in participants’ own holders. Out of 50, the first rank holder
words, field notes taken by the researchers, might score 48, the second 47, and the
photographs, interview responses noted by the third 40. As you can see, the difference
researcher or taped/video-recorded, informal between the first and the second rank
talks, etc. These type of data cannot be holders is not the same as is the case
converted into scores or subjected to statistical between second and third rank holders.
analysis. Rather, the researcher uses the This also illustrates the relative nature of
technique of content analysis to find out the psychological measurement.
thematic categories and build those categories 2. Relative Nature of Psychological Tools :
taking examples from the data. It is more Psychological tests are developed keeping
descriptive in nature. in view the salient features of a particular
It must be understood that quantitative context. For example, a test developed for
and qualitative methods are not contradictory; urban students may contain items that
rather, they are complementary to each other. demand familiarity with the stimuli
In order to understand a phenomenon in its available in the urban setting—
totality, a suitable combination of both multistoried buildings, airplanes, metro
methods is warranted. railway, etc. Such a test is not suitable for
use with children living in tribal areas who
LIMITATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ENQUIRY would be more at ease with items that
describe their flora and fauna. Similarly,
The advantages and limitations of each a test developed in the Western countries
method have been discussed earlier. In this may or may not be applicable in the Indian
section, you will read some general problems context. Such tests need to be properly
faced by psychological measurement. modified and adapted keeping in view the
characteristics of the context in which they
1. Lack of True Zero Point : In physical
are to be used.
sciences measurements do start from zero.
For example, if you want to measure the 3. Subjective Interpretation of Qualitative
length of the table, you can measure it Data : Data from qualitative studies are
starting from zero and can say it is 3' long. largely subjective since they involve
Psychological measurements do not have interpretation on the part of the researcher
a true zero point. For example, no person as well as the person providing data. The
in this world has zero intelligence. All of interpretations may vary from one
us have some degree of intelligence. What individual to the other. It is, therefore,
psychologists do is that they arbitrarily often suggested that in case of qualitative

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 studies, the field work should be done by shared with others. In some studies, the
more than one investigator, who at the end technique of deception is used in which
of the day should discuss their the participants are given instructions to
observations and arrive at an agreement think or imagine in certain ways and are
before finally giving it a meaning. In fact, given false information or feedback about
one is better off, if the respondents too their performance (for example, you are
are involved in such meaning-making very intelligent, you are incompetent). It
process. is, ther efore, important that the
participants are explained the nature of
the study before its actual
ETHICAL ISSUES
commencement.
As you know, psychological research is 3. Debriefing : Once the study is over, the
concer ned with human behaviour, the participants are provided with necessary
researcher is expected to follow certain ethics infor mation to complete their
(or moral principles) while conducting the understanding of research. This is
studies. These principles are: respect for particularly important if deception has
persons’ privacy and choice to participate been used in the study. Debriefing ensures
in the study, beneficence or protecting the that participants leave the study in the
participants in the study from any harm, same physical and mental state as when
and justice or sharing the benefits of they entered. It should offer reassurance
research with all participants. Some of the to the participants. The researcher should
important aspects of these ethical principles make efforts to remove any anxiety or other
are described as follows. adverse effects that participants may have
1. Voluntary Participation : This principle felt as a result of being deceived in the
states that the persons on whom you want course of the study.
to conduct the study should have the 4. Sharing the Results of the Study : In
choice to decide whether to participate or psychological research, after collecting
not to participate in the study. The information from the participants, we come
participants should have the freedom to back to our places of work, analyse the
decide about their participation without data and draw conclusions. It is obligatory
any coercion or excessive inducement, and for the researcher to go back to the
the freedom to withdraw from the research participants and share the results of the
without penalty, once it has begun. study with them. When you go for data
2. Informed Consent : It is essential that the collection, the participants develop certain
participants in a study should understand expectations from you. One of the
what will happen to them during the expectations is that you will tell them
study. The principle of informed consent about their behaviour that you have
states that potential participants must investigated in the study. As a researcher,
receive this information before data from it is our moral duty to go back to the
them are collected, so that they make an participants. This exercise has two
informed decision about participation in advantages. One, you fulfil the
the study. In some of the psychological expectations of the participants. Second,
experiments, electric shock is given to the the participants may tell you their opinion
participants during the experiment. Still about the results, which sometimes may
in some cases obnoxious (e.g., harmful or help you develop new insights.
unpleasant) stimuli are presented. They 5. Confidentiality of Data Source : The
may at times be required to give some participants in a study have the right to
private information, which is generally not privacy. The researcher must safeguard

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 their privacy by keeping the information
provided by them in strict confidence. The Key Terms
information should only be used for
research purposes and, in no Case study, Confidentiality, Control group,
circumstances, it should be passed on to Correlational research, Data, Debriefing,
other interested parties. The most effective Dependent variable, Experimental group,
Experimental method, Group test, Hypothesis,
way of protecting the confidentiality of Independent variable, Individual test,
participants is not to record their identities. Interview, Negative correlation, Norms,
This is, however, not possible in certain Objectivity, Observation, Performance tests,
kinds of research. In such cases, code Positive correlation, Power test, Psychological
test, Qualitative method, Quantitative method,
numbers are given on the data sheet, and
Questionnaire, Reliability, Speed test,
the names with the codes are kept Structured interview, Survey, Unstructured
separately. The identification list should be interview, Validity, Variable
destroyed as soon as the research is over.

Summary
• A psychological research is conducted for the purpose of description, prediction, explanation,
control of behaviour, and application of knowledge generated in an objective manner. It
involves the following four steps: conceptualising a problem, collection of data, analysing
data, drawing and revising research conclusions. The psychological research is also
conducted to discover and understand the subjective meanings of events as they occur in a
particular context, and also reflect upon one’s own behaviour and experiences.
• In psychological studies, different types of data including demographic, environmental,
physical, physiological, and psychological information are collected. However, the data in
psychological studies remain located in a context and are tied to the theory and method
used for its collection.
• Different methods are used for collecting information. The observation method is used for
describing the behaviour. It is characterised by selection of a particular behaviour, its recording
and analysis. Observation can be done in a naturalistic or controlled laboratory conditions.
It can take the form of a participant or non-participant observation.
• The experimental method helps in establishing cause-effect relationship. The effect of the
presence of independent variable on the dependent variable is studied using experimental
and control groups.
• The purpose of correlational research is investigating association between variables as well
as making predictions. The relationship between two variables can be positive, zero or
negative, and strength of association varies from +1.0 through 0.0 to –1.0.
• The focus of survey research is to inform about the existing reality. Surveys can be conducted
by using structured and unstructured interviews, mailed questionnaires, and telephone.
• The psychological tests are standardised and objective instruments which help in knowing
one’s standing in comparison to others. Tests can be verbal, non-verbal, and performance
types, which can be administered individually or to the entire group at a time.
• The method of case study gives detailed in-depth information about a particular case.
• The data collected through the use of these methods are analysed through quantitative and
qualitative methods. The quantitative methods allow the use of statistical procedure for
drawing conclusions. Narrative method and method of content analysis are some methods
that are used in case of qualitative research.
• Lack of absolute zero point, relative nature of psychological tools, and subjective interpretation
of qualitative data are some of the limitations of psychological enquiry. Ethical principles of
voluntary participation of the subjects, their informed consent, and sharing of results with
the participants must be followed by a researcher.

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Review Questions
1. What are the goals of scientific enquiry?
2. Describe the various steps involved in conducting a scientific enquiry.
3. Explain the nature of psychological data.
4. How do experimental and control groups differ? Explain with the help of an example.
5. A researcher is studying the relationship between speed of cycling and the presence of
people. Formulate a relevant hypothesis and identify the independent and dependent
variables.
6. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of experimental method as a method of enquiry.
7. Dr. Krishnan is going to observe and record children’s play behaviour at a nursery school
without attempting to influence or control the behaviour. Which method of research is
involved? Explain the process and discuss its merits and demerits.
8. Give two examples of the situations where survey method can be used. What are the
limitations of this method?
9. Differentiate between an interview and a questionnaire.
10. Explain the characteristics of a standardised test.
11. Describe the limitations of psychological enquiry.
12. What are the ethical guidelines that a psychologist needs to follow while conducting a
psychological enquiry?

Project Ideas
1. Conduct a survey of the after-school activities of Class V and Class IX students taking a
sample of 10 students in each. Find information about the time devoted by them in
various activities, such as studying, playing, television viewing, hobbies, etc. Do you find
any difference? What conclusions do you draw and what suggestions would you offer?
2. Conduct a study in your group to see the effect of recitation on learning of poetry. Take 10
six-year olds and divide them into two groups. Give group 1 a new poem to learn and
instruct them to read it loudly for 15 minutes. Take group 2 and give them the same new
poem to learn but instruct them not to read it loudly. After 15 minutes ask the two groups
to recall. Care needs to be taken to see that both the groups are dealt with separately.
After the recall has taken place, note down the observation.
Identify what method of research you used, the hypothesis, the variables and the
kind of experimental design that were there. Compare notes with the other groups and
share the result with your teacher in the class.

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 Chapter
3 Human Development
Development

After reading this chapter, you would be able to

• describe the meaning and process of development,
• explain the influence of heredity, environment and context on human
development,
• identify the stages of development and describe the major characteristics
of infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age, and
• reflect on your own course of development and related experiences.

Contents
Introduction
Meaning of Development
Life-Span Perspective on Development
Growth, Development, Maturation, and
Evolution (Box 3.1)
Factors Influencing Development
Context of Development
Overview of Developmental Stages
Prenatal Stage
I wish I could travel by the road that
Infancy
crosses the baby’s mind, and out Childhood
beyond all bounds; where messengers Gender and Sex Roles (Box 3.2)
run errands for no cause between the Challenges of Adolescence
kingdoms of kings of no history; where Adulthood and Old Age
Reason makes kites of her laws and
Key Terms
flies them, and Truth sets Fact free Summary
from its fetters. Review Questions
Project Ideas
– Rabindranath Tagore

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 Introduction
If you look around, you will notice that from birth onwards changes of various
kinds are taking place in an individual’s life, which continue even during old age.
Over a span of time, a human grows and develops, learns to communicate, walk,
count, and read and write. S/he also learns to distinguish between right and wrong.
S/he makes friends, goes through puberty, gets married, rears children, and grows
old. Even though we differ from each other, we share many commonalities. Most of
us learn to walk by the first year and talk by the second year. This chapter will
familiarise you with the changes observed in people during the course of their life-
span in different domains. You will learn about key developmental processes and
changes taking place in major periods during the life-span: prenatal, infancy,
childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age. This would be a journey of personal
understanding and self-discovery which should help in your future development.
The study of human development would also help you to deal with others better.

associated with the processes of knowing,

MEANING OF DEVELOPMENT
and experiencing, such as thought,
When we think of development, invariably we perception, attention, problem solving, etc.
think of physical changes, as these are Socio-emotional processes that influence
commonly observed at home with younger development refer to changes in an
siblings, with parents and grandparents, in individual’s interactions with other people,
school with peers or others around us. From changes in emotions, and in personality. A
conception until the moment of death, we not child’s hug to her/his mother, a young girl’s
only change physically, but we also change in affectionate gesture to her/his sibling, or an
the way we think, use language, and develop adolescent’s sorrow at losing a match are all
social relationships. Remember that, changes reflections of socio-emotional processes deeply
are not confined to any one area of a person’s involved in human development.
life; they occur in the person in an integrated Although you would be reading about the
manner. Development is the pattern of different processes in different chapters of this
textbook, it is important to remember that the
progressive, orderly, and predictable changes
biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional
that begin at conception and continue
processes are interwoven. These processes
throughout life. Development mostly involves
influence changes in the development of the
changes — both growth and decline, as
individual as a whole throughout the human
observed during old age.
life-span.
Development is influenced by an interplay
of biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional
Life-Span Perspective on Development
processes. Development due to genes
inherited from parents, such as in height and The study of development according to the
weight, brain, heart, and lungs development, Life-Span Perspective (LSP) includes the
etc. all point towards the role of biological following assumptions :
processes. The role of cognitive processes 1. Development is lifelong, i.e. it takes place
in development relate to mental activities across all age groups starting from

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 conception to old age. It includes both gains 5. Development is influenced by historical
and losses, which interact in dynamic conditions. For example, the experiences
(change in one aspect goes with changes in of 20-year olds who lived through the
others) ways throughout the life-span. freedom struggle in India would be very
2. The various processes of human different from the experiences of 20 year
development, i.e. biological, cognitive, and olds of today. The career orientation of
socio-emotional are interwoven in the school students today is very different from
development of a person throughout the those students who were in schools 50
life-span. years ago.
3. Development is multi-directional. Some 6. Development is the concer n of a
dimensions or components of a given number of disciplines. Dif ferent
dimension of development may increase, disciplines like psychology, anthropology,
while others show decrement. For example, sociology, and neuro-sciences study
the experiences of adults may make them human development, each trying to
wiser and guide their decisions. However, provide answers to development
with an increase in age, one’s performance throughout the life-span.
is likely to decrease on tasks requiring 7. An individual responds and acts on
speed, such as running. contexts, which include what was
4. Development is highly plastic, i.e. within inherited, the physical environment, social,
person, modifiability is found in historical, and cultural contexts. For
psychological development, though example, the life events in everyone’s life
plasticity varies among individuals. This are not the same, such as, death of a
means skills and abilities can be improved parent, accident, earthquake, etc., affect
or developed throughout the life-span. the course of one’s life as also the positive

B o x 3.1 Growth, Development, Maturation, and Evolution

Growth refers to an increase in the size of body commonalities in our growth and development.
parts or of the organism as a whole. It can be For example, most children can sit without support
measured or quantified, for example, growth in by 7 months of age, stand with support by 8 months
height, weight, etc. Development is a process and walk by one year. Once the underlying physical
by which an individual grows and changes structure is sufficiently developed, proficiency in these
throughout the life cycle. The term development behaviours requires adequate environment and little
applies to the changes that have a direction and practice. However, special efforts to accelerate these
hold definite relationship with what precedes it, behaviours do not help if the infant is maturationally
and in turn, will determine what will come after. not ready. These processes seem to “unfold from
A temporary change caused by a brief illness, within”: following an inner, genetically determined
for example, is not considered a part of timetable that is characteristic of the species.
development. All changes which occur as a result Evolution refers to species-specific changes. Natural
of development are not of the same kind. Thus, selection is an evolutionary process that favours
changes in size (physical growth), changes in individuals or a species that are best adapted to
proportion (child to adult), changes in features survive and reproduce. The evolutionary changes are
(disappearance of baby teeth), and acquiring new passed from one generation to the next within a
features are varied in their pace and scope level. species. Evolution proceeds at a very slow pace.
Development includes growth as one of its Emergence of human beings from great apes took
aspects. Maturation refers to the changes that about 14 million years. It has been estimated that
follow an orderly sequence and are largely the ‘Homo sapiens’ came into existence only about
dictated by the genetic blueprint which produces 50,000 years ago.

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 influences such as winning an award or measurable characteristics. Phenotypes
getting a good job. People keep on changing include physical traits, such as height, weight,
with changing contexts. eye and skin colour, and many of the
psychological characteristics such as
intelligence, creativity, and personality. These
FACTORS INFLUENCING DEVELOPMENT observable characteristics of an individual are
Have you observed in your class that some of the result of the interaction between the
you have dark skin, others have light coloured person’s inherited traits and the environment.
skins, colour of your hair and eyes are You know it is the genetic code which
different, some of you are tall, others short, predisposes a child to develop in a particular
some are quiet or sad while others are talkative way. Genes provide a distinct blueprint and
timetable for the development of an individual.
or cheerful. People also differ with respect to
But genes do not exist in isolation and
intelligence, learning abilities, memory, and
development occurs within the context of an
other psychological characteristics besides
individual’s environment. This is what makes
physical characteristics. Despite these
each one of us a unique person.
variations, no one can be mistaken for any
What are the environmental influences?
other species: we all are homo sapiens. What
How does the environment af fect
causes us to be different from each other but
development? Imagine a child, with genotype
at the same time more like each other? The
that predisposes her/him to be introverted,
answer lies in the interaction of heredity and
in an environment that promotes social
environment.
interaction and extroversion. The influence of
You have already lear ned that the
such an environment may make the child a
principles of heredity explain the mechanism little extroverted. Let us take another example.
for transmission of characteristics by every An individual with “short” height genes, even
species from one generation to the next. We if s/he is in a very good nutritional
inherit genetic codes from our parents, which environment, will never be able to be taller
are in every cell of our body. Our genetic than average. This shows that genes set the
codes are alike in one important way; they limit and within that limit the environment
contain the human genetic code. It is influences development.
because of the human genetic code that a You know by now that parents provide the
fertilised human egg grows into a human genes for the child’s development. Do you
baby and cannot grow into an elephant, a know that they also play an important role in
bird or a mouse. determining the type of environment their
Genetic transmission is very complex. children will encounter? Sandra Scarr (1992)
Most characteristics that we observe in believes that the environment parents provide
humans are combinations of larger number for their children depends to some extent on
of genes. You can imagine the combinations their own genetic predisposition. For example,
produced by 80,000 or more genes – if parents are intelligent and are good readers
accounting for a variety of characteristics and they would provide their children with books
behaviours. It is also not possible to possess to read, with the likely outcome that their
all the characteristics made available to us by children would become good readers who
our genetic structure. The actual genetic enjoy reading. A child’s own genotype (what
material or a person’s genetic heritage is s/he has inherited) such as being cooperative,
known as genotype. However, not all of this and attentive is likely to result in teachers and
genetic material is apparent or distinctly parents giving more pleasant response as
identifiable in our observable characteristics. compared to children who are not cooperative
Phenotype is the way an individual’s or not attentive. Besides these, children
genotype is expressed in observable and themselves choose certain environments

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based on their genotype. For example, because
of their genotype, children may perform well
in music or sports and they will seek and Macrosystem
spend more time in environments, which will ies Beli
olog Exosystem e fs
enable them to perform their musical skills; Ide
Mesosystem
similarly an athlete would seek sports-related
environment. These interactions with Friends Microsystem Neighbour
environment keep changing from infancy Family School
through adolescence. Environmental The
Peers
Individual
influences are as complex as the genes we
Religious

Trad
inherit. Neighbourhood Work

es
Mass settings

itud
Place

itio
If your class monitor is selected on the basis Media

Att

ns
of being academically bright and a popular
student, do you think it is because of her/his
genes or the influence of the environment? If a Time
child from a rural area who is very intelligent,
is not able to get a job because of her/his
Chronosystem
inability to express herself/himself fluently or
handle computers, do you think - it is because
of genes or environment?

Fig.3.1 : Bronfenbrenner’s Contextual View of

CONTEXT OF DEVELOPMENT
Development
Development does not take place in a
vacuum. It is always embedded in a adolescent’s friends, are experiences likely
particular socio-cultural context. As you to influence an individual’s relationships
shall read in this chapter, transition with others. The exosystem includes
during one’s lifetime such as entering events in social settings where the child
school, becoming an adolescent, finding does not participate directly, but they
jobs, marrying, having children, influence the childs’ experiences in the
retirement, etc. all are joint functions of immediate context. For example, the
the biological changes and changes in transfer of father or mother may cause
one’s environment. The environment can tension among the parents which might
change or alter during any time of the affect their interactions with the child or the
individual’s life-span. general amenities available to the child like
Urie Bronfenbrenner’s contextual view of quality of schooling, libraries, medical care,
development emphasises the role of
means of entertainment, etc. Macrosystem
environmental factors in the development of an
includes the culture in which the individual
individual. This has been depicted in
lives. Chronosystem involves events in the
Figure 3.1.
The microsystem is the immediate individual’s life course, and socio-historical
environment/setting in which the circumstances of the time such as, divorce
individual lives. It is in these settings where of parents or parents’ economic setback,
the child directly interacts with social agents and their effect on the child.
– the family, peers, teachers, and In a nutshell, Bronfenbrenner’s view is that
neighbourhood. The mesosystem consists a child’s development is significantly affected
of relations between these contexts. For by the complex world that envelops her/him
instance, how a child’s parents relate to the – whether it be the minutiae of the
teachers, or how the parents view the conversations s/he has with her/his

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playmates, or the social and economic life- have different consequences for development
circumstances into which s/he is born. in different people. The ecological
Research has shown that children in environment can change or alter during any
impoverished environments have time of the individual’s life-span. Therefore,
unstimulating environment devoid of books, to understand differences in the functioning
magazines, toys, etc., lack experiences such of an individual, it is important to see the
as visits to library, museum, zoo, etc., have individual in the context of her/his
parents who are ineffective as role models, and experiences.
live in overcrowded and noisy surroundings.
As a result of these conditions children are at
a disadvantage and have difficulties in
Activity 3.1
learning.
What would your life be if you lived in a rural
Durganand Sinha (1977) has presented an area or a small town, devoid of all amenities,
ecological model for understanding the which you are used to in a city (or vice-versa)?
development of children in Indian context. Discuss in small groups keeping in mind factors
Ecology of the child could be viewed in terms like poverty, illiteracy, pollution, population, etc.
of two concentric layers. The “upper and the
more visible layers” consist of home, school,
peer groups, and so on. The most important OVERVIEW OF DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES
ecological factors influencing development of
the child in the visible upper layer constitute Development is commonly described in terms
the: (i) home, its conditions in terms of of periods or stages. You must have observed
overcrowding, space available to each member, that your younger brother or sister, or parents,
toys, technological devices used, etc., and even yourself, all behave in different ways.
(ii) nature and quality of schooling, facilities If you observe people living in your
to which the child is exposed, and (iii) nature neighbourhood, you would find that they too
of interactions and activities undertaken with do not behave in a similar manner. This
peer groups from childhood onwards. variation is partly because everyone is in a
These factors do not operate different stage of life. Human life proceeds
independently but constantly interact with through different stages. For example, you are
one another. Since these are also embedded at present in the stage of adolescence and after
in a larger and a more pervasive setting, the a few years you will enter the stage of
“surrounding layers” of the child’s ecology adulthood. Developmental stages are assumed
constantly influence the “upper layer” to be temporary and are often characterised
factors. However, their influences are not by a dominant feature or a leading
always clearly visible. The elements of the characteristic, which gives each period its
uniqueness. During a particular stage,
surrounding layer of ecology constitute the:
individual progresses towards an assumed
(i) general geographical environment. It
goal - a state or ability that s/he must achieve
includes space and facilities for play and
in the same order as other persons before
other activities available outside the home
progressing to the next stage in the sequence.
including general congestion of the locality Of course, individuals do vary with respect to
and density of population, (ii) institutional the time or rate of development from one stage
setting provided by caste, class, and other to another. It may be noted that certain
factors, and (iii) general amenities available patterns of behaviour and certain skills are
to the child like drinking water, electricity, learned more easily and successfully during
means of entertainment and so on. certain stages. These accomplishments of a
The visible and the surrounding layer person become the social expectations of that
factors interact with one another and may stage of development. They are known as

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developmental tasks. You will now read The newborn is not as helpless as you might
about the different stages of development and think. The activities needed to sustain life
their main features. functions are present in the newborn — it
breathes, sucks, swallows, and discharges the
Prenatal Stage bodily wastes. The newborns in their first week
The period from conception to birth is known of life are able to indicate what direction a
as the prenatal period. Typically, it lasts for sound is coming from, can distinguish their
about 40 weeks. You know by now that the mother’s voice from the voices of other women,
genetic blueprint guides our development and can imitate simple gestures like tongue
during the prenatal period and after birth. Both protrusion and mouth opening.
genetic and environmental factors affect our Motor Development : The newborn’s
development during different periods of movements are governed by reflexes — which
prenatal stage. are automatic, built-in responses to stimuli.
Prenatal development is also affected by They are genetically-carried survival
maternal characteristics, which include mechanisms, and are the building blocks for
mother’s age, nutrition, and emotional state. subsequent motor development. Before the
Disease or infection carried by the mother can newborns have had the opportunity to learn,
adversely affect prenatal development. For reflexes act as adaptive mechanisms. Some
example, rubella (German measles), genital reflexes present in the newborn — coughing,
herpes, and Human Immunodeficiency Virus
blinking, and yawning persist throughout their
(HIV) are believed to cause genetic problems
in the newborn. Another source of threat to lives. Others disappear as the brain functions
prenatal development is teratogens - mature and voluntary control over behaviour
environmental agents that cause deviations starts developing (see Table 3.1).
in normal development that can lead to As the brain is developing, physical
serious abnormalities or death. Common development also progresses. As the infant
teratogens include drugs, infections, grows, the muscles and nervous system
radiations, and pollution. Intake of drugs mature which lead to the development of finer
(marijuana, heroin, cocaine, etc.), alcohol, skills. Basic physical (motor) skills include
tobacco, etc. by women during pregnancy may grasping and reaching for objects, sitting,
have harmful effects on the foetus and increase crawling, walking and running. The sequence
the frequency of congenital abnormalities. of physical (motor) development is universal,
Radiations (such as X-rays), and certain
with minor exceptions.
chemicals near industrial areas can cause
permanent change in the genes. Sensory Abilities : You know by now that
Environmental pollutants and toxic wastes newborns are not as incompetent as they look.
like carbon monoxide, mercury and lead are They can recognise their mother’s voice just a
also sources of danger to the unborn child. few hours after birth and have other sensory
capabilities. How well can infants see?
Newborns prefer to look at some stimuli rather
INFANCY than others such as faces, although these
The brain develops at an amazing rate before preferences change over the first few months
and after birth. You have already read about of life. The newborn’s vision is estimated to be
the parts of the brain and the important role lower than the adult vision. By 6 months it
played by cerebrum in human functions, such improves and by about the first year, vision is
as language, perception, and intelligence. Just almost the same as that of an adult (20/20).
before birth the newborns have most but not Can a newborn see colour? The current
all brain cells. The neural connections among consensus is that they might be able to
these cells develop at a rapid rate. distinguish between red and white colours but

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 Table 3.1 Some Major Reflexes in the Newb
Newboo r n

Reflex Description Developmental Course

Rooting Turning the head and opening the Disappears between 3 and 6 months
mouth when touched on the cheek
Moro If there is a loud noise, the baby Disappears in 6 to 7 months
will throw her/his arms outward (although reaction to loud noises is
while arching her/his back, and permanent)
then bring the arms together as
if grasping something
Grasp When a finger or some other object is Disappears in 3 to 4 months;
pressed against the baby’s palm, the replaced by voluntary grasping
baby’s fingers close around it
Babinski When the bottom of the baby’s foot Disappears in 8 to 12 months
is stroked, the toes fan out and
then curl

in general they are colour deficient and full of life, experiences the world through senses
colour vision develops by 3 months of age. and interactions with objects — through
What is the nature of hearing in newborns? looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, and
Infants can hear immediately after birth. As grasping. The newborn lives in the present.
the infant develops, proficiency at localising What is out of sight is out of mind. For
sound improves. Newborns respond to touch example, if you hide the toy in front of the
and they can even feel pain. Both smell and child with which the child has been playing,
taste capacities are also present in the the young infant would react as if nothing has
newborn. happened, i.e. s/he will not search for the toy.
Cognitive Development : Does a 3 year The child assumes the toy does not exist.
old child understand things the same way as According to Piaget, children at this stage do
would an 8 year old? Jean Piaget stressed that not go beyond their immediate sensory
children actively construct their experience, i.e. lack object permanence —
understanding of the world. Information does the awareness that the objects continue to
not simply enter their minds from the exist when not perceived. Gradually by 8
environment. As children grow, additional months of age the child starts pursuing the
information is acquired and they adapt their object partially covered in her/his presence.
thinking to include new ideas, as this improves The basis of verbal communication seems
their understanding of the world. Piaget to be present in infants. Vocalisation begins
believed that a child’s mind passes through a with the infant’s babbling, sometime between
series of stages of thought from infancy to 3 to 6 months of age. You will read about early
adolescence (see Table 3.2). language development in Chapter 7.
Each stage is characterised by a distinct Socio-emotional Development : Babies
way of thinking and is age related. It is from birth are social creatures. An infant starts
important to remember that it is the different preferring familiar faces and responds to
way of thinking which makes one stage more parent’s presence by cooing and gurgling. They
advanced than the other and not the amount become more mobile by 6 to 8 months of age
of information. This also shows why you at and start showing a preference for their
your age think differently from an 8 year old. mother’s company. When frightened by a new
The child during infancy, i.e. the first two years face or when separated from their mother, they

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 Table 3. 2 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Stage Approximate Age Characteristics

Sensorimotor 0-2 years Infant explores the world by coordinating

sensory experiences with physical actions.
Preoperational 2-7 years Symbolic thought develops; object
permanence is established; the child cannot
coordinate different physical attributes of an
object.
Concrete operational 7-11 years The child can reason logically about concrete
events and classify objects into different sets.
Is able to perform reversible mental operations
on representations of objects.
Formal operational 11-15 years The adolescent can apply logic more
abstractly; hypothetical thinking develops.

cry or show distress. On being reunited with consistently and appropriately reciprocate to
the parent or caregiver they reciprocate with their signals of love and affection. According to
smiles or hugs. The close emotional bond of Erik Erikson (1968), the first year of life is the
affection that develop between infants and their key time for the development of attachment. It
parents (caregivers) is called attachment. In represents the stage of developing trust or
a classic study by Harlow and Harlow (1962), mistrust. A sense of trust is built on a feeling of
baby monkeys were separated from their physical comfort which builds an expectation
mothers approximately 8 hours after birth. The of the world as a secure and good place. An
baby monkeys were placed in experimental infant’s sense of trust is developed by
chambers and reared for 6 months by responsive and sensitive parenting. If the
surrogate (substitute) “mothers”, one made of parents are sensitive, affectionate, and
wire and the other of cloth. Half the baby accepting, it provides the infant a strong base
monkeys were fed by the wire mother, half by to explore the environment. Such infants are
the cloth mother. Regardless of whether they likely to develop a secure attachment. On the
were fed by the wire or the cloth mother the other hand, if parents are insensitive and show
baby monkeys showed a preference for the dissatisfaction and find fault with the child, it
cloth mother and spent a lot more time with can lead to creating feelings of self-doubt in
her. This study clearly demonstrates that the child. Securely attached infants respond
providing nourishment or feeding was not positively when picked up, move freely, and
crucial for attachment and contact-comfort is play whereas insecurely attached infants feel
important. You too may have seen young anxious when separated and cry due to fear
children having a strong attachment to a and get upset. A close interactive relationship
favourite toy or blanket. There is nothing with warm and affectionate adults is a child’s
unusual in this, as the children know that first step towards healthy development.
the blanket or toy is not their mother. Yet it
provides them comfort. As children grow and CHILDHOOD
become more sure of themselves, they
abandon these objects. The child’s growth slows down during early
Human babies also form an attachment childhood as compared to infancy. The child
with their parents or caregivers who develops physically, gains height and weight,

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learns to walk, runs, jumps, and plays with a and body fat decreases. The brain and the head
ball. Socially, the child’s world expands from grow more rapidly than any other part of the
the parents to the family and adults near home body. The growth and development of the brain
and at school. The child also begins to acquire are important as they help in the maturation
the concepts of good and bad, i.e. develops a of children’s abilities, such as eye-hand
sense of morality. During childhood, children coordination, holding a pencil, and attempts
have increased physical capacities, can made at writing. During middle and late
perform tasks independently, can set goals, childhood years, children increase significantly
and meet adult expectations. The increasing in size and strength; increase in weight is
maturation of the brain along with mainly due to increase in the size of the skeletal
opportunities to experience the world, and muscular systems, as well as size of some
contribute to development of children’s body organs.
cognitive abilities. Motor Development : Gross motor skills
Physical Development : Early develop- during the early childhood years involve the
ment follows two principles : (i) development use of arms and legs, and moving around with
proceeds cephalocaudally, i.e. from the confidence and more purposefully in the
cephalic or head region to the caudal or tail environment. Fine motor skills — finger
region. Children gain control over the upper dexterity and eye-hand coordination —
part of the body before the lower part. This is improve substantially during early childhood.
why you would notice that the infant’s head During these years the child’s preference for
is proportionately larger than her/his body left or right hand also develops. The major
during early infancy or if you see an infant accomplishments in gross and fine motor skills
crawling, s/he will use the arms first and then during early childhood years are given in
shift to using the legs, (ii) growth proceeds from Table 3.3.
the centre of body and moves towards the Cognitive Development : The child’s
extremities or more distal regions — the ability to acquire the concept of object
proximodistal trend, i.e. children gain control permanence enables her/him to use mental
over their torso before their extremities. symbols to represent objects. However, the
Initially infants reach for objects by turning child at this stage lacks the ability that allows
their entire body, gradually they extend their her/him to do mentally what was done
arms to reach for things. These changes are physically before. Cognitive development in
the result of a maturing nervous system and early childhood focuses on Piaget’s stage of
not because of any limitation since even preoperational thought (see Table 3.2). The
visually impaired children show the same child gains the ability to mentally represent
sequence. an object that is not physically present. You
As children grow older, they look slimmer may have observed children draw designs/
as the trunk part of their bodies lengthens figures to represent people, trees, dog, house,

Table 3. 3 Major Accomplishments in Gross and FFine

ine Motor Skills

Age in Years Gross Motor Skills Fine Motor Skills

3 years Hopping, jumping, running Build blocks, pick objects with

forefinger and thumb
4 years Climb up and downstairs with Fit jigsaw puzzle precisely
one foot on each step
5 years Run hard, enjoy races Hand, arm, and body all coordinate
with eye movement

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etc. This ability of the child to engage in preoperational child would have done? S/he
symbolic thought helps to expand her/his is likely to focus on only one aspect-length or
mental world. The progress in symbolic height. Concrete operations allow the child to
thought continues. A salient feature of focus on different characteristics and not focus
preoperational thought is egocentrism (self- on one aspect of the object. This helps the
focus), i.e. children see the world only in terms child to appreciate that there are different ways
of their own selves and are not able to of looking at things, which also results in the
appreciate others’ point of view. Children decline of her/his egocentrism. Thinking
because of egocentrism, engage in animism - becomes more flexible, and children can think
thinking that all things are living, like oneself. about alternatives when solving problems, or
They attribute life-like qualities to inanimate mentally retrace their steps if required. Even
objects. For example, if a child while running though the preoperational child develops the
slips on the road, s/he might show animism ability to see relationships between different
by saying “road hurt me”. As children grow properties of an object, s/he cannot do
and are approximately between 4 and 7 years abstract thinking, i.e. s/he still cannot
of age they want answers to all their questions manipulate ideas in the absence of objects.
like: Why is the sky blue? How do trees grow? For example, steps required to complete
and so on. Such questions help the child to
algebraic equations, or imagining line of
know why things are as they are. Piaget called
longitude or latitude of the earth.
this the stage of intuitive thought. Another
The growing cognitive abilities of children
feature of thought during preoperational stage
facilitate the acquisition of language. You will
is characterised by children having a tendency
read in Chapter 7, how children develop
for centration, i.e. focusing on a single
vocabulary and grammar.
characteristic or feature for understanding an
event. For example, a child may insist on
drinking a “big glass” of juice, preferring a tall Activity 3.2
narrow glass to a short broad one, even though
both might be holding the same amount of Take two transparent glasses of the same size
juice. and pour same amount of water in both. Ask a
child of Class II and Class V of your school:
As the child grows and is approximately
whether the glasses contain the same amount of
between 7 and 11 years of age (the period of water? Take another tall thin glass and in front
middle and late childhood) intuitive thought of the child empty water from one of the earlier
is replaced by logical thought. This is the stage glasses to the third glass. Now ask her/him which
of concrete operational thought, which is glass has more water? Did you find any difference
made up of operations — mental actions that in their responses?
allow the child to do mentally what was done
physically before. Concrete operations are also
mental actions that are reversible. In a well- Socio-emotional Development : The
known test, the child is presented with two important dimensions of children’s socio-
identical balls of clay. One ball is rolled by the emotional development are the self, gender
experimenter into a long thin strip and the and moral development. During the early
other ball remains in its original shape. On years of childhood, some important
being asked which has more clay, the child developments in the self take place. The child
of 7 or 8 years, would answer that, both have due to socialisation has developed a sense of
the same amount of clay. This is because the who s/he is and whom s/he wants to be
child imagines the ball rolled into thin strip identified with. The developing sense of
and then into a ball, that means s/he is able independence makes children do things in
to imagine reversible mental action on their own way. According to Erikson, the way
concrete/real objects. What do you think a parents respond to their self-initiated activities

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leads to developing a sense of initiative or sense understanding in early childhood is limited to
of guilt. For example, giving freedom and defining oneself through physical
opportunities for play like cycling, running, characteristics: I am tall, she has black hair, I
skating, etc. and answering children’s am a girl, etc. During middle and late
questions will create a sense of support for childhood, the child is likely to define oneself
the initiative taken. In contrast, if they are through internal characteristics such as, “I
made to feel that their questions are useless, am smart and I am popular” or “I feel proud
and games played by them are stupid, the when teachers assign me responsibility in
children are likely to develop feelings of guilt school”. In addition to defining oneself through
over self-initiated activities, which may persist psychological characteristics, children’s self-
through the children’s later life also. Self- descriptions also include social aspects of self,

B o x 3.2 Gender and Sex Roles

Is chess a man’s game or woman’s game or both? of development. Through rewards and punishments,
Is baking a woman’s activity or a man’s activity? they induce in children gender appropriate and
What about driving, debating, and experimenting inappropriate behaviours. Parents often use rewards
in a physics laboratory? Or consider some of the and punishments to teach their daughters to be
products sold on T.V. for young men and young feminine and boys to be masculine. Peer influence is
women? What do they tell about how girls and also considered to be a major contributor to gender
boys should be? socialisation.
Psychologists have meticulously researched Parents restrict school-aged girls more than they
on whether sex differences exist. Research shows restrict school-aged boys, and assign boys and girls
that males have been consistently found to be different types of chores. In everyday interactions,
more aggressive than females. Men perform parents give their daughters a kind of ‘dependence
better than women on tests of sit-ups, short-run training’, and their sons a kind of ‘independence
speeds and long jumps. Women show better, fine training’. Media, including cartoons and commercials
eye-hand coordination than men do, and their are known to perpetuate gender stereotypes.
joints and limbs are more flexible than men’s. Research on gender stereotypes in commercials
What do you think is the origin of these shows that across cultures authority figures in
differences? Are these essential, or in other commercials were males, and women were more likely
words, are women born with certain ‘feminine’ to be shown in dependent and domestic roles, or
traits, and men with certain ‘masculine’ traits? women were more likely to sell body products, and
Or are these differences the creation of the world men more likely to sell sports products.
we live in? Once children learn the role of male or female,
The most powerful roles into which people are they organise their world on the basis of gender also.
socialised are gender roles. They specify the range Children’s attention and behaviour are guided by an
of behaviours which are considered appropriate internal motivation to conform to gender based socio-
for males or females. While sex refers to the cultural standards and stereotypes. Children also
biological dimension of being male or female, actively socialise themselves according to the gender
gender refers to the social dimension of being male mores of their culture. Once they have internalised
or female. There are several aspects of gender. gender standards, they begin to expect gender
Among these, important ones are gender identity appropriate behaviour from themselves. Young boys
of male or female, which most children begin to may refuse to wear feminine clothes in a fancy dress
acquire by the time they are about 3 years old competition. When playing house (ghar-ghar), girls
and can accurately label themselves as boys and may refuse to play the father’s role. Once they have
girls. As they grow, preferences can be evidenced identified with their own gender, children may model
in their toys and play. after a powerful cultural figure of the same gender.
A gender role is a set of expectations that The “gender typing” occurs when individuals are
prescribes how females and males should think, ready to encode and organise information along the
act and feel. Parents are important influences on lines of what is considered appropriate or typical for
gender socialisation especially in the early years males and females in a society.

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such as references to social groups like being actions are wrong because s/he is punished,
a member of school’s music club, environment and right because s/he is rewarded. As the
club, or any religious group. Children’s self- child grows, i.e. by early adolescence, s/he
understanding also includes social develops moral reasoning through set of rules
comparison. Children are likely to think about of others, such as parents or laws of the
what they can do or cannot do in comparison society. These rules are accepted by the
with others. For example, “I got more marks children as their own. These are “internalised”
than Atul” or “I can run faster than others in in order to be virtuous and to win approval
the class”. This developmental shift leads to from others (not to avoid punishment).
establishing one’s differences from others as Children view rules as absolute guidelines,
an individual. which should be followed. Moral thinking at
Once the children enter school their social this stage is relatively inflexible. As they grow,
world expands beyond their families. They also they gradually develop a personal moral code.
spend greater amount of time with their age You have seen that by the end of childhood
mates or peers. Thus the increased time that a more gradual growth rate enables the child
children spend with their peers shapes their to develop skills of coordination and balance.
development. Language develops and the child can reason
logically. Socially the child has become more
Activity 3.3 involved in social systems, such as family and
peer group. The next section traces changes
Act like a boy if you are a girl or act like a girl if in human development during adolescence
you are a boy for atleast one hour in front of your and adulthood.
friends and parents. Reflect on your experience
and note others’ reaction to your behaviour. You
can also ask them about their reactions. How Activity 3.4
difficult was it to perform like the other gender?
A patient is critically ill, hospitalised for many
years and shows no improvement. Should the life
Moral Development : Another important support system of the patient be withdrawn?
aspect of the child’s development is learning What is your view on euthanasia or “mercy killing”
to differentiate between the rightness or as it is sometimes called? Discuss with your teacher.
wrongness of human acts. The way children
come to distinguish right from wrong, to feel
guilty, to put themselves in other people’s CHALLENGES OF ADOLESCENCE
position, and to help others when they are in
trouble, are all components of moral The term adolescence derives from the Latin
development. Just as children pass through word adolescere, meaning “to grow into
the various stages of cognitive development, maturity”. It is the transitional period in a
according to Lawrence Kohlberg, they pass person’s life between childhood and
through the various stages of moral adulthood. Adolescence is commonly defined
development, which are age related. Kohlberg as the stage of life that begins at the onset of
interviewed children in which they were puberty, when sexual maturity, or the ability
presented with stories in which the characters to reproduce is attained. It has been regarded
face moral dilemmas. Children were asked as a period of rapid change, both biologically
what the characters in the dilemma should and psychologically. Though the physical
do, and why. According to him, children changes that take place during this stage are
approach thinking about right and wrong universal, the social and psychological
differently at different ages. The young child, dimensions of the adolescent’s experiences
i.e. before 9 years of age, thinks in terms of depend on the cultural context. For example,
external authority. According to her/him, in cultures where the adolescent years are

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viewed as problematic or confusing, the sexuality is caused by factors such as
adolescent will have very different experiences individual’s awareness of the biological
from someone who is in a culture, where changes taking place and the emphasis placed
adolescent years are viewed as beginning of on sexuality by peers, parents, and society.
adult behaviour and, therefore, undertaking Even then, many adolescents lack adequate
responsible tasks. Although most societies knowledge or have misconceptions about sex
have at least a brief period of adolescence, it and sexuality. Sex is a topic parents find
is not universal across cultures. dif ficult to discuss with children, so
Physical Development : Puberty or sexual adolescents tend to become secretive about
maturity marks the end of childhood and sexual concerns which make exchange of
signifies the beginning of adolescence, which information and communication difficult. The
is characterised by dramatic physical changes concern over adolescent sexuality has become
in both, growth rate, and sexual intense in recent times because of the risk of
characteristics. However, puberty is not a AIDS, and other sexually transmitted diseases.
sudden event, but is part of a gradual process. The development of a sexual identity
The hormones released during puberty result defines the sexual orientation and guides
in the development of primary and secondary sexual behaviour. As such it becomes an
sexual characteristics. The primary sex important developmental task for adolescents.
characteristics include those directly related How did you think of yourself at the beginning
to reproduction and the secondary sex of puberty? Adolescents are preoccupied with
characteristics include features or signs of what they are like and develop individual
achieving sexual maturity. Pubertal changes images of what they look like. Another
in boys are marked by acceleration in growth, important developmental task during
facial hair, and changes in voice. In girls, rapid adolescence is accepting one’s physical self/
growth in height usually begins about two maturity. Adolescents need to develop a
years before menarche, the onset of realistic image of their physical appearance,
menstruation. The growth spurt generally which is acceptable to them. It is important
begins at the age of 12 or 13 for boys and at to keep in mind that puberty also involves
the age of 10 or 11 for girls. It is normal to cognitive and social changes along with
have variations in the pubertal sequence. For physical changes.
example, among two boys (or two girls) of same Cognitive Developmental Changes :
chronological age, one may complete pubertal Adolescents’ thought becomes more abstract,
sequence before the other has begun it. Both logical, and idealistic; they become more
genetics and environment play a part in this. capable of examining their own thoughts,
For example, identical twins reach menarche others’ thoughts, and what others are thinking
closer in time than do fraternal twins; on an about them. Adolescents’ developing ability to
average, girls from affluent families go through reason gives them a new level of cognitive and
menarche earlier than girls from poor families; social awareness. Piaget believed that formal
and historical trends show that the age of operational thought appears between the age
menarche is declining in industrialised nations of 11 and 15. During this stage adolescent
reflecting better nutrition and advances in thinking expands beyond actual concrete
medical care. experiences and they begin to think more in
Physical development during adolescence abstract terms and reason about them. In
is also accompanied by a number of addition to being abstract, adolescent thought
psychological changes. Around puberty is also idealistic. Adolescents begin to think
adolescents show an increase in interest in about ideal characteristics for themselves and
members of the opposite sex and in sexual others and compare themselves and others
matters and a new awareness of sexual with these ideal standards. For example, they
feelings develops. This increased attention to may think what an ideal parent is like and

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compare their parents with these ideal the parents; ‘you don’t understand me’. To
standards. This may at times make retain their sense of personal uniqueness they
adolescents wonder which of the new-found may weave stories filled with fantasy around
ideal standards they should adopt. In contrast them to create a world that is away from
to trial and error approach used by children reality. Personal fables are often part of
in earlier stages of development, adolescent adolescent diaries.
thinking becomes more systematic in solving Forming an Identity : You must have
problems — they think of possible courses of sought answers to questions such as : Who
action, why something is happening the way am I? Which subjects should I study? Do I
it is, and systematically seek solutions. Piaget believe in God? The answers to all these
called this type of logical thinking — questions involve the quest to define one’s
hypothetical deductive reasoning. sense of self or the search for identity.
Logical thought also influences the Identity is who you are and what your values,
development of moral reasoning. Social rules commitments and beliefs are. The primary task
are not considered as absolute standards and of adolescence is to establish an identity
moral thinking shows some flexibility. The separate from the parents. During adolescence
adolescent recognises alternative moral a detachment process enables the individual
courses, explores options, and then decides to develop a personalised set of beliefs that
on a personal moral code. For example, should are uniquely her or his own. In the process of
I smoke as everyone I know does? Is it ethical achieving an identity the adolescent could
to copy answers in the examinations? This also experience conflict with parents and within
lends the possibility of adolescents not herself or himself. Those adolescents who can
following society’s norms if they conflict with cope with the conflicting identities develop a
personal code of ethics. For example, new sense of self. Adolescents who are not
individuals at this age might participate in a able to cope with this identity crisis are
protest march for a cause rather than adhere/ confused. This “identity confusion”, according
conform to college norm. to Erikson, can lead to individuals isolating
Adolescents also develop a special kind of themselves from peers and family; or they may
egocentrism. According to David Elkind, lose their identity in the crowd. Adolescents
imaginary audience and personal fable are on one hand, may desire independence but
two components of adolescents’ egocentrism. may also be afraid of it and show a great deal
Imaginary audience is adolescent’s belief that of dependence on their parents. Rapid
others are as preoccupied with them as they fluctuations between self-confidence and
are about themselves. They imagine that insecurity are typical of this stage. Adolescents
people are always noticing them and are may at one time complain of being “treated
observing each and every behaviour of theirs. like a baby” whereas on other occasions they
Imagine a boy who thinks that all will notice may seek comfort by depending on their
the ink spot on his shirt, or a girl with a pimple parents. Seeking an identity involves searching
feels, all people would think how bad her skin for continuity and sameness in oneself, greater
is. It is this imaginary audience, which makes responsibility and trying to get a clear sense
them extremely self-conscious. The personal of who one is, i.e. an identity.
fable is part of the adolescents’ egocentrism The for mation of identity during
that involves their sense of uniqueness. adolescence is influenced by several factors.
Adolescents’ sense of uniqueness makes them The cultural background, family and societal
think that no one understands them or their values, ethnic background, and socio-
feelings. For example, an adolescent girl thinks economic status all prevail upon the
that none can sense the hurt that she feels adolescents’ search for a place in society.
because of being betrayed by a friend. It is Family relationships become less important
quite common to hear the adolescent say to as the adolescent spends more time outside

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the home and develops a strong need for peer delinquency, substance abuse, and eating
support and acceptance. Increased disorders.
interactions with peers provide them with Delinquency : Delinquency refers to a
opportunities for refining their social skills and variety of behaviours, ranging from socially
trying out different social behaviours. Peers unacceptable behaviour, legal offences, to
and parents are dual forces having major criminal acts. Examples include truancy,
influences on adolescents. At times conflicting running away from home, stealing or burglary
situations with parents lead to increased or acts of vandalism. Adolescents with
identification with peers. But generally parents delinquency and behavioural problems tend to
and peers serve complementary functions and have a negative self-identity, decreased trust,
fulfil different needs of the adolescents. and low level of achievement. Delinquency is
Vocational commitment is another factor often associated with low parental support,
influencing adolescent identity formation. The inappropriate discipline, and family discord.
question “What are you going to be when you Often adolescents from communities
grow up?”, requires the ability to think about characterised by poverty, unemployment, and
the future and to be able to set realistic and having feelings of alienation from the middle
achievable goals. In some cultures freedom is class perform antisocial acts to gain attention
given to the young people to choose an and to be popular with their peers. However,
occupation, whereas in certain other cultures most delinquent children do not remain
the option of making this choice is not given delinquent forever. Change in their peer group,
to the children. Here parents’ decision is likely becoming more aware of their social
to be accepted by the children. What has been responsibilities and developing feelings of self-
your experience while making a choice in the worth, imitating positive behaviour of the role
selection of subjects? Career counselling in models, breaking negative attitudes, and
schools offers information regarding appraisal overcoming poor self-concept help in reduction
of the students for various courses and jobs of delinquent behaviour.
and provides guidance in making a decision Substance Abuse : Adolescent years are
about career choices. especially vulnerable to smoking, alcohol and
Some Major Concerns : As adults when drug abuse. Some adolescents take recourse
we reflect on our adolescent years and recall to smoking and drugs as a way of coping with
the conflicts, uncertainties, occasional stress. This can interfere with the development
loneliness, group pressures, we feel it was of coping skills and responsible decision-
definitely a vulnerable period. During making. The reasons for smoking and drug
adolescence peer influence, new gained use could be peer pressure and the
freedom, unresolved problems may create adolescents’ need to be accepted by the group,
difficulties for many of you. Conforming to peer or desire to act more like adults, or feel a need
pressure can be both positive and negative. to escape the pressure of school work or social
Adolescents are often confronted with activities. The addictive powers of nicotine
decisions regarding smoking, drugs, alcohol, make it difficult to stop smoking. It has been
and breaking parental rules, etc. These found that adolescents who are more
decisions are taken without much regard to vulnerable to drugs, alcohol, and nicotine use,
the effect they can have. Adolescents may face are impulsive, aggressive, anxious, depressive,
periods of uncertainty, loneliness, self-doubt, and unpredictable, have low self-esteem, and
anxiety, and concern about themselves and low expectation for achievement. Peer pressure
their future, they are also likely to experience and the need to be with their peer group make
excitement, joy, and feelings of competence the adolescent either go along with their
as they overcome the developmental demands to experiment with drugs, alcohol,
challenges. You will now read about some of and smoking or be ridiculed. Drug use if
the major challenges faced by adolescents like continued long enough can lead to

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physiological dependency, i.e. addiction to to live with their parents even after getting
drugs, alcohol or nicotine may seriously married and being financially independent.
jeopardise the rest of the adolescents’ lives. The assumption of adult roles is directed by
Positive relationships with parents, peers, an individual’s social context. The best time
siblings, and adults play an important role in for some of the most important life events (i.e.
preventing drug abuse. In India, a successful marriage, job, having children) might be quite
anti-drug programme is the Society for Theatre different in different cultures but within a
in Education Programme in New Delhi. It uses culture there is similarity in the course of adult
street performances to entertain people development.
between 13 to 25 years of age while teaching In early adulthood, two major tasks are,
them how to say no to drugs. The United exploring the possibilities for adult living and
Nations International Drug Control Programme developing a stable life structure. The twenties
(UNDCP) has chosen the programme as an represent the novice phase of adult
example to be adopted by other non- development. Gradually, a transition from
governmental organisations in the region. dependence to independence should occur.
Eating Disorders : Adolescents’ obsession This could be marked by an image of the kind
with self, living in fantasy world and peer of life the young person wants, especially in
comparisons lead to certain conditions where terms of marriage and a career.
they become obsessed with their own bodies. Career and Work : Earning a living,
Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder that choosing an occupation, and developing a
involves relentless pursuit of thinness through career are important themes for people in their
starvation. It is quite common to see twenties and thirties. Entering work life is a
adolescents eliminate certain foods from their challenging event in anyone’s life. There are
diets or to eat slimming foods only. The media apprehensions regarding dif ferent
also projects thinness, as the most desirable adjustments, proving one’s competence,
image and copying such fashionable image of performance, dealing with competition, and
thinness leads to anorexia nervosa. Bulimia coping with expectations both of the employers
is another form of an eating disorder in which and oneself. It is also the beginning of new
the individual follows a binge-and-purge eating roles and responsibilities. Developing and
pattern. The bulimic goes on an eating binge, evaluating a career becomes an important task
then purges by self-induced vomiting or using of adulthood.
a laxative at times alternating it with fasting. Marriage, Parenthood, and Family : The
Anorexia nervosa and bulimia are primarily adjustments that young adults have to make
female disorders more common in urban when entering a marriage relate to knowing
families. the other person if not known earlier, coping
with each other’s likes, dislikes, tastes, and
choices. If both the partners are working,
ADULTHOOD AND OLD AGE
adjustments are required regarding sharing
and performing roles and responsibilities at
Adulthood
home.
An adult is generally defined as someone who In addition to getting married, becoming a
is responsible, mature, self-supporting, and parent can be a difficult and stressful transition
well integrated into society. There is a variation in young adults, even though it is usually
in developing these attributes, which suggests accompanied by the feeling of love for the baby.
that there is a shift in timing when an How adults experience parenting is affected by
individual becomes an adult or assumes adult different situations such as the number of
roles. Some people take up jobs along with children in the family, the availability of social
their college studies or may get married and support, and the happiness or unhappiness
not pursue their studies. Others may continue of the married couple.

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 Death of a spouse or divorce creates a family of the challenges, which the aged have to cope
structure in which a single parent either the with include retirement, widowhood, illness,
mother or the father has to take up the or death in the family. The image of old age is
responsibility of the children. In recent times, changing in certain ways. Now there are people
women are increasingly seeking employment who have crossed seventy years of age or so
outside the home thus creating another type and are quite active, energetic, and creative.
of family in which both parents work. The They are competent and are therefore, valued
stressors when both parents are working are by society in many walks of life. In particular,
quite the same as of a single working parent, we have aged people in politics, literature,
namely, taking care of children, their school- business, art and science. The myth of old age
work, illness, and coping with workload at as an incapacitating and therefore, frightening
home and in the office, etc. Despite the phase of life is changing.
stresses associated with parenting, it provides Of course, the experience of old age also
a unique opportunity for growth and depends on the socio-economic conditions,
satisfaction and is perceived as a way of availability of health care, attitude of people,
establishing concern and guiding the next expectations of society and the available
generation. support system. Work is most important
Physical changes during middle ages are during early adult years, then family becomes
caused by maturational changes in the body. most important and beyond that health
Though individuals may vary in the rate at becomes the most important issue in the
which these changes occur, almost all middle- person’s life. Clearly, successful ageing for
aged people notice gradual deterioration in much of our adult life focuses on how effective
some aspects of their physical functioning we are at work, how loving our relationships
such as decline in vision, sensitivity to glare, are in our family, how good our friendships
hearing loss and changes in physical are, how healthy we are, and how cognitively
appearance (e.g., wrinkles, grey hair or fit we are.
thinning of hair, weight gain). Do cognitive Retirement from active vocational life is
abilities change during adulthood? It is quite significant. Some people perceive
believed that some cognitive abilities decline retirement as a negative change. They
with age while others do not. Decline in consider it as a separation from an important
memory is more in tasks involving long-term source of satisfaction and self-esteem. Others
memory than short-ter m memory. For view it as a shift in life with more time to
example, a middle-aged person can remember pursue their own interests. It is seen that
the telephone number immediately after s/he older adults who show openness to new
has heard it but may not remember it so experiences, more striving and achievement-
efficiently after a few days. Memory tends to oriented behaviour prefer to keep busy and
show greater decline, while wisdom may are better adjusted.
improve with age. Remember that individual Older adults also need to adjust to changes
differences exist in intelligence at every age in the family structure and new roles (grand
and as not all children are exceptional, neither parenting) that have to be learnt. Children
do all adults show wisdom. usually are busy in their careers and families
and may set up independent homes. Older
Old Age adults may depend on their children for
Just when “old age” begins, is not easy to financial support and to overcome their
determine. Traditionally, the age of retirement loneliness (after children have moved out).
was linked to old age. Now that people are This might trigger-off feelings of hopelessness
living longer, age of retiring from work is and depression in some people.
changing, and the cut-off point for the In old age feeling of loss of energy, and
definition of “old age” is moving upward. Some dwindling of health and financial assets, lead

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to insecurity and dependency. The elderly tend spouse is usually seen as the most difficult
to look towards others to lean on and to care loss. Those left behind after the death of their
for them. Indian culture favours dependency partner suffer deep grief, cope with loneliness,
of elderly on their children, for old age needs depression, financial loss and are also at risk
caring. In fact, parents in most oriental of many health related problems. Widows by
cultures rear their children with the fond hope far out number widowers, because studies
that they will care for them during old age. It show that women live longer than men and
is important to give the elderly a sense of tend to marry men older than themselves.
security and belonging, a feeling that people During such times, support from children,
care for them (especially in the time of crisis), grandchildren, and friends can help the
and to remember that we all have to grow old individual cope with the loss of spouse.
one day. People in different cultures view death
differently. In the Gond culture in our country,
it is believed that death is caused by magic
Activity 3.5 and demon. In the T anala culture of
Madagascar, natural forces are thought to
Interview people from three different stages of life,
for example, 20-35, 35-60 and over 60 years of cause death. Human development as you have
age. Talk to them about: read in this chapter thus, helps you to
a. Major transitions that have taken place in understand the influence of various factors
their lives. in an individual’s lifetime.
b. How they feel these transitions have affected
them?
Compare the events considered important in
different groups.
Key Terms
Adolescence, Animism, Attachment,
Centration, Cephalocaudal trend, Concrete
Although death is more likely to occur in operational stage, Deductive thought,
late adulthood, death can come at any point Development, Egocentrism, Evolution, Gender,
in development. The deaths, especially of Identity, Infancy, Maturation, Menarche,
Motor development, Object permanence,
children and younger adults, are often Operations, Phenotype, Prenatal period,
perceived to be more tragic than those of Preoperational stage, Primary sex
others. In children and younger adults, death characteristics, Proximodistal trend, Puberty,
is more likely to occur because of accidents Reflexes, Secondary sex characteristics, Self,
but in older adults it is more likely to occur Sensorimotor stage, Teratogens
because of chronic disease. The death of a

Summary
• Prenatal development may be affected by maternal malnutrition, maternal drug use and
some maternal illnesses.
• Motor development follows cephalocaudal and proximodistal trends. Early motor development
depends on both maturation and learning.
• Cultural variations in child rearing can affect the patterns of attachment between the child
and the caregiver.
• According to Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, the main characteristics of sensorimotor
stage is the child’s gradual recognition of the permanence of objects. The preoperational
stage is marked by certain deficiencies in thinking such as centration, irreversibility, and
egocentrism.

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• During the concrete operations stage, children develop the ability to perform operations on
mental representations, making them capable of conservation. The stage of formal operations
is more abstract, systematic, and develops logical thought.
• According to Kohlberg, moral reasoning progresses through three levels that are related to
age and determined by cognitive development.
• The growth spurt at puberty is a prominent event involving the development of reproductive
maturity and secondary sex characteristics. According to Erikson, the key challenge of
adolescence is to make some progress towards a sense of identity.
• During adulthood personality is marked by both stability and change. Many landmarks in
adult development involve transitions in family relationships, including adjustment to
marriage, parenthood, and children leaving home.
• Age-related physical transitions during adulthood include changes in appearance, memory,
and in the cognitive domain.

Review Questions
1. What is development? How is it different from growth and maturation?
2. Describe the main features of life-span perspective on development.
3. What are developmental tasks? Explain by giving examples.
4. ‘Environment of the child has a major role in the development of the child’. Support your
answer with examples.
5. How do socio-cultural factors influence development?
6. Discuss the cognitive changes taking place in a developing child.
7. Attachment bonds formed in childhood years have long-term effects. Explain taking
examples from daily life.
8. What is adolescence? Explain the concept of egocentrism.
9. What are the factors influencing the formation of identity during adolescence? Support
your answer with examples.
10. What are the challenges faced by individuals on entry to adulthood?

Project Ideas
1. Think of your experiences during the last 2-3 years and answer the following : Did you
have confrontations with your parents? What were the main problems? How did you
solve your problems, and whose help did you seek? Compare your list with your
classmates. Are there any similarities? Can you now think of better ways of solving the
problems faced by you?
2. Develop a script from a preoperational (4-7 years old) child’s point of view for playing
with friends. Develop the same script for an adolescent. How do these scenarios differ?
How are roles played by your friends different?

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 Sensory
Sensory,, AAttentional
ttentional and
Perceptual Processes
Chapter
4 After reading this chapter, you would be able to
• understand the nature of sensory processes,
• explain the processes and types of attention,
• analyse the problems of form and space perception,
• examine the role of socio-cultural factors in perception, and
• reflect on sensory, attentional and perceptual processes in everyday life.

Contents
Introduction
Knowing the World
Nature and Varieties of Stimulus
Sense Modalities
Attentional Processes
Selective Attention
Divided Attention (Box 4.1)
Sustained Attention
Span of Attention (Box 4.2)
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (Box 4.3)
Perceptual Processes
Processing Approaches in Perception
The Perceiver
Principles of Perceptual Organisation
Perception of Space, Depth, and Distance
Monocular Cues and Binocular Cues
Perceptual Constancies
Illusions
Socio-Cultural Influences on Perception

Key Terms
The quality of life is determined Summary
by its activities. Review Questions
Project Ideas
– Aristotle

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 Introduction
While some of our receptors are clearly observable (for example, eyes or ears), others
lie inside our body, and are not observable without the help of electrical or mechanical
devices. This chapter will introduce you to various receptors that collect a variety of
information from the external and internal worlds. You will also know some
important things about attention, which helps us to notice and register the
information that our sense organs carry to us. Different types of attention will be
described along with the factors that influence them. At the end, we will discuss the
process of perception that allows us to understand the world in a meaningful way.
You will also have an opportunity to know how we are sometimes deceived by
certain types of stimuli such as figures and pictures.

kinds of information about various objects.

KNOWING THE WORLD However, in order to be registered, the objects
The world in which we live is full of variety of and their qualities (e.g., size, shape, colour)
objects, people, and events. Look at the room must be able to draw our attention. The
you are sitting in. You will find so many things registered information must also be sent to the
around. Just to mention a few, you may see brain that constructs some meaning out of
your table, your chair, your books, your bag, them. Thus, our knowledge of the world
your watch, pictures on the wall and many around us depends on three basic processes,
other things. Their sizes, shapes, and colours called sensation, attention, and perception.
are also different. If you move to other rooms These processes are highly interrelated; hence,
of your house, you will notice several other they are often considered as different elements
new things (e.g., pots and pans, almirah, TV). of the same process, called cognition.
If you go beyond your house, you will find still
many more things that you generally know NATURE AND VARIETIES OF STIMULUS
about (trees, animals, buildings). Such
experiences are very common in our day-to- The external environment that surrounds us
day life. We hardly have to make any efforts contains a wide variety of stimuli. Some of them
to know them. can be seen (e.g., a house), while some can be
If someone asks you, “How can you say heard only (e.g., music). There are several
that these various things exist in your room, others that we can smell (e.g., fragrance of a
or house, or in the outside environment?”, you flower) or taste (e.g., sweets). There are still
will most probably answer that you see or others that we can experience by touching (e.g.,
experience them all around you. In doing so, softness of a cloth). All these stimuli provide
you are trying to tell the person that the us with various kinds of information. We have
knowledge about various objects becomes very specialised sense organs to deal with these
possible with the help of our sense organs (e.g., different stimuli. As human beings we are
eyes, ears). These organs collect information bestowed with a set of seven sense organs.
not only from the external world, but also from These sense organs are also known as sensory
our own body. The information collected by receptors or information gathering systems,
our sense organs forms the basis of all our because they receive or gather information
knowledge. The sense organs register several from a variety of sources. Five of these sense

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organs collect information from the external cannot hear very faint or very loud sounds. The
world. These are eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and same is true for other sense organs also. As
skin. While our eyes are primarily responsible human beings, we function within a limited
for vision, ears for hearing, nose for smell, and range of stimulation. For being noticed by a
tongue for taste, skin is responsible for the sensory receptor, a stimulus has to be of an
experiences of touch, warmth, cold, and pain. optimal intensity or magnitude. The
Specialised receptors of warmth, cold, and pain relationship between stimuli and the
are found inside our skin. Besides these five sensations they evoke has been studied in a
external sense organs, we have also got two discipline, called psychophysics.
deep senses. They are called kinesthetic and In order to be noticed a stimulus has to
vestibular systems. They provide us with carry a minimum value or weight. The
important information about our body position minimum value of a stimulus required to
and movement of body parts related to each activate a given sensory system is called
other. With these seven sense organs, we absolute threshold or absolute limen (AL).
register ten different variety of stimuli. For For example, if you add a granule of sugar to
example, you may notice whether a light is a glass of water, you may not experience any
bright or dim, whether it is yellow, red or green, sweetness in that water. Addition of a second
and so on. With sound you may notice whether granule to water may also not make it taste
it is loud or faint, whether it is melodious or sweet. But if you go on adding sugar granules
distracting, and so on. These different qualities one after another, there will come a point when
of stimuli are also registered by our sense you will say that the water is now sweet. The
organs. minimum number of sugar granules required
to say that the water is sweet will be the AL of
SENSE MODALITIES sweetness.
It may be noted at this point that the AL is
Our sense organs provide us with first-hand not a fixed point; instead it varies considerably
information about our external or internal across individuals and situations depending
world. The initial experience of a stimulus or on the people’s organic conditions and their
an object registered by a particular sense motivational states. Hence, we have to assess
organ is called sensation. It is a process it on the basis of a number of trials. The
through which we detect and encode a variety number of sugar granules that may produce
of physical stimuli. Sensation also refers to the experience of “sweetness” in water on
immediate basic experiences of stimulus 50 per cent of occasions will be called the AL
attributes, such as “hard”, “warm”, “loud”, and of sweetness. If you add more number of sugar
“blue”, which result from appr opriate granules, the chances are greater that the
stimulation of a sensory organ. Different sense water will be reported more often as sweet than
organs deal with different forms of stimuli and plain.
serve different purposes. Each sense organ is As it is not possible for us to notice all
highly specialised for dealing with a particular stimuli, it is also not possible to differentiate
kind of information. Hence, each one of them between all stimuli. In order to notice two
is known as a sense modality. stimuli as different from each other, there has
to be some minimum difference between the
Functional Limitations of Sense Organs
value of those stimuli. The smallest difference
Before we move on to a discussion of sense in the value of two stimuli that is necessary to
organs, it is important to note that our sense notice them as different is called difference
organs function with certain limitations. For threshold or difference limen (DL). To
example, our eyes cannot see things which understand it, we may continue with our
are very dim or very bright. Similarly our ears “sugar water” experiment. As we have seen,

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the plain water is experienced as sweet after ATTENTIONAL PROCESSES
the addition of certain number of sugar
granules. Let us remember this sweetness. The In the previous section we have discussed some
next question is: how many sugar granules will sensory modalities that help us in collecting
be needed in the water in order to experience information from the external world and also
its sweetness as different from the previous from our internal system. A large number of
sweetness. Go on adding sugar granules one stimuli impinge upon our sense organs
after another tasting the water each time. After simultaneously, but we do not notice all of
addition of a few granules, you will notice at a them at the same time. Only a selected few of
point that the water is now sweeter than the them are noticed. For example, when you enter
previous one. The number of sugar granules your classroom you encounter several things
added to the water to generate an experience in it, such as doors, walls, windows, paintings
of sweetness that is different from the previous on walls, tables, chairs, students, schoolbags,
sweetness on 50 per cent of the occasions will water bottles, and so on, but you selectively
be called the DL of sweetness. Thus, difference focus only on one or two of them at one time.
threshold is the minimum amount of change The process through which certain stimuli are
in a physical stimulus that is capable of selected from a group of others is generally
producing a sensation difference on 50 per cent referred to as attention.
of the trials. At this point it may be noted that besides
You may realise by now that understanding selection, attention also refers to several other
of sensations is not possible without properties like alertness, concentration, and
understanding the AL and DL of different types search. Alertness refers to an individual’s
of stimuli (for example, visual, auditory), but readiness to deal with stimuli that appear
that is not enough. Sensory processes do not before her/him. While participating in a race
depend only on the stimulus characteristics. in your school, you might have seen the
Sense organs and the neural pathways participants on the starting line in an alert state
connecting them to various brain centers also waiting for the whistle to blow in order to run.
play a vital role in this process. A sense organ Concentration refers to focusing of awareness
receives the stimulus and encodes it as an on certain specific objects while excluding
electrical impulse. For being noticed this others for the moment. For example, in the
electrical impulse must reach the higher brain classroom, a student concentrates on the
centers. Any structural or functional defect or teacher’s lecture and ignores all sorts of noises
damage in the receptor organ, its neural coming from different corners of the school. In
pathway, or the concerned brain area may lead search an observer looks for some specified
subset of objects among a set of objects. For
to a partial or complete loss of sensation.
example, when you go to fetch your younger
sister and brother from the school, you just
Activity 4.1 look for them among innumerable boys and
girls. All these activities require some kind of
Vision and hearing are generally believed to be effort on the part of people. Attention in this
the two most highly prized senses. What would sense refers to “effort allocation”.
your life be if you lost any one of your senses?
Attention has a focus as well as a fringe.
Which sense would you find more traumatic to
lose? Why? Think and write down. When the field of awareness is centered on a
What if you could magically improve the particular object or event, it is called focus or
performance of one of your senses, which sense the focal point of attention. On the contrary,
would you choose to improve? Why? Could you when the objects or events are away from the
improve the performance of this one sense without center of awareness and one is only vaguely
magic? Think and write down.
aware of them, they are said to be at the fringe
Discuss with your teacher.
of attention.

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 Attention has been classified in a number bright, and moving stimuli easily catch our
of ways. A process-oriented view divides it into attention. Stimuli, which are novel and
two types, namely selective and sustained. moderately complex, also easily get into our
We will briefly discuss the main features of focus. Studies indicate that human
these types of attention. Sometimes we can photographs are more likely to be attended to
also attend to two different things at the same than the photographs of inanimate objects.
time. When this happens, it is called divided Similarly, rhythmic auditory stimuli are more
attention. Box 4.1 describes when and how readily attended to than verbal narrations.
the division of attention is possible. Sudden and intense stimuli have a wonderful
capacity to draw attention.
Selective Attention Internal factors lie within the individual.
Selective attention is concerned mainly with the These may be divided into two main categories,
selection of a limited number of stimuli or viz. motivational factors and cognitive factors.
Motivational factors relate to our biological
objects from a large number of stimuli. We
or social needs. When we are hungry, we notice
have already indicated that our perceptual
even a faint smell of food. A student taking an
system has a limited capacity to receive and
examination is likely to focus on a teacher’s
process information. This means that it can
instructions more than other students.
deal only with a few stimuli at a given moment
Cognitive factors include factors like interest,
of time. The question is, which of those stimuli
attitude, and preparatory set. Objects or events,
will get selected and processed? Psychologists
which appear interesting, are readily attended
have identified a number of factors that
by individuals. Similarly we pay quick
determine the selection of stimuli.
attention to certain objects or events to which
we are favourably disposed. Preparatory set
Factors Affecting Selective Attention generates a mental state to act in a certain way
Several factors influence selective attention. and readiness of the individual to respond to
These generally relate to the characteristics of one kind of stimuli and not to others.
stimuli and the characteristics of individuals.
They are generally classified as “external” and Theories of Selective Attention
“internal” factors. A number of theories have been developed to
External factors are related to the features explain the process of selective attention. We
of stimuli. Other things held constant, the size, will briefly discuss three of these theories.
intensity, and motion of stimuli appear to be Filter theory was developed by Broadbent
important determinants of attention. Large, (1956). According to this theory, many stimuli

B o x 4.1 Divided Attention

In day-to-day life we attend to several things at time. However, this becomes possible only with highly
the same time. You must have seen people driving practiced activities, because they become almost
a car and talking to a friend, or attending to phone automatic and require less attention to perform than
calls on a mobile set, or putting on sunglasses, or new or slightly practiced activities.
listening to music. If we watch them closely, we Automatic processing has three main
will notice that they are still allocating more effort characteristics; (i) It occurs without intention, (ii) It takes
to driving than to other activities, even though place unconsciously, and (iii) It involves very little (or
some attention is given to other activities. It no) thought processes (e.g., we can read words or tie
indicates that on certain occasions attention can our shoelaces without giving any thought to these
be allocated to more than one thing at the same activities).

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simultaneously enter our receptors creating a consciousness. It is also suggested that more
kind of “bottleneck” situation. Moving through processing requires more mental effort. When
the short-term memory system, they enter the the messages are selected on the basis of stage
selective filter, which allows only one stimulus one processing (early selection), less mental
to pass through for higher levels of processing. effort is required than when the selection is
Other stimuli are screened out at that moment based on stage three processing (late
of time. Thus, we become aware of only that selection).
stimulus, which gets access through the
selective filter. Sustained Attention
Filter-attenuation theory was developed
While selective attention is mainly concerned
by Triesman (1962) by modifying Broadbent’s
with the selection of stimuli, sustained attention
theory. This theory proposes that the stimuli
is concerned with concentration. It refers to
not getting access to the selective filter at a
given moment of time are not completely our ability to maintain attention on an object
blocked. The filter only attenuates (weakens) or event for longer durations. It is also known
their strength. Thus some stimuli manage to as “vigilance”. Sometimes people have to
escape through the selective filter to reach concentrate on a particular task for many
higher levels of processing. It is indicated that hours. Air traffic controllers and radar readers
personally relevant stimuli (e.g., one’s name in provide us with good examples of this
a collective dinner) can be noticed even at a phenomenon. They have to constantly watch
very low level of sound. Such stimuli, even and monitor signals on screens. The
though fairly weak, may also generate occurrence of signals in such situations is
response occasionally by slipping through the usually unpredictable, and errors in detecting
selective filter. signals may be fatal. Hence, a great deal of
Multimode theory was developed by vigilance is required in those situations.
Johnston and Heinz (1978). This theory
believes that attention is a flexible system that Factors Influencing Sustained Attention
allows selection of a stimulus over others at
three stages. At stage one the sensory Several factors can facilitate or inhibit an
representations (e.g., visual images) of stimuli individual’s performance on tasks of sustained
are constructed; at stage two the semantic attention. Sensory modality is one of them.
representations (e.g., names of objects) are Performance is found to be superior when the
constructed; and at stage three the sensory and stimuli (called signals) are auditory than when
semantic representations enter the they are visual. Clarity of stimuli is another

B o x 4.2 Span of Attention

Our attention has a limited capacity to receive span of attention varies within the limit of seven plus
stimuli. The number of objects one can attend to at or minus two. This is popularly known as the “magic
a brief exposure (i.e. a fraction of a second) is called number”. It means that at a time, people can attend to
“span of attention” or “perceptual span”. More a set of five to seven numbers, which can be extended
specifically, the span of attention refers to the to nine or more under exceptional conditions. That is
amount of information an observer can grasp from perhaps the reason why motorbikes or cars are given
a complex array of stimuli at a single momentary a number plate that contains only four digit numbers
exposure. This can be determined by the use of an with some alphabets. In case of violation of driving rules
instrument, called “tachistoscope”. On the basis of a traffic police can easily read and note these numbers
several experiments, Miller has reported that our along with the alphabets.

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factor. Intense and long lasting stimuli facilitate simply due to the problem of attention. Box
sustained attention and result in better 4.3 presents some interesting information
performance. Temporal uncertainty is a about a disorder of attention.
third factor. When stimuli appear at regular
intervals of time they are attended better than
when they appear at irregular intervals. PERCEPTUAL PROCESSES
Spatial uncertainty is a fourth factor. Stimuli In the previous section we have examined that
that appear at a fixed place are readily the stimulation of sensory organs leads us to
attended, whereas those that appear at random experience something such as, a flash of light
locations are difficult to attend. or a sound, or a smell. This elementary
Attention has several practical implications. experience, called sensation, does not provide
The number of objects one can readily attend us with any understanding of the stimulus
to in a single glance is used to design the that stimulated the sense organ. For example,
number plates of motorbikes and cars so that it does not inform us about the source of the
the traffic police can easily notice them in the light, sound or fragrance. In order to make
case of traffic rule violations (Box 4.2). A sense out of the raw material provided by the
number of children fail to perform well in school sensory system, we process it further. In doing

B o x 4.3 Attention Deficit H yperactivity Disorder (AD

Hyperactivity (ADHD)
HD)

This is a very common behavioural disorder found found to account for ADHD more reliably than other
among children of the primary school age. It is factors. Currently ADHD is considered to have multiple
characterised by impulsivity, excessive motor causes and effects.
activity, and an inability to attend. The disorder is Disagreement remains over the most effective
more prevalent among boys than among girls. If method of treatment of ADHD. A drug, called Ritalin, is
not managed properly, the attention difficulties may widely used, which decreases children’s over-activity
persist into adolescence or adult years. Difficulty and distractibility, and at the same time increases their
in sustaining attention is the central feature of this attention and ability to concentrate. However, it does
disorder, which gets reflected in several other not “cure” the problem, and often also results in such
domains of the child. For example, such children negative side-effects as the suppression in normal
are highly distractible; they do not follow growth of height and weight. On the other hand,
instructions, have difficulty in getting along with behavioural management programmes, featuring
parents, and are negatively viewed by their peers. positive reinforcement and structuring learning
They do poorly in school, and show difficulties in materials and tasks in such a way that minimises errors
reading or learning basic subjects in schools in and maximises immediate feedback and success, have
spite of the fact that there is no deficit in their been found quite useful. Successful modification of
intelligence. ADHD is claimed with cognitive behavioural training
Studies generally do not provide evidence for programme in which rewards for desired behaviours
a biological basis of the disorder, whereas some are combined with training in the use of verbal self-
relationship of the disorder with dietary factors, instructions (stop, think, and then do). With this
particularly food colouring, has been documented. procedure, the ADHD children learn to shift their
On the other hand, social-psychological factors (e.g., attention less frequently and to behave reflectively —
home environment, family pathology) have been a learning that is relatively stable over time.

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so, we give meaning to stimuli by using our approach lays emphasis on the perceiver, and
learning, memory, motivation, emotions, and considers perception as a process of
other psychological processes. The process by recognition or identification of stimuli. Studies
which we recognise, interpret or give meaning show that in perception both the processes
to the information provided by sense organs is interact with each other to provide us with an
called perception. In interpreting stimuli or understanding of the world.
events, individuals often construct them in
their own ways. Thus perception is not merely
THE PERCEIVER
an interpretation of objects or events of the
external or internal world as they exist, instead Human beings are not just mechanical and
it is also a construction of those objects and passive recipients of stimuli from the external
events from one’s own point of view. world. They are creative beings, and try to
The process of meaning-making involves understand the external world in their own
certain sub-processes. These are shown in ways. In this process their motivations and
Fig.4.1. expectations, cultural knowledge, past
experiences, and memories as well as values,
Processing Approaches in Perception beliefs, and attitudes play an important role in
How do we identify an object? Do we identify a giving meaning to the external world. Some of
dog because we have first recognised its furry these factors are described here.
coat, its four legs, its eyes, ears, and so on, or
do we recognise these different parts because Motivation
we have first identified a dog? The idea that The needs and desires of a perceiver strongly
recognition process begins from the parts, influence her/his perception. People want to
which serve as the basis for the recognition of fulfil their needs and desires through various
the whole is known as bottom-up processing. means. One way to do this is to perceive objects
The notion that recognition process begins in a picture as something that will satisfy their
from the whole, which leads to identification need. Experiments were conducted to examine
of its various components is known as top- the influence of hunger on perception. When
down processing. The bottom-up approach hungry persons were shown ambiguous
lays emphasis on the features of stimuli in pictures, they were found to perceive them as
perception, and considers perception as a pictures of food objects more often than satiated
process of mental construction. The top-down (non-hungry) persons.

Fig.4.1 : Sub-processes of Perception

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Expectations or Perceptual Sets
The expectations about what we might perceive
in a given situation also influence our
perception. This phenomenon of perceptual
familiarisation or perceptual generalisation
reflects a strong tendency to see what we expect
to see even when the results do not accurately
reflect external reality. For example, if your
milkman delivers you milk daily at about 5.30
A.M., any knocking at the door around that
time is likely to be perceived as the presence of
the milkman even if it is someone else.

Activity 4.2
To demonstrate expectancy tell your friend to close Fig.4.2 : An Item to test the ‘Field Dependent’ and
her eyes. Write 12, 13, 14, 15 on the board. Ask ‘Field Independent’ Cognitive Style
her to open her eyes for 5 seconds, look at the
board, and note down what she saw. Repeat
replacing only the 12, 14, 15 with A, C, D viz. ‘A Cultural Background and Experiences
13 C D’. Ask her again to note down what she
Different experiences and learning
saw. Most people write down B in place of 13.
opportunities available to people in different
cultural settings also influence their
perception. People coming from a pictureless
Cognitive Styles environment fail to recognise objects in
Cognitive style refers to a consistent way of pictures. Hudson studied the perception of
dealing with our environment. It significantly pictures by African subjects, and noted several
affects the way we perceive the environment. difficulties. Many of them were unable to
There are several cognitive styles that people identify objects depicted in pictures (e.g.,
use in perceiving their environment. One most antelope, spear). They also failed to perceive
extensively used in studies is the “field distance in pictures, and interpreted pictures
dependent and field independent” cognitive incorrectly. Eskimos have been found to make
style. Field dependent people perceive the fine distinction among a variety of snow that
external world in its totality, i.e. in a global or we may be unable to notice. Some aboriginal
holistic manner. On the other hand, field groups of Siberian region have been found to
independent people perceive the external world differentiate among dozens of skin colours
by breaking it into smaller units, i.e. in an of reindeers, which we would not be able
analytic or differentiated manner. to do.
Look at Fig.4.2. Can you find out the These studies indicate that the perceiver
triangle hidden in the picture? How much time plays a key role in the process of perception.
do you take to locate it? Try to find out the People process and interpret stimuli in their
time other students of your class take to locate own ways depending on their personal, social
the triangle. Those who can do it quickly will and cultural conditions. Due to these factors
be called “field independent”; those who take our perceptions are not only finely tuned, but
long time will be called “field dependent”. also modified.

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 PRINCIPLES OF PERCEPTUAL ORGANISATION
Our visual field is a collection of different
elements, such as points, lines, and colours.
However, we perceive these elements as
organised wholes or complete objects. For
example, we see a bicycle as a complete object,
not as a collection of different parts (e.g.,
saddle, wheel, handle). The process of
organising visual field into meaningful wholes
is known as form perception.
You may wonder how different parts of an
objects are organised into a meaningful whole.
You may also ask if there are certain factors
that facilitate or inhibit this process of
organisation.
Several scholars have tried to answer such Fig.4.3 : Rubin’s Vase
questions, but the most widely accepted answer
has been given by a group of researchers, called and sky stay behind the figure and are
Gestalt psychologists. Prominent among perceived as background.
them are Köhler, Koffka, and Wertheimer. To test this experience, look at the Fig.4.3
Gestalt means a regular figure or a form. given below. You will see either the white part
According to Gestalt psychologists, we perceive of the figure, which looks like a vase (flower
different stimuli not as discrete elements, but pot), or the black part of the figure, which looks
as an organised “whole” that carries a definite like two faces.
form. They believe that the form of an object We distinguish figure from the ground on
lies in its whole, which is different from the sum the basis of the following characteristics:
of their parts. For example, a flower pot with a 1. Figure has a definite form, while the
bunch of flowers is a whole. If the flowers are background is relatively formless.
removed, the flower pot still remains a whole. 2. Figure is more organised as compared to
It is the configuration of the flower pot that has its background.
changed. Flower pot with flowers is one 3. Figure has a clear contour (outline), while
configuration; without flowers it is another the background is contourless.
configuration. 4. Figure stands out from the background,
The Gestalt psychologists also indicate that while the background stays behind the
our cerebral processes are always oriented figure.
towards the perception of a good figure or 5. Figure appears more clear, limited, and
pragnanz. That is the reason why we perceive relatively nearer, while the background
everything in an organised form. The most appears relatively unclear, unlimited, and
primitive organisation takes place in the form away from us.
of figure-ground segregation. When we look The discussion presented above indicates
at a surface, certain aspects of the surface that human beings perceive the world in
clearly stand out as separate entities, whereas organised wholes rather than in discrete parts.
others do not. For example, when we see words The Gestalt psychologists have given us several
on a page, or a painting on a wall, or birds laws to explain how and why different stimuli
flying in the sky, the words, the painting, and in our visual field are organised into meaningful
the birds stand out from the background, and whole objects. Let us look at some of these
are perceived as figures, while the page, wall, principles.

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The Principle of Proximity The Principle of Smallness
Objects that are close together in space or time According to this principle, smaller areas tend
are perceived as belonging together or as a to be seen as figures against a larger
group. For example, Fig.4.4 does not look like background. In Fig.4.7 we are more likely to
a square pattern of dots, but as a series of see a black cross rather than a white cross
columns of dots. Similarly, Fig.4.4 also looks within the circle because of this principle.
like a group of dots together in rows.

Fig.4.4 : Proximity
The Principle of Similarity Fig.4.7 : Smallness

Objects that are similar to one another and The Principle of Symmetry
have similar characteristics are perceived as a
This principle suggests that symmetrical areas
group. In Fig.4.5 the little circles and squares
tend to be seen as figures against asymmetrical
are evenly spaced both horizontally and
backgrounds. For example, in Fig.4.8 the black
vertically so that the proximity does not come
areas are seen as figures (as they have
into play. Instead, we tend to see alternating
symmetrical properties) against their white
columns of circles and squares.
asymmetrical background.

Fig.4.5 : Similarity
Fig.4.8 : Symmetry
The Principle of Continuity
This principle states that we tend to perceive The Principle of Surroundedness
objects as belonging together if they appear to According to this principle, the areas
form a continuous pattern. For instance, we surrounded by others tend to be perceived as
are more likely to identify two lines a-b and c- figures. For example, the image in Fig.4.9 looks
d crossing than to identify four lines meeting like five figures against the white background
at the center p. rather than the word ‘LIFT’.

Fig.4.6 : Continuity Fig.4.9 : Surroundedness

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The Principle of Closure Monocular Cues (Psychological Cues)
We tend to fill the gaps in stimulation and Monocular cues of depth perception are
perceive the objects as whole rather than their effective when the objects are viewed with only
separate parts. For example, in Fig.4.10 the one eye. These cues are often used by artists
small angles are seen as a triangle due to our to induce depth in two dimensional paintings.
tendency to fill the gaps in the object provided Hence, they are also known as pictorial cues.
by our sensory input. Some important monocular cues that help us
in judging the distance and depth in two
dimensional surfaces are described below. You
will find some of them applied in Fig.4.11.

Fig.4.10 : Closure

PERCEPTION OF SPACE, DEPTH, AND DISTANCE

The visual field or surface in which things exist,
move or can be placed is called space. The
space in which we live is organised in three
dimensions. We perceive not only the spatial
attributes (e.g., size, shape, direction) of various
objects, but also the distance between the
objects found in this space. While the images
of objects projected on to our retina are flat Fig.4.11 : Monocular Cues
and two dimensional (left, right, up, down), we The above picture will help you to understand some
still perceive three dimensions in the space. monocular cues: Interposition and relative size (see the
Why does it happen so? It occurs due to our trees). Which other cues can you locate in the picture?
ability to transfer a two dimensional retinal
vision into a three dimensional perception. The Relative Size : The size of retinal image allows
process of viewing the world in three us to judge distance based on our past and
dimensions is called distance or depth present experience with similar objects. As the
perception. objects get away, the retinal image becomes
Depth perception is important in our daily smaller and smaller. We tend to perceive an
life. For example, when we drive, we use depth object farther away when it appears small,
to assess the distance of an approaching and closer when it appears bigger.
automobile, or when we decide to call a person
walking down the street, we determine the Interposition or Overlapping : These cues occur
loudness with which to call. when some portion of the object is covered by
In perceiving depth, we depend on two main another object. The overlapped object is
sources of information, called cues. One is considered farther away, whereas the object
called binocular cues because they require that covers it appears nearer.
both eyes. Another is called monocular cues, Linear Perspective : This reflects a phenomenon
because they allow us to perceive depth with by which distant objects appear to be closer
just one eye. A number of such cues are used together than the nearer objects. For example,
to change a two dimensional image into a three parallel lines, such as rail tracks, appear to
dimensional perception. converge with increasing distance with a

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vanishing point at the horizon. The more the when we travel in a bus, closer objects move
lines converge, the farther away they appear. “against” the direction of the bus, whereas the
farther objects move “with” the direction of the
Aerial Perspective : The air contains microscopic
bus.
particles of dust and moisture that make
distant objects look hazy or blurry. This effect
Binocular Cues (Physiological Cues)
is called aerial perspective. For example,
distant mountains appear blue due to the Some important cues to depth perception in
scattering of blue light in the atmosphere, three dimensional space are provided by both
whereas the same mountains are perceived to the eyes. Three of them have particularly been
be closer when the atmosphere is clear. found to be interesting.
Light and Shade : In the light some parts of the Retinal or Binocular Disparity : Retinal
object get highlighted, whereas some parts disparity occurs because the two eyes have
become darker. Highlights and shadows different locations in our head. They are
provide us with information about an object’s separated from each other horizontally by a
distance. distance of about 6.5 centimeters. Because of
this distance, the image formed on the retina
Relative Height : Larger objects are perceived
of each eye of the same object is slightly
as being closer to the viewer and smaller objects
different. This difference between the two
as being farther away. When we expect two
images is called retinal disparity. The brain
objects to be the same size and they are not,
interprets a large retinal disparity to mean a
the larger of the two will appear closer and the
close object and a small retinal disparity to
smaller will appear farther away.
mean a distant object, as the disparity is less
Texture Gradient : It represents a phenomenon for distant objects and more for the near
by which the visual field having more density objects.
of elements is seen farther away. In the Fig.4.12
Convergence : When we see a nearby object
the density of stones increases as we look
our eyes converge inward in order to bring the
farther away.
image on the fovea of each eye. A group of
muscles send messages to the brain regarding
the degree to which eyes are turning inward,
and these messages are interpreted as cues to
the perception of depth. The degree of
convergence decreases as the object moves
further away from the observer. You can
experience convergence by holding a finger in
front of your nose and slowly bringing it closer.
The more your eyes turn inward or converge,
the nearer the object appears in space.
Accommodation : Accommodation refers to a
Fig.4.12 : Texture Gradient
process by which we focus the image on the
retina with the help of ciliary muscle. These
Motion Parallax : It is a kinetic monocular cue, muscles change the thickness of the lens of the
and hence not considered as a pictorial cue. It eye. If the object gets away (more than 2 meters),
occurs when objects at different distances the muscle is relaxed. As the object moves
move at a different relative speed. The distant nearer, the muscle contracts and the thickness
objects appear to move slowly than the objects of the lens increases. The signal about the
that are close. The rate of an object’s movement degree of contraction of the muscle is sent to
provides a cue to its distance. For example, the brain, which provides the cue for distance.

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 viewed from the edge). It is also called form
Activity 4.3 constancy.

Hold a pencil in front of you. Close your right eye Brightness Constancy
and focus on the pencil. Now open the right eye
and close the left eye. Keep doing it simultaneously Visual objects not only appear constant in their
with both the eyes. The pencil will appear to move shape and size, they also appear constant in
from side to side in front of your face. their degree of whiteness, greyness, or
blackness even though the amount of physical
energy reflected from them changes
PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCIES considerably. In other words, our experience
of brightness does not change in spite of the
The sensory information that we receive from changes in the amount of reflected light
our environment constantly changes as we reaching our eyes. The tendency to maintain
move around. Yet we form a stable perception apparent brightness constant under different
of an object seen from any position and in any amount of illumination is called brightness
intensity of light. Perception of the objects as constancy. For example, surface of a paper
relatively stable in spite of changes in the which appears white in the sunlight, is still
stimulation of sensory receptors is called perceived as white in the room light. Similarly,
perceptual constancy. Here we will examine coal that looks black in the sun also looks black
three types of perceptual constancies that we in room light.
commonly experience in our visual domain.
I LLUSIONS
Size Constancy
The size of an image on our retina changes with Our perceptions are not always veridical.
the change in the distance of the object from Sometime we fail to interpret the sensory
the eye. The further away it is, the smaller is information correctly. This results in a
the image. On the other hand, our experience mismatch between the physical stimuli and its
shows that within limits the object appears to perception. These misperceptions resulting
be about the same size irrespective of its from misinterpretation of information received
distance. For example, when you approach by our sensory organs are generally known as
your friend from a distance, your perception illusions. These are experienced more or less
of the friend’s size does not change much by all of us. They result from an external
despite the fact that the retinal image (image stimulus situation and generate the same kind
on retina) becomes larger. This tendency for of experience in each individual. That is why
illusions are also called “primitive
the perceived size of objects to remain relatively
organisations”. Although illusions can be
unchanged with changes in their distance from
experienced by the stimulation of any of our
the observer and the size of the retinal image is
senses, psychologists have studied them more
called size constancy.
commonly in the visual than in other sense
modalities.
Shape Constancy
Some perceptual illusions are universal
In our perceptions the shapes of familiar and found in all individuals. For example, the
objects remain unchanged despite changes in rail tracks appear to be converging to all of
the pattern of retinal image resulting from us. These illusions are called universal illusions
differences in their orientation. For example, a or permanent illusions as they do not change
dinner plate looks the same shape whether the with experience or practice. Some other
image that it casts on the retina is a circle, or illusions seem to vary from individual to
an ellipse, or roughly a short line (if the plate is individual; these are called personal illusions.

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In this section, we will describe some important light points will not appear as moving. They
visual illusions. will appear either as one point, or as different
points appearing one after another, without
Geometrical Illusions any experience of motion.
Experience of illusions indicates that people
In Fig.4.13 the Muller-Lyer illusion has been
do not always perceive the world as it is;
shown. All of us perceive line A as shorter than
instead they engage in its construction,
line B, although both the lines are equal. This
sometimes based on the features of stimuli and
illusion is experienced even by children. There
sometimes based on their experiences in a given
environment. This point will be further made
clear in the section that follows now.
A B
SOCIO-CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON
Fig.4.13 : Muller-Lyer Illusion PERCEPTION
are some studies that suggest that even animals Several psychologists have studied the
experience this illusion more or less like us. processes of perception in different socio-
Besides Muller-L yer illusion, several other cultural settings. The questions they try to
visual illusions are experienced by human answer through these studies are: Does
beings (also birds and animals). In Fig.4.14 perceptual organisation of people living in
you can see the illusion of vertical and different cultural settings take place in an
horizontal lines. Although both the lines are uniform manner? Are the perceptual processes
equal, we perceive the vertical line as longer universal, or they vary across different cultural
than the horizontal line. settings? Because we know, people living in
different parts of the world look different, many
psychologists hold the view that their ways of
perceiving the world must be different in some
respects. Let us examine some studies relating
to perception of illusion figures and other
pictorial materials.
You are already familiar with Muller-Lyer
Fig.4.14 : Vertical-Horizontal Illusion and Vertical-Horizontal illusion figures.
Apparent Movement Illusion Psychologists have used these figures with
several groups of people living in Europe,
This illusion is experienced when some Africa, and many other places. Segall,
motionless pictures are projected one after Campbell, and Herskovits carried out the most
another at an appropriate rate. This illusion extensive study of illusion susceptibility by
is referred to as “phi-phenomenon”. When we comparing samples from remote African
see moving pictures in a cinema show, we are villages and Western urban settings. It was
influenced by this kind of illusion. The found that African subjects showed greater
succession of flickering electrical lights also susceptibility to horizontal-vertical illusion,
generate this illusion. This phenomenon can whereas Western subjects showed greater
be experimentally studied with the help of an susceptibility to Muller-Lyer illusion. Similar
instrument by presenting two or more lights findings have been reported in other studies
in a succession. For the experience of this also. Living in dense forests the African
illusion, Wertheimer had reported the presence subjects regularly experienced verticality (e.g.,
of appropriate level of brightness, size, spatial long trees) and developed a tendency to
gap, and temporal contiguity of different lights overestimate it. The Westerners, who lived in
to be important. In the absence of these, the an environment characterised by right angles,

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developed a tendency to underestimate the settings, such as hunters and gatherers living
length of lines characterised by enclosure (e.g., in forests, agriculturists living in villages, and
arrowhead). This conclusion has been people employed and living in cities. Their
confirmed in several studies. It suggests that studies indicate that interpretation of pictures
the habits of perception are learnt differently is strongly related to cultural experiences of
in different cultural settings. people. While people in general can recognise
In some studies people living in different familiar objects in pictures, those less exposed
cultural settings have been given pictures for to pictures have difficulty in the interpretation
identification of objects and interpretation of of actions or events depicted in them.
depth or other events represented in them.
Hudson did a seminal study in Africa, and
found that people, who had never seen Key Terms
pictures, had great difficulty in recognising
objects depicted in them and in interpreting Absolute threshold, Binocular cues, Bottom-
depth cues (e.g., superimposition). It was up processing, Depth perception, Difference
indicated that informal instruction in home and threshold, Divided attention, Figure-ground
segregation, Filter theory, Filter-attenuation
habitual exposure to pictures were necessary
theory, Gestalt, Monocular cues, Perceptual
to sustain the skill of pictorial depth perception. constancies, Phi-phenomenon, Selective
Sinha and Mishra have carried out several attention, Sustained attention, Top-down
studies on pictorial perception using a variety processing, Visual illusions.
of pictures with people from diverse cultural

Summary
• Knowledge of our internal and external world becomes possible with the help of senses. Five
of them are external senses, and two are internal senses. The sense organs receive various
stimuli and send them in the form of neural impulses to specialised areas of brain for
interpretation.
• Attention is a process through which we select certain information by filtering out many
others that appear to be irrelevant at a given moment of time. Activation, concentration,
and search are important properties of attention.
• Selective and sustained attention are two major types of attention. Divided attention is evident
in the case of highly practiced tasks in which there is much automaticity of information
processing.
• The span of attention is the magical number of seven plus and minus two.
• Perception refers to the processes of interpretation and informed construction of the information
received from sensory organs. Human beings perceive their world in terms of their motivations,
expectations, cognitive styles, and cultural background.
• Form perception refers to the perception of a visual field set off from rest of the field by visible
contours. The most primitive form of organisation takes place in the form of figure-ground
segregation.
• Gestalt psychologists have identified several principles that determine our perceptual
organisations.
• The image of an object projected on to the retina is two dimensional. Three dimensional
perception is a psychological process that depends on correct utilisation of certain monocular
and binocular cues.
• Perceptual constancies refer to invariance of our perceptions of an object seen from any
position and in any intensity of light. There is good evidence for size, shape, and brightness
constancies.

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 • Illusions are the examples of nonveridical perceptions. They refer to misperceptions resulting
from misinterpretation of information received by our sensory organs. Some illusions are
universal, while others are more personal and culture-specific.
• Socio-cultural factors play an important role in our perceptions by generating differential
familiarity with and salience of stimuli as well as certain habits of perceptual inference
among people.

Review Questions
1. Explain the functional limitations of sense organs.
2. Define attention. Explain its properties.
3. State the determinants of selective attention. How does selective attention differ from
sustained attention?
4. What is the main proposition of Gestalt psychologists with respect to perception of the
visual field?
5. How does perception of space take place?
6. What are the monocular cues of depth perception? Explain the role of binocular cues in
the perception of depth?
7. Why do illusions occur?
8. How do socio-cultural factors influence our perceptions?

Project Ideas
1. Collect ten advertisements from magazines. Analyse the content and message being conveyed
in each advertisement. Comment on the use of various attentional and perceptual factors
to promote the given product.
2. Give a toy model of a horse/elephant to visually challenged and sighted children. Let the
visually challenged children feel by touching the toy model for some time. Ask the children
to describe the model. Show the same toy model to sighted children. Compare their
descriptions and find out their similarities and differences.
Take another toy model (e.g., a parrot) and give it to a few visually challenged children
to have a feel of it by touching. Then give a sheet of paper and a pencil and ask them to
draw the parrot on the sheet. Show the same parrot to sighted children for some time,
remove the parrot from their sight, and ask to draw the parrot on a sheet of paper.
Compare the drawings of the visually challenged and sighted children and examine
their similarities and differences.

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 Chapter
5 Learning

After reading this chapter, you would be able to

• describe the nature of learning,
• explain different forms or types of learning and the procedures used in
such types of learning,
• understand various psychological processes that occur during learning
and influence its course, and
• explain the determinants of learning.

Contents
Introduction
Nature of Learning
Paradigms of Learning
Classical Conditioning
Determinants of Classical Conditioning
Operant/Instrumental Conditioning
Determinants of Operant Conditioning
Classical and Operant Conditioning : Differences (Box 5.1)
Key Learning Processes
Learned Helplessness (Box 5.2)
Observational Learning
Cognitive Learning
Verbal Learning
Skill Learning
Factors Facilitating Learning
Learning Disabilities

Learning preserves errors Key Terms

of the past as well as its Summary
wisdom. Review Questions
Project Ideas
– A.N. Whitehead

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 Introduction
At the time of birth every human baby is equipped with the capacity to make a
limited number of responses. These responses occur reflexively whenever
appropriate stimuli are present in the environment. As the child grows and
matures, s/he becomes capable of making diverse types of responses. These
include identifying the images of some persons as one’s mother, father or
grandfather, using a spoon when eating food, and learning how to identify
alphabets, to write, and to combine them into words. S/he also observes others
doing things in specific environmental conditions, and imitates them. Learning
names of objects such as book, orange, mango, cow, boy, and girl, and retaining
them is another important task. One also learns to drive a scooter or a car, to
communicate with others effectively, and to interact with others. It is all due to
learning that a person becomes hard working or indolent, socially knowledgeable,
skilled, and professionally competent. Each individual manages her or his life
and solves all kinds of problems because of the capacity to learn and adapt. This
chapter focuses on the various aspects of learning. First, learning is defined and
characterised as a psychological process. Second, an account is presented that
explains how one learns. A number of learning methods that account for simple
to complex types of learning are described. In the third section, some empirical
phenomena, that occur in the course of learning, are explained. In the fourth
section, different factors that determine the speed and extent of learning are
described including different learning disabilities.

always involves some kinds of experience. We

NATURE OF LEARNING
experience an event occurring in a certain
As indicated above learning is a key process in sequence on a number of occasions. If an event
human behaviour. It refers to a spectrum of happens then it may be followed by certain
changes that take place as a result of one’s other events. For example, one learns that if
experience. Learning may be defined as “any the bell rings in the hostel after sunset, then
relatively permanent change in behaviour or dinner is ready to be served. Repeated
behavioural potential produced by experience”. experience of satisfaction after doing
One must remember that some behavioural something in a specified manner leads to the
changes occur due to the use of drugs, or formation of habit. Sometimes a single
experience can lead to learning. A child strikes
fatigue. Such changes are temporary. They are
a matchstick on the side of a matchbox, and
not considered learning. Changes due to
gets her/his fingers burnt. Such an experience
practice and experience, which are relatively
makes the child learn to be careful in handling
permanent, are illustrative of learning.
the matchbox in future.
Behavioural changes that occur due to
Features of Learning
learning are relatively permanent. They must
The process of learning has certain distinctive be distinguished from the behavioural changes
characteristics. The first feature is that learning that are neither permanent nor learned. For

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example, changes in behaviour often occur due or action. Let us understand what is meant by
to the effects of fatigue, habituation, and drugs. the term inference. Suppose you are asked by
Suppose you are reading your textbook of your teacher to memorise a poem. You read
psychology for sometime or you are trying to that poem a number of times. Then you say
learn how to drive a motor car, a time comes that you have learned the poem. You are asked
when you will feel tired. You stop reading or to recite the poem and you are able to recite
driving. This is a behavioural change due to it. The recitation of the poem by you is your
fatigue, and is temporary. It is not considered per for mance. On the basis of your
learning. performance, the teacher infers that you have
Let us take another case of change in one’s learned the poem.
behaviour. Suppose in the vicinity of your
residence a marriage is being performed. It
PARADIGMS OF LEARNING
generates a lot of noise, which continues till
late night. In the beginning, the noise distracts Learning takes place in many ways. There are
you from whatever you are doing. You feel some methods that are used in acquisition of
disturbed. While the noise continues, you simple responses while other methods are
make some orienting reflexes. These reflexes used in the acquisition of complex responses.
become weaker and weaker, and eventually In this section you will learn about all these
become undetectable. This is also one kind of methods. The simplest kind of learning is
behavioural change. This change is due to called conditioning. Two types of conditioning
continuous exposure to stimuli. It is called
have been identified. The first one is called
habituation. It is not due to learning. You must
classical conditioning, and the second
have noticed that people who are on sedatives
instrumental/operant conditioning. In
or drugs or alcohol, their behaviour changes
addition, we have observational learning,
as it affects physiological functions. Such
cognitive learning, verbal learning, and skill
changes are temporary in nature and
learning.
disappear, as the effect wears out.
Lear ning involves a sequence of
psychological events. This will become clear if CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
we were to describe a typical lear ning
experiment. Suppose psychologists are This type of learning was first investigated by
interested in understanding how a list of words Ivan P. Pavlov. He was primarily interested in
is learned. They will go through the following the physiology of digestion. During his studies
sequence : (i) do a pre-test to know how much he noticed that dogs, on whom he was doing
the person knows before learning, (ii) present his experiments, started secreting saliva as
the list of words to be remembered for a fixed soon as they saw the empty plate in which
time, (iii) during this time the list of words is food was served. As you must be aware, saliva
processed towards acquiring new knowledge, secretion is a reflexive response to food or
(iv) after processing is complete, new something in the mouth. Pavlov designed an
knowledge is acquired (this is LEARNING), and experiment to understand this process in detail
(v) after some time elapses, the processed in which dogs were used once again. In the
information is recalled by the person. By first phase, a dog was placed in a box and
comparing the number of words which a harnessed. The dog was left in the box for some
person now knows as compared to what s/he time. This was repeated a number of times on
knew in the pre-test, one infers that learning different days. In the meantime, a simple
did take place. surgery was conducted, and one end of a tube
Thus, learning is an inferred process and was inserted in the dog’s jaw and the other end
is different from performance. Performance of the tube was put in a measuring glass. The
is a person’s observed behaviour or response experimental setup is illustrated in Figure 5.1.

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 In the second phase of the experiment, the Unconditioned Stimulus (US) and salivation
dog was kept hungry and placed in harness which follows it, an Unconditioned Response
with one end of the tube ending in the jaw (UR). After conditioning, salivation started to
and the other end in the glass jar. A bell was occur in the presence of the sound of the bell.
The bell becomes a Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
One-way and saliva secretion a Conditioned Response
glass wall (CR). This kind of conditioning is called
classical conditioning. The procedure is
Food
illustrated in Table 5.1. It is obvious that the
learning situation in classical conditioning is
one of S–S learning in which one stimulus
(e.g., sound of bell) becomes a signal for
another stimulus (e.g., food). Here one stimulus
signifies the possible occurrence of another
stimulus.
Examples of classical conditioning abound
Tube from Cup for Recording in everyday life. Imagine you have just finished
salivary glands measuring saliva device your lunch and you are feeling satisfied. Then
you see some sweet dish served on the
Fig.5.1 : A Dog in Pavlovian Harness for Conditioning adjoining table. This signals its taste in your
mouth, and triggers the secretion of saliva. You
sounded and immediately thereafter food (meat
feel like eating it. This is a conditioned response
powder) was served to the dog. The dog was
(CR). Let us take another example. In the early
allowed to eat it. For the next few days,
stages of childhood, one is naturally afraid of
everytime the meat powder was presented, it
any loud noise. Suppose a small child catches
was preceded by the sound of a bell. After a
an inflated balloon which bursts in her/his
number of such trials, a test trial was
hands making a loud noise. The child becomes
introduced in which everything was the same
afraid. Now the next time s/he is made to hold
as the previous trials except that no food
a balloon, it becomes a signal or cue for noise
followed the sounding of the bell. The dog still
and elicits fear response. This happens because
salivated to the sound of the bell, expecting
of contiguous presentation of balloon as a
presentation of the meat powder as the sound
conditioned stimulus (CS) and loud noise as
of bell had come to be connected with it. This
an unconditioned stimulus (US).
association between the bell and food resulted
in acquisition of a new response by the dog,
Determinants of Classical Conditioning
i.e. salivation to the sound of the bell. This has
been termed as conditioning. You may have How quickly and strongly acquisition of a
noticed that all dogs salivate when they are response occurs in classical conditioning
presented with food. Food is thus an depends on several factors. Some of the major

Table 5.1 Relationship of Stages of Conditioning and Operations

Stages of Nature of Stimulus Nature of Response
Conditioning
Before Food (US) Salivation (UR)
Sound of the Bell Alertness (No Specific Response)
During Sound of the Bell (CS) + Food (US) Salivation (UR)
After Sound of the Bell (CS) Salivation (CR)

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factors influencing learning a CR are described 3. Intensity of Conditioned Stimuli : This
below: influences the course of both appetitive and
1. Time Relations between Stimuli : The aversive classical conditioning. More intense
classical conditioning procedures, discussed conditioned stimuli are more effective in
below, are basically of four types based on the accelerating the acquisition of conditioned
time relations between the onset of conditioned responses. It means that the more intense the
stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus conditioned stimulus, the fewer are the
(US). The first three are called forward number of acquisition trials needed for
conditioning procedures, and the fourth one conditioning.
is called backward conditioning procedure.
The basic experimental arrangements of these Activity 5.1
procedures are as follows:
a) When the CS and US are presented In order to understand and explain conditioning,
together, it is called simultaneous you may carry out the following exercise. Take
a few pieces of mango pickle on a plate and
conditioning.
show it to the students in the classroom. Ask
b) In delayed conditioning, the onset of them what they experienced in their mouth?
CS precedes the onset of US. The CS Most of your classmates are likely to report
ends before the end of the US. some salivation in their mouth.
c) In trace conditioning, the onset and
end of the CS precedes the onset of US
with some time gap between the two. OPERANT/I NSTRUMENTAL C ONDITIONING
d) In backward conditioning, the US
precedes the onset of CS. This type of conditioning was first investigated
It is now well established that delayed by B.F. Skinner. Skinner studied occurrence
conditioning procedure is the most effective of voluntary responses when an organism
way of acquiring a CR. Simultaneous and trace operates on the environment. He called them
conditioning procedures do lead to acquisition operants. Operants are those behaviours or
of a CR, but they require greater number of responses, which are emitted by animals and
acquisition trials in comparison to the delayed human beings voluntarily and are under their
conditioning procedure. It may be noted that control. The term operant is used because the
the acquisition of response under backward organism operates on the environment.
conditioning procedure is very rare. Conditioning of operant behaviour is called
2. Type of Unconditioned Stimuli : The operant conditioning.
unconditioned stimuli used in studies of Skinner conducted his studies on rats and
classical conditioning are basically of two pigeons in specially made boxes, called the
types, i.e. appetitive and aversive. Appetitive Skinner Box. A hungry rat (one at a time) is
unconditioned stimuli automatically elicits placed in the chamber, which was so built that
approach responses, such as eating, drinking, the rat could move inside but could not come
caressing, etc. These responses give out. In the chamber there was a lever, which
satisfaction and pleasure. On the other hand, was connected to a food container kept on the
aversive US, such as noise, bitter taste, electric top of the chamber (see Figure 5.2). When the
shock, painful injections, etc. are painful, lever is pressed, a food pellet drops on the
harmful, and elicit avoidance and escape plate placed close to the lever. While moving
responses. It has been found that appetitive around and pawing the walls (exploratory
classical conditioning is slower and requires behaviour), the hungry rat accidentally presses
greater number of acquisition trials, but the lever and a food pellet drops on the plate.
aversive classical conditioning is established The hungry rat eats it. In the next trial, after
in one, two or three trials depending on the a while the exploratory behaviour again starts.
intensity of the aversive US. As the number of trials increases, the rat takes

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lesser and lesser time to press the lever for food. response. They include its types – positive or
Conditioning is complete when the rat presses negative, number or frequency, quality –
the lever immediately after it is placed in the superior or inferior, and schedule – continuous
chamber. It is obvious that lever pressing is or intermittent (partial). All these features
an operant response and getting food is its influence the course of operant conditioning.
consequence. Another factor that influences this type of
learning is the nature of the response or
behaviour that is to be conditioned. The
interval or length of time that lapses between
occurrence of response and reinforcement also
influences operant learning. Let us examine
some of these factors in detail.

Types of Reinforcement
Reinforcement may be positive or negative.
Positive reinforcement involves stimuli that
have pleasant consequences. They strengthen
and maintain the responses that have caused
them to occur. Positive reinforcers satisfy
Fig.5.2 : Skinner Box
needs, which include food, water, medals,
In the above situation the response is praise, money, status, information, etc.
instrumental in getting the food. That is why, Negative reinforcers involve unpleasant and
this type of lear ning is also called painful stimuli. Responses that lead organisms
instrumental conditioning. Examples of to get rid of painful stimuli or avoid and escape
instrumental conditioning abound in our from them provide negative reinforcement.
everyday life. Children who want to have some Thus, negative reinforcement leads to learning
sweets in the absence of their mother learn to of avoidance and escape responses. For
locate the jar in which mother hides the sweets instance, one learns to put on woollen clothes,
for safekeeping and eat it. Children learn to burn firewood or use electric heaters to avoid
be polite and say ‘please’ to get favours from the unpleasant cold weather. One learns to
their parents and others. One learns to operate move away from dangerous stimuli because
mechanical gadgets such as radio, camera, they provide negative reinforcement. It may
T.V., etc. based on the principle of be noted that negative reinforcement is not
instrumental conditioning. As a matter of fact punishment. Use of punishment reduces or
human beings learn short cuts to attain suppresses the response while a negative
desired goals or ends through instrumental reinforcer increases the probability of
avoidance or escape response. For instance,
conditioning.
drivers and co-drivers wear their seat belts to
Determinants of Operant Conditioning avoid getting injured in case of an accident or
to avoid being fined by the traffic police.
You have noted that operant or instrumental It should be understood that no
conditioning is a form of learning in which punishment suppresses a response
behaviour is learned, maintained or changed permanently. Mild and delayed punishment
through its consequences. Such consequences has no effect. The stronger the punishment,
are called reinforcers. A reinforcer is defined the more lasting is the suppression effect but
as any stimulus or event, which increases the it is not permanent.
probability of the occurrence of a (desired) Sometimes punishment has no effect
response. A reinforcer has numerous features, irrespective of its intensity. On the contrary,
which affect the course and strength of a the punished person may develop dislike and

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hatred for the punishing agent or the person some trials it is given and in others it is
who administers the punishment. omitted. Thus, the reinforcement may be
continuous or intermittent. When a desired
Number of Reinforcement and other Features response is reinforced every time it occurs we
call it continuous reinforcement. In contrast,
It refers to the number of trials on which an
in intermittent schedules responses are
organism has been reinforced or rewarded.
sometimes reinforced, sometimes not. It is
Amount of reinforcement means how much
known as partial reinforcement and has been
of reinforcing stimulus (food or water or
found to produce greater resistance to
intensity of pain causing agent) one receives
extinction – than is found with continuous
on each trial. Quality of reinforcement refers
reinforcement.
to the kind of reinforcer. Chickpeas or pieces
of bread are of inferior quality as compared
Delayed Reinforcement
with raisins or pieces of cake as reinforcer.
The course of operant conditioning is usually The ef fectiveness of reinforcement is
accelerated to an extent as the number, dramatically altered by delay in the occurrence
amount, and quality of reinforcement of reinforcement. It is found that delay in the
increases. delivery of reinforcement leads to poorer level
of performance. It can be easily shown by
Schedules of Reinforcement asking children which reward they will prefer
for doing some chore. Smaller rewards
A reinforcement schedule is the arrangement
immediately after doing the chore will be
of the delivery of reinforcement during
preferred rather than a big one after a long
conditioning trials. Each schedule of
gap.
reinforcement influences the course of
conditioning in its own way; and thus
Key Learning Processes
conditioned responses occur with differential
characteristics. The organism being subjected When learning takes place, be it classical or
to operant conditioning may be given operant conditioning, it involves the
reinforcement in every acquisition trial or in occurrence of certain processes. These include

B o x 5.1 Classical and Operant Conditioning : Diff

Differences
erences

1. In classical conditioning, the responses are 3. In classical conditioning, the experimenter

under the control of some stimulus because controls the occurrence of US, while in operant
they are reflexes, automatically elicited by conditioning the occurrence of the reinforcer is
the appropriate stimuli. Such stimuli are under the control of the organism that is learning.
selected as US and responses elicited by Thus, for US in classical conditioning the
them as UR. Thus Pavlovian conditioning, in organism remains passive, while in operant
which US elicits responses, is often called conditioning the subject has to be active in order
respondent conditioning.
to be reinforced.
In instrumental conditioning, responses
4. In the two forms of conditioning, the technical
are under the control of the organism and
are voluntary responses or ‘operants’. Thus, terms used to characterise the experimental
in the two forms of conditioning different proceedings are different. Moreover what is called
types of responses are conditioned. reinforcer in operant conditioning is called US in
2. In classical conditioning the CS and US are classical conditioning. An US has two functions.
well-defined, but in operant conditioning CS In the beginning it elicits the response and also
is not defined. It can be inferred but is not reinforces the response to be associated and
directly known. elicited later on by the CS.

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 B o x 5.2 Learned Helplessness

It is an interesting phenomenon, which is a result suffered the shock through, and did not attempt to
of an interaction between the two forms of escape. This behaviour of the dog was called learned
conditioning. Learned helplessness underlies helplessness.
psychological cases of depression. Seligman and This phenomenon has been shown to be operative
Maier demonstrated this phenomenon in a study in humans also. It has been found that continuous
on dogs. First, they subjected dogs to sound (CS) failure in a set of tasks shows the occurrence of
and electric shock (US) using classical conditioning learned helplessness. In an experimental study, the
procedure. The animal had no scope to escape or subjects are initially given failure experience
avoid the shock. This pairing was repeated a irrespective of their performance. In the second phase
number of times. Then the dogs were subjected to the subjects are given a task. Learned helplessness
shock in an operant conditioning procedure. The is often measured in terms of the subject’s ability and
dogs could escape the shock by pressing their persistence before they give up the task. Continuous
heads against the wall. After having experienced failure leads to little persistence and poor performance.
inescapable shock in the Pavlovian contingency, This shows helplessness. There are numerous studies
the dog failed to escape or avoid shock in the that demonstrate that persistent depression is often
operant conditioning procedure. The dog just caused by learned helplessness.

reinforcement, extinction or non-occurrence lead to the desired response. Such a response

of lear ned response, generalisation of is shaped by reinforcing successive
lear ning to other stimuli under some approximations to the desired response.
specifiable conditions, discrimination
between reinforcing and non-reinforcing Extinction
stimuli, and spontaneous recovery.
Extinction means disappearance of a learned
response due to removal of reinforcement from
Reinforcement
the situation in which the response used to
Reinforcement is the operation of occur. If the occurrence of CS-CR is not
administering a reinforcer by the experimenter. followed by the US in classical conditioning,
Reinforcers are stimuli that increase the rate or lever pressing is no more followed by food
or probability of the responses that precede. pellets in the Skinner box, the learned
We have noted that reinforced responses behaviour will gradually be weakened and
increase in rate, while non-reinforced ultimately disappear.
responses decrease in rate. A positive Learning shows resistance to extinction.
reinforcer increases the rate of response that It means that even though the learned
precedes its presentation. Negative reinforcers response is now not reinforced, it would
increase the rate of the response that precedes continue to occur for sometime. However, with
their removal or termination. The reinforcers increasing number of trials without
may be primary or secondary. A primary reinforcement, the response strength
reinforcer is biologically important since it gradually diminishes and ultimately it stops
determines the organism’s survival (e.g., food occurring. How long a learned response shows
for a hungry organism). A secondary reinforcer resistance to extinction depends on a number
is one which has acquired characteristics of of factors. It has been found that with
the reinforcer because of the organism’s increasing number of reinforced trials
experience with the environment. We resistance to extinction increases and learned
frequently use money, praise, and grades as response reaches its highest level. At this level
reinforcers. They are called secondary performance gets stabilised. After that the
reinforcers. Systematic use of reinforcers can number of trials do not make a difference in

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the response strength. Resistance to extinction For example, suppose a child is conditioned
increases with increasing number of to be afraid of a person with a long moustache
reinforcements during acquisition trials, and wearing black clothes. In subsequent
beyond that any increase in number of situation, when s/he meets another person
reinforcement reduces the resistance to dressed in black clothes with a beard, the child
extinction. Studies have also indicated that shows signs of fear. The child’s fear is
as the amount of reinforcement (number of generalised. S/he meets another stranger who
food pellets) increases during the acquisition is wearing grey clothes and is clean-shaven.
trials, resistance to extinction decreases. The child shows no fear. This is an example of
If the reinforcement is delayed during discrimination. Occurrence of generalisation
acquisition trials, the resistance to extinction means failure of discrimination.
increases. Reinforcement in every acquisition Discriminative response depends on the
trial makes the learned response to be less discrimination capacity or discrimination
resistant to extinction. In contrast, learning of the organism.
intermittent or partial reinforcement during
acquisition trials makes a learned response Spontaneous Recovery
more resistant to extinction.
Spontaneous recovery occurs after a learned
Generalisation and Discrimination response is extinguished. Suppose an
organism has learned to make a response for
The processes of generalisation and
getting reinforcement, then the response is
discrimination occur in all kinds of learning.
extinguished and some time lapses. A question
However, they have been extensively
now may be asked, whether the response is
investigated in the context of conditioning.
completely extinguished, and will not occur if
Suppose an organism is conditioned to elicit a
the CS is presented. It has been demonstrated
CR (saliva secretion or any other reflexive
that after lapse of considerable time, the
response) on presentation of a CS (light or
learned or CR recovers and occurs to the CS.
sound of bell). After conditioning is established,
and another stimulus similar to the CS (e.g., The amount of spontaneous recovery depends
ringing of telephone) is presented, the organism on the duration of the time lapsed after the
makes the conditioned response to it. This extinction session. The longer the duration of
phenomenon of responding similarly to similar time lapsed, the greater is the recovery of
stimuli is known as generalisation. Again, learned response. Such a recovery occurs
suppose a child has learned the location of a spontaneously. Fig.5.3 shows the
jar of a certain size and shape in which sweets phenomenon of spontaneous recovery.
are kept. Even when the child’s mother is not (1) (2) (3)
around, the child finds the jar and obtains the Acquisition Extinction Spontaneous
sweets. This is a learned operant. Now the (CS+US) (CS alone) recovery
sweets are kept in another jar of a different (CS alone)
size and shape and at a different location in
Strength of the CR

the kitchen. In the absence of the mother the

child locates the jar and obtains the sweets.
This is also an example of generalisation. When
a learned response occurs or is elicited by a
new stimulus, it is called generalisation.
Baseline Rest
Another process, which is complimentary
to generalisation, is called discrimination.
Generalisation is due to similarity while Trials
discrimination is a response due to difference. Fig.5.3 : Phenomenon of Spontaneous Recovery

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 an experimental room in which similar toys
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
were placed around. The children were allowed
The next form of learning takes place by to play with the toys. These groups were
observing others. Earlier this form of learning secretly observed and their behaviours noted.
was called imitation. Bandura and his It was found that those children who saw
colleagues in a series of experimental studies aggressive behaviour being rewarded were
investigated observational learning in detail. most aggressive; children who had seen the
In this kind of learning, human beings learn aggressive model being punished were least
social behaviours, therefore, it is sometimes aggressive. Thus, in observational learning
called social learning. In many situations observers acquire knowledge by observing the
individuals do not know how to behave. They model’s behaviour, but per formance is
observe others and emulate their behaviour. influenced by model’s behaviour being
This form of learning is called modeling. rewarded or punished.
Examples of observational lear ning You must have noticed that children
abound in our social life. Fashion designers observe adults’ behaviours, at home and
employ tall, pretty, and gracious young girls during social ceremonies and functions. They
enact adults in their plays and games. For
and tall, smart, and well-built young boys for
instance, young children play games of
popularising clothes of different designs and
marriage ceremonies, birthday parties, thief
fabrics. People observe them on televised
and policeman, house keeping, etc. Actually
fashion shows and advertisements in
they enact in their games what they
magazines and newspapers. They imitate these
observe in society, on television, and read in
models. Observing superiors and likeable
books.
persons and then emulating their behaviour
Children lear n most of the social
in a novel social situation is a common
behaviours by observing and emulating adults.
experience.
The way to put on clothes, dress one’s hair,
In order to understand the nature of
and conduct oneself in society are learned
observational learning we may refer to the
through observing others. It has also been
studies conducted by Bandura. In one of his shown that children learn and develop various
well-known experimental study, Bandura personality characteristics through
showed a film of five minutes duration to observational learning. Aggressiveness, pro-
children. The film shows that in a large room social behaviour, courtesy, politeness,
there are numerous toys including a large diligence, and indolence are acquired by this
sized ‘Bobo’ doll. Now a grown-up boy enters method of learning.
the room and looks around. The boy starts
showing aggressive behaviour towards the toys
in general and the bobo doll in particular. He Activity 5.2
hits the doll, throws it on the floor, kicking it
and sitting on it. This film has three versions. You can have first-hand experience of observational
In one version a group of children see the boy learning by doing the following exercise.
(model) being rewarded and praised by an Collect four or five school going children and
demonstrate how to make a boat out of a sheet of
adult for being aggressive to the doll. In the
paper. Do it two or three times and ask the children
second version another group of children see to observe carefully. After having shown how to
the boy being punished for his aggressive fold the paper in different ways for a number of
behaviour. In the third version the third group times, give them sheets of paper and ask them to
of children are not shown the boy being either make a toy boat.
rewarded or punished. Most children will be able to do it somewhat
After viewing a specific version of the film successfully.
all the three groups of children were placed in

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 learning can be generalised to other similar
COGNITIVE LEARNING
problem situations.
Some psychologists view learning in terms of
cognitive processes that underlie it. They have Latent Learning
developed approaches that focus on such Another type of cognitive learning is known as
processes that occur during learning rather latent learning. In latent learning, a new
than concentrating solely on S-R and S-S behaviour is learned but not demonstrated
connections, as we have seen in the case of until reinforcement is provided for displaying
classical and operant conditioning. Thus, in it. Tolman made an early contribution to the
cognitive learning, there is a change in what concept of latent learning. To have an idea of
the learner knows rather than what s/he does. latent learning, we may briefly understand his
This form of learning shows up in insight experiment. Tolman put two groups of rats in
learning and latent learning. a maze and gave them an opportunity to
explore. In one group, rats found food at the
Insight Learning end of the maze and soon learned to make
their way rapidly through the maze. On the
Kohler demonstrated a model of learning
other hand, rats in the second group were not
which could not be readily explained by
rewarded and showed no apparent signs of
conditioning. He perfor med a series of
learning. But later, when these rats were
experiments with chimpanzees that involved
reinforced, they ran through the maze as
solving complex problems. Kohler placed efficiently as the rewarded group.
chimpanzees in an enclosed play area where Tolman contended that the unrewarded
food was kept out of their reach. Tools such rats had learned the layout of the maze early
as poles and boxes were placed in the in their explorations. They just never displayed
enclosure. The chimpanzees rapidly learned their latent learning until the reinforcement
how to use a box to stand on or a pole to move was provided. Instead, the rats developed a
the food in their direction. In this experiment, cognitive map of the maze, i.e. a mental
learning did not occur as a result of trial and representation of the spatial locations and
error and reinforcement, but came about in directions, which they needed to reach their
sudden flashes of insight. The chimpanzees goal.
would roam about the enclosure for some time
and then suddenly would stand on a box, grab
a pole and strike a banana, which was out of
VERBAL LEARNING
normal reach above the enclosure. The Verbal learning is different from conditioning
chimpanzee exhibited what Kohler called and is limited to human beings. Human
insight learning – the process by which the beings, as you must have observed, acquire
solution to a problem suddenly becomes clear. knowledge about objects, events, and their
In a nor mal experiment on insight features largely in terms of words. Words then
learning, a problem is presented, followed by come to be associated with one another.
a period of time when no apparent progress is Psychologists have developed a number of
made and finally a solution suddenly emerges. methods to study this kind of learning in a
In insight learning, sudden solution is the rule. laboratory setting. Each method is used to
Once the solution has appeared, it can be investigate specific questions about learning
repeated immediately the next time the of some kind of verbal material. In the study
problem is confronted. Thus, it is clear that of verbal learning, psychologists use a variety
what is learned is not a specific set of of materials including nonsense syllables,
conditioned associations between stimuli and familiar words, unfamiliar words (see Table
responses but a cognitive relationship between 5.2 for sample items), sentences, and
a means and an end. As a result, insight paragraphs.

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 Table 5.2 Sample Lists of Items used in Verbal Learning Experiments
Verbal
Nonsense syllables Unfamiliar words Familiar words
YOL ZILCH BOAT
RUV PLUMB NOSE
TOJ VERVE KNOW
LIN BLOUT GOAL
LUF THILL BOWL
GOW SCOFF LOAD
NOK TENOR FEET
RIC WRACK MEET
NEZ BOUGH TENT
TAM MALVE FOAM
SUK PATTER TALE
KOZ MANSE JOKE
GUD KYDRA MALE
MUP BORGE BALM
KUG DEVEN SOLE

Methods used in Studying Verbal each stimulus term. After that a learning trial
Learning begins. One by one the stimulus words are
presented and the participant tries to give the
1. Paired-Associates Learning : This method
correct response term. In case of failure, s/he
is similar to S-S conditioning and S-R learning.
is shown the response word. In one trial all
It is used in learning some foreign language
the stimulus terms are shown. Trials continue
equivalents of mother tongue words. First, a
until the participant gives all the response
list of paired-associates is prepared. The first
words without a single error. The total number
word of the pair is used as the stimulus, and
of trials taken to reach the criterion becomes
the second word as the response. Members of
the measure of paired-associates learning.
each pair may be from the same language or
two different languages. A list of such words 2. Serial Learning : This method of verbal
is given in Table 5.3. learning is used to find out how participants
The first members of the pairs (stimulus learn the lists of verbal items, and what
term) are nonsense syllables (consonant- processes are involved in it. First, lists of verbal
vowel-consonant), and the second are English items, i.e. nonsense syllables, most familiar or
nouns (response term). The learner is first least familiar words, interrelated words, etc. are
shown both the stimulus-response pairs prepared. The participant is presented the entire
together, and is instructed to remember and list and is required to produce the items in the
recall the response after the presentation of same serial order as in the list. In the first trial,

Table 5.3 Examples of Stimulus – Response PPairs

airs used in PPaired-Associates
aired-Associates Learning
Stimulus - Response Stimulus - Response
GEN – LOOT LUR – ROOF
BEM – TIME RUL – GOLD
DIV – LAMP VAK – HILL
WUF – DEER KER – NAME
JIT – LION HOZ – GOAT
DAX – COAL MUW – BULL

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the first item of the list is shown, and the a list containing the same association value.
participant has to produce the second item. If On the basis of research findings, the following
s/he fails to do so within the prescribed time, generalisations have been made.
the experimenter presents the second item. Learning time increases with increase in
Now this item becomes the stimulus and the length of the list, occurrence of words with low
participant has to produce the third item that association values or lack of relations among
is the response word. If s/he fails, the the items in the list. The more time it takes to
experimenter gives the correct item, which learn the list, stronger will be the learning. In
becomes the stimulus item for the fourth word. this respect psychologists have found that the
This procedure is called serial anticipation total time principle operates. This principle
method. Learning trials continue until the states that a fixed amount of time is necessary
participant correctly anticipates all the items to learn a fixed amount of material, regardless
in the given order. of the number of trials into which that time is
divided. The more time it takes to learn, the
3. Free Recall : In this method, participants are
stronger becomes the learning.
presented a list of words, which they read and
If participants are not restricted to the
speak out. Each word is shown at a fixed rate of
serial learning method and are allowed to give
exposure duration. Immediately after the
free recall, verbal lear ning becomes
presentation of the list, the participants are
organisational. It implies that in free recall
required to recall the words in any order they
participants recall the words not in their order
can. Words in the list may be interrelated or
of presentation, but in a new order or
unrelated. More than ten words are included in
sequence. Bousfield first demonstrated this
the list. The presentation order of words varies
experimentally. He made a list of 60 words
from trial to trial. This method is used to study
that consisted of 15 words drawn from each
how participants organise words for storage in
of the four semantic categories, i.e. names,
memory. Studies indicate that the items placed
animals, professions, and vegetables. These
in the beginning or end of the lists are easier to
words were presented to participants one by
recall than those placed in the middle, which
one in random order. The participants were
are more difficult to recall.
required to make free recall of the words.
However, they recalled the words of each
Determinants of Verbal Learning
category together. He called it category
Verbal learning has been subjected to the most clustering. It is worth noting that, though,
extensive experimental investigations. These the words were presented randomly the
studies have indicated that the course of verbal participants organised them category-wise in
learning is influenced by a number of factors. recall. Here category clustering occurred
The most important determinants are the because of the nature of the list. It has also
different features of the verbal material to be been demonstrated that free recall is always
learned. They include length of the list to be organised subjectively. Subjective organisation
learned and meaningfulness of the material. shows that the participants organise words
Meaningfulness of material is measured in or items in their individual ways and recall
several ways. The number of associations accordingly.
elicited in a fixed time, familiarity of the Verbal learning is usually intentional but
material and frequency of usage, relations a person may learn some features of the words
among the words in the list, and sequential unintentionally or incidentally. In this kind of
dependence of each word of the list on the learning, participants notice features such as
preceding words, are used for assessing whether two or more words rhyme, start with
meaningfulness. Lists of nonsense syllables are identical letters, have same vowels, etc. Thus,
available with different levels of associations. verbal learning is both intentional as well as
The nonsense syllables should be selected from incidental.

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 skill learning, the learner has to understand
Activity 5.3 and memorise the instructions, and also
understand how the task has to be performed.
Take the following words and write them on
separate cards, and ask the participants to read
In this phase, every outside cue, instructional
them aloud one by one. After completion of two demand, and one’s response outcome have to
readings, ask them to write down the words in be kept alive in consciousness.
any order : book, law, bread, shirt, coat, paper, The second phase is associative. In this
pencil, biscuit, pen, life, history, rice, curd, shoes, phase, different sensory inputs or stimuli are
sociology, sweet, pond, potato, ice-cream, muffler, linked with appropriate responses. As the
and prose. After the presentation, ask them to
write down the words they read, without bothering
practice increases, errors decrease,
about the order of presentation. performance improves and time taken is also
Analyse your data to see whether recalled reduced. With continued practice, errorless
words show any organisation. performance begins, though, the learner has
to be attentive to all the sensory inputs and
maintain concentration on the task. Then the
third phase, i.e. autonomous phase, begins.
SKILL LEARNING In this phase, two important changes take
place in performance: the attentional
Nature of Skills demands of the associative phase decrease,
A skill is defined as the ability to perform some and interference created by external factors
complex task smoothly and efficiently. Car reduces. Finally, skilled performance attains
driving, airplane piloting, ship navigating, automaticity with minimal demands on
shorthand writing, and writing and reading are conscious effort.
examples of skills. Such skills are learned by Transitions from one phase to the other
practice and exercise. A skill consists of a clearly show that practice is the only means of
chain of perceptual motor responses or as a skill learning. One has to keep on exercising
sequence of S-R associations. and practicing. As the practice increases,
improvement rate gradually increases; and
Phases of Skill Acquisition automaticity of errorless performance becomes
the hallmark of skill. That is why it is said that
Skill lear ning passes through several
‘practice makes a man perfect’.
qualitatively different phases. With each
successive attempt at learning a skill, one’s
performance becomes smoother and less effort FACTORS FACILITATING LEARNING
demanding. In other words, it becomes more
spontaneous or automatic. It has also been In the preceding section we examined the
shown that in each phase the performance specific determinants of learning, such as
improves. In transition from one phase to the contiguous presentation of CS and US in
next, when the level of performance stands classical conditioning; number, amount, and
still, it is called performance plateau. Once delay of reinforcement in operant conditioning;
the next phase begins, performance starts status and attractiveness of models in
improving and its level starts going up. observational learning; procedure in verbal
One of the most influential accounts of the learning; and the nature of rules and
phases of skill acquisition is presented by perceptual features of objects and events in
Fitts. According to him, skill learning passes concept learning. Now, we shall discuss some
through three phases, viz. cognitive, general determinants of learning. This
associative and autonomous. Each phase or discussion is not exhaustive. Rather it deals
stage of skill learning involves different types with some salient factors only which are found
of mental processes. In the cognitive phase of very important.

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Continuous vs Partial Reinforcement fulfilling the current need. In other words,
In experiments on learning the experimenter motivation energises an organism to act
can arrange to deliver reinforcement according vigorously for attaining some goal. Such acts
to a specific schedule. In the context of persist until the goal is attained and the need
learning, two kinds of schedules namely is satisfied. Motivation is a prerequisite for
continuous and partial have been found very learning. Why does a child forage in the kitchen
important. In continuous reinforcement the when the mother is not in the house? S/he does
participant is given reinforcement after each so because s/he needs sweets to eat for which
target response. This kind of schedule of s/he is trying to locate the jar in which sweets
reinforcement produces a high rate of are kept. During the course of foraging the child
responding. However, once the reinforcement learns the location of the jar. A hungry rat is
is withheld, response rates decrease very placed in a box. The animal forages in the box
quickly, and the responses acquired under this for food. Incidentally it presses a lever and food
schedule tend to extinguish. Since organism drops in the box. With repeated experience of
is getting reinforcement on each trial, the such activity, the animal learns to press the
effectiveness of that reinforcer is reduced. In lever immediately after the animal is placed
such schedules where reinforcement is not there.
continuous, some responses are not Have you ever asked yourself why you are
reinforced. Hence, they are called partial or studying psychology and other subjects in
intermittent reinforcement. There are several Class XI? You are doing so to pass with good
ways in which one might reinforce responses marks or grades in your final examination.
according to an intermittent schedule. It has The more motivated you are, the more hard
been found that partial reinforcement work you do for learning. Your motivation for
schedules often produce very high rates of learning something arises from two sources.
responding, particularly when responses are You learn many things because you enjoy
reinforced according to ratio. In this kind of them (intrinsic motivation) or they provide you
schedule, an organism often makes several the means for attaining some other goal
responses that are not reinforced. Therefore, it (extrinsic motivation).
becomes difficult to tell when a reinforcement
has been discontinued completely and when Preparedness for Learning
it has merely been delayed. When The members of different species are very
reinforcement is continuous it is easier to tell different from one another in their sensory
when it has been discontinued. This kind of capacities and response abilities. The
difference has been found crucial for extinction. mechanisms necessary for establishing
It has been found that extinction of a response associations, such as S-S or S-R, also vary from
is more difficult following partial species to species. It can be said that species
reinforcement than following continuous have biological constraints on their learning
reinforcement. The fact that the responses capacities. The kinds of S-S or S-R learning an
acquired under partial reinforcement are organism can easily acquire depends on the
highly resistant to extinction is called partial associative mechanism it is genetically
reinforcement effect. endowed with or prepared for. A particular
kind of associative learning is easy for apes or
Motivation
human beings but may be extremely difficult
All living organisms have survival needs and and sometimes impossible for cats and rats. It
human beings, in addition, have growth needs. implies that one can learn only those
Motivation is a mental as well as a physiological associations for which one is genetically
state, which arouses an organism to act for prepared.

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 The concept of preparedness may be best intelligence, adequate sensory motor systems,
understood as a continuum or dimension, on and adequate learning opportunities. If it is not
one end of which are those learning tasks or remedied, it may continue throughout life and
associations which are easy for the members affect self-esteem, vocation, social relations,
of some species, and on the other end are those and daily living activities.
learning tasks for which those members are
not prepared at all and cannot learn them. In Symptoms of Learning Disabilities
the middle of the continuum fall those tasks There are many symptoms of learning
and associations for which the members are disabilities. They become manifest in different
neither prepared nor unprepared. They can combinations in children who suffer from this
learn such tasks, but only with great difficulty disorder irrespective of their intelligence,
and persistence. motivation, and hard work for learning.
1. Difficulties in writing letters, words and
LEARNING DISABILITIES phrases, reading out text, and speaking
appear quite frequently. Quite often they
You must have heard, observed or read that have listening problems, although they
thousands of children get enrolled for may not have auditory defects. Such
education in schools. Some of them, however, children are very different from others in
find the demands of educational process too developing learning strategies and plans.
difficult to meet, and they drop out. Such 2. Learning-disabled children have disorders
students are called “drop-outs”. The reasons of attention. They get easily distracted and
for this are numerous, such as sensory cannot sustain attention on one point for
impairment, intellectual disability, social and long. More often than not, attentional
emotional disturbance, poor economic deficiency leads to hyperactivity, i.e. they
conditions of the family, cultural beliefs and are always moving, doing different things,
norms or other environmental influences. trying to manipulate things incessantly.
Apart from these conditions, there is another 3. Poor space orientation and inadequate
source of obstacle in the continuance of sense of time are common symptoms.
education that is called learning disabilities. Such children do not get easily oriented to
It makes school learning, i.e. acquisition of new surroundings and get lost. They lack
knowledge and skills too difficult to grapple a sense of time and are late or sometimes
with. Such children also fail to move forward too early in their routine work. They also
in their learning activities. show confusion in direction and misjudge
Learning disability is a general term. It right, left, up and down.
refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders 4. Learning-disabled children have poor
manifested in terms of difficulty in the motor coordination and poor manual
acquisition of learning, reading, writing, dexterity. This is evident in their lack of
speaking, reasoning, and mathematical balance, inability to sharpen pencil, handle
activities. The sources of such disorders are doorknobs, difficulty in learning to ride a
inherent in the child. It is presumed that these bicycle, etc.
difficulties originate from problems with the 5. These children fail to understand and
functioning of the central nervous system. It follow oral directions for doing things.
may occur in conjunction with physical 6. They misjudge relationships as to which
handicaps, sensory impairment, intellectual classmates are friendly and which ones are
disability or without them. indif ferent. They fail to lear n and
It must be noted that learning disabilities understand body language.
may be observed as a distinct handicapping 7. Learning-disabled children usually show
condition in children of average to superior perceptual disorders. These may include

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 visual, auditory, tactual, and kinesthetic appropriate techniques for correcting most
misperception. They fail to differentiate a of the symptoms related to learning
call-bell from the ring of the telephone. It disabilities.
is not that they do not have sensory acuity.
They simply fail to use it in performance. Key Terms
8. Fairly large number of learning-disabled
children have dyslexia. They quite often Associative learning, Biofeedback, Cognitive
fail to copy letters and words; for example, map, Conditioned response, Conditioned
they fail to distinguish between b and d, stimulus, Conditioning, Discrimination,
p and q, P and 9, was and saw, unclear Dyslexia, Extinction, Free recall,
and nuclear, etc. They fail to organise verbal Generalisation, Insight, Learning disabilities,
Mental set, Modeling, Negative reinforcement,
materials.
Operant or instrumental conditioning,
It must be noted that learning Positive reinforcement, Punishment,
disabilities are not incurable. Remedial Reinforcement, Serial learning, Spontaneous
teaching methods go a long way in helping recovery, Unconditioned response,
them to learn and become like other students. Unconditioned stimulus, Verbal learning
Educational psychologists have developed

Summary
• Learning is any relatively permanent change in behaviour or behavioural potential produced
by experience or practice. It is an inferred process and differs from performance which is the
observed behaviour/response/action.
• The main types of learning are: classical and operant conditioning, observational learning,
cognitive learning, verbal learning, and skill learning.
• Pavlov first investigated classical conditioning in the course of studies on digestion in dogs.
In this kind of learning an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus (CS) that
signals an unconditioned stimulus (US) begins to produce a response (CR) that anticipates
and prepares the organism for US.
• Skinner first investigated operant or instrumental conditioning (OC). An operant is any
response voluntarily emitted by an organism. OC is a type of learning in which response is
strengthened if followed by reinforcement. A reinforcer can be any event that increases the
frequency of preceding response. Thus, the consequence of a response is crucial. The rate of
OC is influenced by the type, number, schedule, and delay of reinforcement.
• Observational learning is also known as imitation, modeling and social learning. We acquire
knowledge by observing a model’s behaviour. The performance depends on whether the
model’s behaviour is rewarded or punished.
• In verbal learning words get associated with one another on the basis of structural, phonetic,
and semantic similarity and contrast. They are often organised in clusters. In experimental
studies, paired-associates learning, serial learning, and free recall methods are used.
Meaningfulness of material, and subjective organisation influence learning. It may be
incidental also.
• Skill refers to the ability to carry out complex tasks smoothly and efficiently. They are
learned by practice and exercise. The skilled performance is the organisation of S-R chain
into large response patterns. It passes through cognitive, associative, and autonomous
phases.
• Factors facilitating learning include motivation and preparedness of the organism.
• Learning disabilities (e.g., reading, writing) restrict learning in people. They are hyperactive,
lack sense of time, and eye-hand coordination, etc.

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 Review Questions
1. What is learning? What are its distinguishing features?
2. How does classical conditioning demonstrate learning by association?
3. Define operant conditioning. Discuss the factors that influence the course of operant
conditioning.
4. A good role model is very important for a growing up child. Discuss the kind of learning
that supports it.
5. Explain the procedures for studying verbal learning.
6. What is a skill? What are the stages through which skill learning develops?
7. How can you distinguish between generalisation and discrimination?
8. Why is motivation a prerequisite for learning?
9. What does the notion of preparedness for learning mean?
10. Explain the different forms of cognitive learning?
11. How can we identify students with learning disabilities?

Project Ideas
How do your parents reinforce you for behaving in the ways they think are good for you?
Select five different instances. Compare these with the reinforcement employed by teachers
in the classroom and relate them to the concepts taught in the class.

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 Chapter
6 Human Memory

After reading this chapter, you would be able to

• understand the nature of memory,
• distinguish between different types of memory,
• understand the nature and causes of forgetting, and
• learn the strategies for improving memory.

Contents
Introduction
Nature of Memory
Information Processing Approach : The Stage Model
Memory Systems : Sensory, Short-term and Long-term Memories
Working Memory (Box 6.1)
Levels of Processing
Types of Long-term Memory
Declarative and Procedural; Episodic and Semantic
Long-term Memory Classification (Box 6.2)
Methods of Memory Measurement (Box 6.3)
Nature and Causes of Forgetting
Forgetting due to Trace Decay, Interference and Retrieval Failure
Repressed Memories (Box 6.4)
The advantage of bad Enhancing Memory
Mnemonics using Images and Organisation
memory is that one
enjoys several times, Key Terms
the same good things Summary
for the first time. Review Questions
Project Ideas
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 Introduction
All of us are aware of the tricks that memory plays on us throughout our lives.
Have you ever felt embarrassed because you could not remember the name of a
known person you were talking to? Or anxious and helpless because everything
you memorised well the previous day before taking your examination has suddenly
become unavailable? Or felt excited because you can now flawlessly recite lines of
a famous poem you had learnt as a child? Memory indeed is a very fascinating yet
intriguing human faculty. It functions to preserve our sense of who we are, maintains
our interpersonal relationships and helps us in solving problems and taking
decisions. Since memory is central to almost all cognitive processes such as
perception, thinking and problem solving, psychologists have attempted to
understand the manner in which any information is committed to memory, the
mechanisms through which it is retained over a period of time, the reasons why it is
lost from memory, and the techniques which can lead to memory improvement. In
this chapter, we shall examine all these aspects of memory and understand various
theories which explain the mechanisms of memory.
The history of psychological research on memory spans over hundred years.
The first systematic exploration of memory is credited to Hermann Ebbinghaus, a
German psychologist of late nineteenth century (1885). He carried out many
experiments on himself and found that we do not forget the learned material at an
even pace or completely. Initially the rate of forgetting is faster but eventually it
stabilises. There are other psychologists who have influenced memory research in
a major way. We shall review their contributions in this chapter at appropriate
places.

process consisting of three independent,

NATURE OF MEMORY
though interrelated stages. These are
Memory refers to retaining and recalling encoding, storage, and retrieval. Any
information over a period of time, depending information received by us necessarily goes
upon the nature of cognitive task you are through these stages.
required to perform. It might be necessary to (a) Encoding is the first stage which refers to a
hold an information for a few seconds. For process by which information is recorded and
example, you use your memory to retain an registered for the first time so that it becomes
unfamiliar telephone number till you have usable by our memory system. Whenever an
reached the telephone instrument to dial, or external stimulus impinges on our sensory
for many years you still remember the organs, it generates neural impulses. These are
techniques of addition and subtraction which received in different areas of our brain for
you perhaps learned during your early further processing. In encoding, incoming
schooling. Memory is conceptualised as a information is received and some meaning is

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derived. It is then represented in a way so that does. Both register, store, and manipulate large
it can be processed further. amount of information and act on the basis of
(b) Storage is the second stage of memory. the outcome of such manipulations. If you
Information which was encoded must also be have worked on a computer then you would
stored so that it can be put to use later. Storage, know that it has a temporary memory (random
therefore, refers to the process through which access memory or RAM) and a permanent
information is retained and held over a period memory (e.g., a hard disk). Based on the
of time. programme commands, the computer
(c) Retrieval is the third stage of memory. manipulates the contents of its memories and
Information can be used only when one is able displays the output on the screen. In the same
to recover it from her/his memory. Retrieval way, human beings too register information,
refers to bringing the stored information to her/
store and manipulate the stored information
his awareness so that it can be used for
depending on the task that they need to
performing various cognitive tasks such as
perform. For example, when you are required
problem solving or decision-making. It may be
to solve a mathematical problem, the memory
interesting to note that memory failure can
occur at any of these stages. You may fail to relating to mathematical operations, such as
recall an information because you did not division or subtraction are carried out,
encode it properly, or the storage was weak so activated and put to use, and receive the
you could not access or retrieve it when output (the problem solution). This analogy led
required. to the development of the first model of
memory, which was proposed by Atkinson and
Shiffrin in 1968. It is known as Stage Model.
INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH :
THE STAGE MODEL
MEMORY SYSTEMS : SENSORY, SHORT-TERM
Initially, it was thought that memory is the AND LONG-TERM MEMORIES
capacity to store all information that we acquire
through learning and experience. It was seen According to the Stage Model, there are three
as a vast storehouse where all information that memory systems : the Sensory Memory, the
we knew was kept so that we could retrieve Short-term Memory and the Long-term
and use it as and when needed. But with the Memory. Each of these systems have different
advent of the computer, human memory came features and perform different functions with
to be seen as a system that processes respect to the sensory inputs (see Fig.6.1). Let
information in the same way as a computer us examine what these systems are:

Sensory Memory Short-term Long-term

Iconic (Sight) Memory Memory
Echoic (Sound) Store Capacity - Elaborative Permanent
and other senses Attention small Rehearsals Store Capacity -
Information Store Capacity - Duration - less unlimited
large than 30 seconds Duration - upto
Duration - less a lifetime
than one second

Fig.6.1 : The Stage Model of Memory

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Sensory Memory registers where the information decays
automatically in less than a second.
The incoming information first enters the
sensory memory. Sensory memory has a large
Long-term Memory
capacity. However, it is of very short duration,
i.e. less than a second. It is a memory system Materials that survive the capacity and
that registers information from each of the duration limitations of the STM finally enter
senses with reasonable accuracy. Often this the long-term memory (abbreviated as LTM)
system is referred to as sensory memories or which has a vast capacity. It is a permanent
sensory registers because information from all storehouse of all information that may be as
the senses are registered here as exact replica recent as what you ate for breakfast yesterday
of the stimulus. If you have experienced visual to as distant as how you celebrated your sixth
after-images (the trail of light that stays after birthday. It has been shown that once any
the bulb is switched off) or when you hear information enters the long-term memory
reverberations of a sound when the sound has store it is never forgotten because it gets
ceased, then you are familiar with iconic encoded semantically, i.e. in terms of the
(visual) or echoic (auditory) sensory registers. meaning that any information carries. What
you experience as forgetting is in fact retrieval
Short-term Memory failure; for various reasons you cannot retrieve
the stored information. You will read about
You will perhaps agree that we do not attend retrieval related forgetting later in this chapter.
to all the information that impinge on our So far we have only discussed the structural
senses. Information that is attended to enters features of the stage model. Questions which
the second memory store called the short-term still remain to be addressed are how does
memory (abbreviated as STM), which holds information travel from one store to another
small amount of information for a brief period and by what mechanisms it continues to stay
of time (usually for 30 seconds or less). in any particular memory store. Let us examine
Atkinson and Shif frin propose that the answers to these questions.
information in STM is primarily encoded How does information travel from one store
acoustically, i.e. in terms of sound and unless to another? As an answer to this question,
rehearsed continuously, it may get lost from Atkinson and Shiffrin propose the notion of
the STM in less than 30 seconds. Note that control processes which function to monitor
the STM is fragile but not as fragile as sensory the flow of information through various

B o x 6.1 Working Memory

In recent years, psychologists have suggested that holds a limited number of sounds and unless rehearsed
the short-term memory is not unitary, rather it may they decay within 2 seconds. The second component
consist of many components. This multi- visuospatial sketchpad stores visual and spatial
component view of short-term memory was first information and like phonological loop the capacity of
proposed by Baddeley (1986) who suggested that the sketchpad too is limited. The third component, which
the short-term memory is not a passive storehouse Baddeley calls the Central Executive, organises
but rather a work bench that holds a wide variety information from phonological loop, visuospatial
of memory materials that are constantly handled, sketchpad as well as from the long-term memory. Like
manipulated and transformed as people perform a true executive, it allocates attentional resources to be
various cognitive tasks. This work bench is called distributed to various information needed to perform a
the working memory. The first component of the given cognitive operation and monitors, plans, and
working memory is the phonological loop which controls behaviour.

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memory stores. As suggested earlier, all as many ways as possible. You can expand
informations which our senses receive are not the information in some kind of logical
registered; if that be the case, imagine the kind framework, link it to similar memories or else
of pressure that our memory system will have can create a mental image. Figure 6.1, that
to cope with. Only that information which is presents the stage model of memory, also
attended to enters the STM from sensory depicts the arrows to show the manner in
registers and in that sense, selective attention, which information travels from one stage to
as you have already read in Chapter 5, is the another.
first control process that decides what will Experiments, which were carried out to
travel from sensory registers to STM. Sense test the stage model of memory, have produced
impressions, which do not receive attention, mixed results. While some experiments
fade away quickly. The STM then sets into unequivocally show that the STM and LTM
motion another control process of are indeed two separate memory stores, other
maintenance rehearsal to retain the evidences have questioned their
information for as much time as required. As distinctiveness. For example, earlier it was
the name suggests, these kinds of rehearsals shown that in the STM information is encoded
simply maintain infor mation through acoustically, while in LTM it is encoded
repetition and when such repetitions semantically, but later experimental evidences
discontinue the information is lost. Another show that information can also be encoded
control process, which operates in STM to semantically in STM and acoustically in LTM.
expand its capacity, is Chunking. Through
chunking it is possible to expand the capacity
of STM which is otherwise 7+2. For example, Activity 6.1
if you are told to remember a string of digits
such as 194719492004 (note that the number I. Try to remember the following list of digits
exceeds the capacity of STM), you may create (individual digits)
19254981121
the chunks as 1947, 1949, and 2004 and
Now try to memorise them in the following
remember them as the year when India became groups:
independent, the year when the Indian 1 9 25 49 81 121
Constitution was adopted, and the year when Finally memorise them in the following
the tsunami hit the coastal regions of India and manner:
South East Asian countries. 12 32 52 72 92 112
From the STM, information enters the long- What difference do you observe?
term memory through elaborative rehearsals. II. Read out the lists given below in a row at the
As against maintenance rehearsals, which are speed of one digit per second to your friend
carried through silent or vocal repetition, this and ask her/him to repeat all the digits in
rehearsal attempts to connect the ‘to be the same order:
retained information’ to the already existing List Digits
infor mation in long-term memory. For 1 (6 digits) 2-6-3-8-3-4
example, the task of remembering the meaning 2 (7 digits) 7-4-8-2-4-1-2
of the word ‘humanity’ will be easier if the 3 (8 digits) 4-3-7-2-9-0-3-6
meanings of concepts such as ‘compassion’, 4 (10 digits) 9-2-4-1-7-8-2-6-5-3
5 (12 digits) 8-2-5-4-7-4-7-7-3-9-1-6
‘truth’ and ‘benevolence’ are already in place.
The number of associations you can create Remember that your friend will recall the
around the new information will determine its digits as soon as you finish the list. Note how
many digits are recalled. The memory score
permanence. In elaborative rehearsals one of your friend will be the number of digits
attempts to analyse the information in terms correctly recalled by her/him. Discuss your
of various associations it arouses. It involves findings with your classmates and teacher.
organisation of the incoming information in

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 Shallice and Warrington in the year 1970 produces memory that is fragile and is likely
had cited the case of a man known as KF who to decay rather quickly. However, there is a
met with an accident and damaged a portion third and the deepest level at which
of the left side of his cerebral hemisphere. information can be processed. In order to
Subsequently, it was found that his long-term ensure that the information is retained for a
memory was intact but the short-term memory longer period, it is important that it gets
was seriously affected. The stage model analysed and understood in terms of its
suggests that information are committed to the meaning. For instance, you may think of cat
long-term memory via STM and if KF’s STM as an animal that has furs, has four legs, a
was affected, how can his long-term memory tail, and is a mammal. You can also invoke an
be normal? Several other studies have also image of a cat and connect that image with
shown that memory processes are similar your experiences. To sum up, analysing
irrespective of whether any information is information in terms of its structural and
retained for a few seconds or for many years phonetic features amounts to shallower
and that memory can be adequately processing while encoding it in terms of the
understood without positing separate memory meaning it carries (the semantic encoding) is
stores. All these evidences led to the the deepest processing level that leads to
development of another conceptualisation memory that resists forgetting considerably.
about memory which is discussed below as Understanding memory as an outcome of
the second model of memory. the manner in which information is encoded
initially has an important implication for
learning. This view of memory will help you
LEVELS OF PROCESSING
realise that while you are learning a new
The levels of processing view was proposed lesson, you must focus on elaborating the
by Craik and Lockhart in 1972. This view meaning of its contents in as much detail as
suggests that the processing of any new possible and must not depend on rote
information relates to the manner in which it memorisation. Attempt this and you will soon
is perceived, analysed, and understood which realise that understanding the meaning of
in turn determines the extent to which it will information and reflecting on how it relates
eventually be retained. Although this view has to other facts, concepts, and your life
undergone many revisions since then, yet its experiences is a sure way to long-term
basic idea remains the same. Let us examine retention.
this view in greater detail.
Craik and Lockhart proposed that it is TYPES OF LONG-TERM MEMORY
possible to analyse the incoming information
at more than one level. One may analyse it in As you have read in Box 6.1, the short-term
terms of its physical or structural features. memory is now seen as consisting of more than
For example, one might attend only to the one component (working memory). In the same
shape of letters in a word say cat - inspite of way it is suggested that long-term memory too
whether the word is written in capital or small is not unitary because it contains a wide
letters or the colour of the ink in which it is variety of information. In view of this,
written. This is the first and the shallowest contemporary formulations envisage long-
level of processing. At an intermediate level term memory as consisting of various types.
one might consider and attend to the phonetic For instance, one major classification within
sounds that are attached to the letters and the LTM is that of Declarative and Procedural
therefore the structural features are (sometimes called nondeclarative) memories.
transformed into at least one meaningful word All information pertaining to facts, names,
say, a word cat that has three specific letters. dates, such as a rickshaw has three wheels or
Analysing information at these two levels that India became independent on August 15

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1947 or a frog is an amphibian or you and Episodic memory contains biographical
your friend share the same name, are part of details of our lives. Memories relating to our
declarative memory. Procedural memory, on personal life experiences constitute the
the other hand, refers to memories relating to episodic memory and it is for this reason that
procedures for accomplishing various tasks its contents are generally emotional in nature.
and skills such as how to ride a bicycle, how How did you feel when you stood first in your
to make tea or play basketball. Facts retained class? Or how angry was your friend and what
in the declarative memory are amenable to did s/he say when you did not fulfil a promise?
verbal descriptions while contents of If such incidents did actually happen in your
procedural memory cannot be described life, you perhaps will be able to answer these
easily. For example, when asked you can questions with reasonable accuracy. Although
describe how the game of cricket is played but such experiences are hard to forget, yet it is
if someone asks you how do you ride a bicycle, equally true that many events take place
you may find it difficult to narrate. continuously in our lives and that we do not
Tulving has proposed yet another remember all of them. Besides, there are
classification and has suggested that the painful and unpleasant experiences which are
declarative memory can either be Episodic or not remembered in as much detail as pleasant
Semantic. life experiences.

B o x 6.2 Long-term Memory Classification

The study of memory is a fascinating field and events contribute to it. During old age, the most recent
researchers have reported many new phenomena. years of life are likely to be well remembered. However,
The following phenomena show the complex and before this, around 30 years of age, decline in certain
dynamic nature of human memory. kinds of memory starts.
Flashbulb Memories : These are memories of Implicit Memory : Recent studies have indicated
events that are very arousing or surprising. Such that many of the memories remain outside the
memories are very detailed. They are like a photo conscious awareness of a person. Implicit memory is
taken with an advanced model camera. You can a kind of memory that a person is not aware of. It is
push the button, and after one minute you have a a memory that is retrieved automatically. One
recreation of the scene. You can look at the interesting example of implicit memory comes from
photograph whenever you want. Flashbulb the experience of typing. If someone knows typing
memories are like images frozen in memory and that means s/he also knows the particular letters
tied to particular places, dates, and times. on the keyboard. But many typists cannot correctly
Perhaps, people put in greater effort in the label blank keys in a drawing of a keyboard. Implicit
formation of these memories, and highlighting memories lie outside the boundaries of awareness.
details might lead to deeper levels of processing In other words, we are not conscious of the fact that
as well as offer more cues for retrieval. a memory or record of a given experience exists.
Autobiographical Memory : These are personal Nevertheless, implicit memories do influence our
memories. They are not distributed evenly behaviour. This kind of memory was found in patients
throughout our lives. Some periods in our lives suffering from brain injuries. They were presented a
produce more memories than others. For instance, list of common words. A few minutes later the patient
no memories are reported pertaining to early was asked to recall words from the list. No memory
childhood particularly during the first 4 to 5 years. was shown for the words. However, if s/he was
This is called childhood amnesia. There is a prompted to say a word that begins with these letters
dramatic increase in the frequency of memories and two letters are given, the patient was able to
just after early adulthood, i.e. in the twenties. recall words. Implicit memories are also observed in
Perhaps emotionality, novelty, and importance of people with normal memories.

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 Semantic memory, on the other hand, is various other classifications of long-term
the memory of general awareness and memory.
knowledge. All concepts, ideas and rules of
logic are stored in semantic memory. For
instance, it is because of semantic memory that
Activity 6.2
we remember the meaning of say ‘non-violence’
1. Think about your early school days. Write
or remember that 2+6=8 or the STD code of down two separate events that occurred during
New Delhi is 011 or that the word ‘elaphant’ is those days, and which you remember vividly.
misspelt. Unlike episodic memory this kind of Use separate sheets for writing about each
memory is not dated; you perhaps will not be event.
able to tell when you learnt the meaning of non- 2. Think of the first month in Class XI. Write down
violence or on which date you came to know two separate events that occurred during the
that Bangalore is the capital of Karnataka. month, and which you remember vividly. Use
separate sheets for each event.
Since the contents of semantic memory relate
to facts and ideas of general awareness and Compare these in terms of length, felt emotions,
knowledge, it is affect-neutral and not and coherence.
susceptible to forgetting. See Box 7.2 for

Activity 6.3
Write the sentences given below on separate cards. Invite some junior students to play this
game with you. Seat her/him across a table in front of you. Tell her/him “In this game you will
be shown some cards one by one at a steady pace, you have to read the question written on
each card and answer it in yes or no”.
Note down the answers.
1. Is the word written in capital letters? BELT
2. Does the word rhyme with the word crew? grew
3. Does the word fit in the following sentence?
“____________ study in school”. Students
4. Does the word rhyme with the word gold? mood
5. Is the word written in capital letters? bread
6. Does the word fit in the following sentence?
“The son of my uncle is my ____________.” cousin
7. Does the word fit in the following sentence?
My _________ is a vegetable. home
8. Does the word fit in the following sentence?
“__________ is a piece of furniture”. Potato
9. Is the word written in capital letters? TABLE
10. Does the word rhyme with the word wears? bears
11. Is the word written in capital letters? marks
12. Does the word rhyme with the word clear? five
13. Does the word fit in the following sentence?
“Children like to play __________ .” games
14. Does the word fit in the following sentence?
“People usually meet __________ in the bucket.” friends
15. Does the word fit in the following sentence?
“My class room is filled with ________.” shirts
16. Does the word fit in the following sentence?
“My mother gives me enough pocket __________.” money
After completing the task of reading the cards, ask the students to recall the words about which
the questions were asked. Note down the words recalled. Count the number of words recalled in
the structural, phonological, and semantic types of processing required by the question.
Discuss results with your teacher.

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 B o x 6.3 Methods of Memory M easurement

There are many ways in which memory is semantic memory is not amenable to any
measured experimentally. Since there are many forgetting because it embodies general knowledge
kinds of memories, any method appropriate for that we all possess. In sentence verification task,
studying one type of memory may not be suited the participants are asked to indicate whether the
for studying another. The major methods which given sentences are true or false. Faster the
are used for memory measurement are being participants respond, better retained is the
presented here : information needed to verify those sentences (see
a) Free Recall and Recognition (for measuring Activity 7.3 for use of this task in measurement of
facts/episodes related memory) : In free recall semantic knowledge).
method, participants are presented with c) Priming (for measuring information we cannot
some words which they are asked to report verbally) : We store many kinds of
memorise and after some time they are asked information that we can’t report verbally - for
to recall them in any order. The more they instance, information necessary to ride a bicycle
are able to recall, the better their memory is. or play a sitar. Besides, we also store information
In recognition, instead of being asked to that we are not aware of, which is described as
generate items, participants see the items implicit memory. In priming method, participants
that they had memorised along with are shown a list of words, such as garden,
distracter items (those that they had not seen) playground, house, etc. and then they are shown
and their task is to recognise which one of parts of these words like gar, pla, ho, along with
those they had learnt. The greater the parts of other words they had not seen.
number of recognition of ‘old items’, better is Participants complete parts of seen words more
the memory. quickly than parts of words they had not seen.
b) Sentence Verification Task (for measuring When asked, they are often unaware of this and
semantic memory) : As you have already read, report that they have only guessed.

NATURE CAUSES FORGETTING

100

AND OF
Amount retained (per cent)

Amount0forgotten (per cent)

Each one of us has experienced forgetting and

25
75

20 min.
its consequences almost routinely. Why do we Amount
1 hr. forgotten
forget? Is it because the information we commit
8.8 hrs.
50

50
to our long-term memory is somehow lost? Is
it because we did not memorise it well enough?
Is it because we did not encode the information 75
25

correctly or is it because during storage, it got Amount

distorted or misplaced? Many theories have retained
been forwarded to explain forgetting and now
you will read about those that seem plausible 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 30 31 100
and have received considerable attention.
Time since learning (in days)
The first systematic attempt to understand
the nature of forgetting was made by Hermann
Fig.6.2 : Ebbinghaus’s Curve of Forgetting
Ebbinghaus, who memorised lists of nonsense
syllables (CVC trigrams such as NOK or SEP As the figure indicates, the rate of forgetting
etc.) and then measured the number of trials is maximum in the first nine hours, particularly
he took to relearn the same list at varying time during the first hour. After that the rate slows
intervals. He observed that the course of down and not much is forgotten even after
forgetting follows a certain pattern which you many days. Although Ebbinghaus’s
can see in Figure 6.2. experiments constituted initial explorations

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and were not very sophisticated yet they have Forgetting due to Interference
influenced memory research in many
If forgetting is not due to trace decay then why
important ways. It is now upheld, almost does it take place? A theory of forgetting that
unanimously, that there is always a sharp drop has perhaps been the most influential one is
in memory and thereafter the decline is very the interference theory which suggests that
gradual. Let us now examine the main theories, forgetting is due to interference between various
which have been advanced to explain information that the memory store contains. This
forgetting. theory assumes that learning and memorising
involve forming of associations between items
Forgetting due to Trace Decay and once acquired, these associations remain
Trace decay (also called disuse theory) is the intact in the memory. People keep acquiring
earliest theory of forgetting. The assumption numerous such associations and each of these
here is that memory leads to modification in rests independently without any mutual
conflict. However, interference comes about at a
the central nervous system, which is akin to
time of retrieval when these various sets of
physical changes in the brain called memory
associations compete with each other for
traces. When these memory traces are not used
retrieval. This interference process will become
for a long time, they simply fade away and
clearer with a simple exercise. Request your
become unavailable. This theory has been friend to learn two separate lists of nonsense
proved inadequate on several grounds. If syllables (list A and list B) one after the other
forgetting takes place because memory traces and after a while ask her/him to recall the
decay due to disuse, then people who go to nonsense syllables of list A. If while trying to
sleep after memorising should forget more recall the items of list A, s/he recalls some of the
compared to those who remain awake, simply items of list B, it is because of the association
because there is no way in which memory formed while learning list B are interfering with
traces can be put to use during sleep. Results, the earlier association which were formed while
however, show just the opposite. Those who learning list A.
remain awake after memorising (waking There are atleast two kinds of interferences
condition) show greater forgetting than those that may result in forgetting. Interference can
who sleep (sleeping condition). be proactive (forward moving) which means
Because trace decay theory did not explain what you have learnt earlier interferes with the
forgetting adequately, it was soon replaced by recall of your subsequent learning or
another theory of forgetting which suggested retroactive (backward moving) which refers to
that new information that enters the long-term difficulty in recalling what you have learnt
memory interferes with the recall of earlier earlier because of learning a new material. In
memories and therefore, interference is the main other words, in proactive interference, past
cause of forgetting.

Table 6.1 Experimental Designs ffor

or Retroactive and PProactive
roactive Interf erence
Interference

Retroactive Interference Phase 1 Phase 2 Testing Phase

Experimental participant/group Learns A Learns B Recalls A
Control participant/group Learns A Rests Recalls A

Proactive Interference
Experimental participant/group Learns A Learns B Recalls B
Control participant/group Rests Learns B Recalls B

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 Box 6.4 Repressed Memories

Some individuals undergo experiences that are in highly generalised amnesia. One of the results of
traumatic. A traumatic experience emotionally such flights is the emergence of a disorder known as
hurts a person. Sigmund Freud posited that such ‘fugue state’. Persons who become victims of such a
experiences are repressed into the unconscious state assume a new identity, name, address, etc.
and are not available for retrieval from memory. They have two personalities and one knows nothing
It is a kind of repression — painful, threatening, about the other.
and embarrassing memories are held out of Forgetfulness or loss of memory under stress
consciousness. and high anxiety is not uncommon. Many hard
In some persons, traumatic experiences may working and ambitious students aspire for high
give rise to psychological amnesia. Some scores in final examinations and to achieve such
individuals experience crisis, and are utterly ends they put in long hours in studies. But when
incapable of coping with such events. They close they receive the question paper, they become
their eyes, ears and mind to such harsh realities extremely nervous and forget everything they had
of life, and take mental flight from them. It results prepared well.

learning interferes with the recall of later learning of meaningful words like hut, wasp, cottage,
while in retroactive interference the later learning gold, bronze, ant, etc. in which words belonged
interferes with the recall of past learning. For to six categories (like places of living, names of
example, if you know English and you find it insects, types of metal, etc.). If after a while you
difficult to learn French, it is because of proactive are asked to recall those you may recall a
interference and if, on the other hand, you couple of them but if during the second recall
cannot recall English equivalents of French attempt, you are also provided with category
words that you are currently memorising, then names, then you may find that your recall is
it is an example of retroactive interference. A near total. Category names in this example act
typical experimental design that is used to as retrieval cues. Besides category names, the
demonstrate proactive and retroactive physical context in which you learn also
interference has been presented in Table 6.1. provides effective retrieval cues.
Forgetting due to Retrieval Failure
ENHANCING MEMORY
Forgetting can occur not only because the
memory traces have decayed over time (as All of us desire to possess an excellent memory
suggested by the disuse theory) or because system that is robust and dependable. Who,
independent sets of stored associations
after all, likes to face situations of memory
compete at the time of recall (as suggested by
failures that lead to so much of anxiety and
the interference theory) but also because at the
embarrassment? After learning about various
time of recall, either the retrieval cues are
absent or they are inappropriate. Retrieval cues memory related processes, you certainly would
are aids which help us in recovering like to know how your memory can be
information stored in the memory. This view improved. There are a number of strategies for
was advanced by Tulving and his associates improving memory called mnemonics
who carried out several experiments to show (pronounced ni-mo-nicks) to help you improve
that contents of memory may become your memory. Some of these mnemonics
inaccessible either due to absence or involve use of images whereas others
inappropriateness of retrieval cues that are emphasise self-induced organisation of learned
available/employed at the time of recall. infor mation. You will now read about
Let us understand this with the help of an mnemonics and some suggestions given for
example. Suppose you have memorised a list memory improvement.

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 Activity 6.4
Given below are two lists of words. First memorise the list in such a way that you are able to
recall the words without any error. Now you take up the second list and memorise it to the
criterion of correct recall error. Forget about the list and read something else for an hour. Now
recall the words in the first list and write them down. Note the total number of words correctly
recalled and the number of words incorrectly recalled.
List 1
Goat Sheep Leopard
Jackal Monkey Camel
Mule Deer Squirrel
Horse Cheetah Wolf
Snake Rabbit Parrot
List 2
Pig Elephant Donkey
Pigeon Cobra Tiger
Mynah Lion Calf
Bears Fox Crow
Buffalo Mouse
Get the cooperation of one of your friends and request her/him to memorise the words of List 1
to the criterion as stated above. Request her/him to sing a song and have a cup of tea with you.
Keep her/him engaged in some conversation for an hour or so. Then request her/him to write
down the words s/he had memorised earlier.
Compare your recall with the one made by your friend.

Mnemonics using Images (b) The Method of Loci : In order to use the
method of loci, items you want to remember
Mnemonics using images require that you are placed as objects arranged in a physical
create vivid and interacting images of and
space in the form of visual images. This method
around the material you wish to remember. The
is particularly helpful in remembering items
two prominent mnemonic devices, which make
in a serial order. It requires that you first
interesting use of images, are the keyword
visualise objects/places that you know well in
method and the method of loci.
a specific sequence, imagine the objects you
(a) The Keyword Method : Suppose you want want to remember and associate them one by
to learn words of any foreign language. In one to the physical locations. For example,
keyword method, an English word (the suppose you want to remember bread, eggs,
assumption here is that you know English tomatoes, and soap on your way to the market,
language) that sounds similar to the word of a you may visualise a loaf of bread and eggs
foreign language is identified. This English placed in your kitchen, tomatoes kept on a
word will function as the keyword. For example, table and soap in the bathroom. When you
if you want to remember the Spanish word for enter the market all you need to do is to take a
duck which is ‘Pato’, you may choose ‘pot’ as mental walk along the route from your kitchen
the keyword and then evoke images of keyword to the bathroom recalling all the items of your
and the target word (the Spanish word you want shopping list in a sequence.
to remember) and imagine them as interacting.
You might, in this case, imagine a duck in a pot Mnemonics using Organisation
full of water. This method of learning words of a
foreign language is much superior compared Organisation refers to imposing certain order
to any kind of rote memorisation. on the material you want to remember.

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Mnemonics of this kind are helpful because of remembered are increased.
the framework you create while organisation
(b) Minimise Interference : Interference, as we
makes the retrieval task fairly easy.
have read, is a major cause of forgetting and
(a) Chunking : While describing the features therefore you should try to avoid it as much
of short-term memory, we noted how chunking as possible. You know that maximum
can increase the capacity of short-term interference is caused when very similar
memory. In chunking, several smaller units are materials are learned in a sequence. Avoid this.
combined to form large chunks. For creating Arrange your study in such a way that you do
chunks, it is important to discover some not learn similar subjects one after the other.
organisation principles, which can link smaller Instead, pick up some other subject unrelated
units. Therefore, apart from being a control to the previous one. If that is not possible,
mechanism to increase the capacity of short- distribute your learning/practice. This means
term memory, chunking can be used to giving yourself intermittent rest periods while
improve memory as well. studying to minimise interference.
(b) First Letter Technique : In order to employ (c) Give Yourself enough Retrieval Cues : While
the first letter technique, you need to pick up you learn something, think of retrieval cues
the first letter of each word you want to inherent in your study material. Identify them
remember and arrange them to form another and link parts of the study material to these
word or a sentence. For example, colours of a cues. Cues will be easier to remember
rainbow are remembered in this way compared to the entire content and the links
(VIBGYOR- that stands for Violet, Indigo, Blue, you have created between cues and the content
Green, Yellow, Orange and Red). will facilitate the retrieval process.
Mnemonic strategies for memory Thomas and Robinson have developed
enhancement are too simplistic and perhaps another strategy to help students in
underestimate complexities of memory tasks remembering more which they called the
and difficulties people experience while methods of PQRST. This acronym stands for
memorising. In place of mnemonics, a more Preview, Question, Read, Self-recitation, and
comprehensive approach to memory Test. Preview refers to giving a cursory look at
improvement has been suggested by many the chapter and familiarising oneself with its
psychologists. In such an approach, emphasis contents. Question means raising questions
is laid on applying knowledge about memory and seeking answers from the lesson. Now start
processes to the task of memory improvement. reading and look for answers of questions you
Let us examine some of these suggestions. had raised. After reading try to rewrite what
It is suggested that one must : you have read and at the end test how much
(a) Engage in Deep Level Processing : If you you have been able to understand.
want to memorise any information well, engage At the end, a note of caution must be
in deep level processing. Craik and Lockhart sounded. There is no one method that can solve
have demonstrated that processing all problems related to retention and bring
information in terms of meaning that they about an overnight memory improvement. In
convey leads to better memory as compared to
order to improve your memory, you need to
attending to their surface features. Deep
attend to a wide variety of factors which affect
processing would involve asking as many
your memory such as your health status, your
questions related to the information as
interest and motivation, your familiarity with
possible, considering its meaning and
examining its relationships to the facts you the subject matter and so on. In addition, you
already know. In this way, the new information must learn to use strategies for memory
will become a part of your existing knowledge improvement depending upon the nature of
framework and the chances that it will be memory tasks you are required to accomplish.

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 Key Terms
Chunking, Control process, Echoic memory,
Encoding, Episodic memory, Elaborative
rehearsals, Fugue state, Information
processing approach, Maintenance
rehearsals, Memory making, Mnemonics,
Semantic memory, Serial reproduction,
Working memory
Summary
• Memory is seen as consisting of three interrelated processes of encoding, storage and
retrieval.
• While encoding is registering the incoming information in a way that it becomes compatible
to the memory system, storage and retrieval refers to holding the information over a period
of time and bringing the information back to one’s awareness, respectively.
• The Stage Model of Memory compares memory processes with the working of a computer
and suggests that incoming information is processed through three distinct stages of sensory
memory, short-term memory and long-term memory.
• Levels of processing view of memory contends that the information can be encoded at any
of the three levels, namely, the structural, the phonetic and the semantic. If an information
is analysed and encoded semantically, which is the deepest level of processing, then it
leads to better retention.
• Long-term memory has been classified in many ways. One major classification is that of
declarative and procedural memory and another is that of episodic and semantic memory.
• Forgetting refers to loss of stored information over a period of time. After a material is
learnt, there is a sharp drop in its memory and then the decline is very gradual.
• Forgetting has been explained as resulting from trace decay and interference. It may also
be caused due to absence of appropriate cues at the time of retrieval.
• Mnemonics are strategies for improving memory. While some mnemonics use images,
other emphasise organisation of the learnt material.

Review Questions
1. What is the meaning of the terms ‘encoding’, ‘storage’ and ‘retrieval’?
2. How is information processed through sensory, short-term and long-term memory systems?
3. How are maintenance rehearsals different from elaborative rehearsals?
4. Differenciate between declarative and procedural memories?
5. Why does forgetting take place?
6. How is retrieval related forgetting different from forgetting due to interference?
7. Define mnemonics? Suggest a plan to improve your own memory.

Project Idea
Recall and write down an event of your life that you remember very clearly. Also request
others (those who were participants of that event such as your brother/sister, parents or
other relatives/friends) to do the same. Compare the two recalled versions and look for
discrepancies and similarities. Try to reason why there are similarities and discrepancies.

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 Chapter
7 Thinking

After reading this chapter, you would be able to

• describe the nature of thinking and reasoning,
• demonstrate an understanding of some cognitive processes involved in
problem solving and decision-making,
• understand the nature and process of creative thinking and learn ways
of enhancing it,
• understand the relationship between language and thought, and
• describe the process of language development and its use.

Contents
Introduction
Nature of Thinking
Building Blocks of Thought
Culture and Thinking (Box 7.1)
The Processes of Thinking
Problem Solving
Reasoning
Decision-making
Nature and Process of Creative Thinking
Nature of Creative Thinking
Lateral Thinking (Box 7.2)
Process of Creative Thinking
But whatever the process, the result is Strategies for Creative Thinking
wonderful, gradually from naming an Thought and Language
object we advance step-by-step until Development of Language and Language Use
we have traversed the vast difference Bilingualism and Multilingualism (Box 7.3)
between our first stammered syllable
Key Terms
and the sweep of thought in a Summary
line of Shakespeare. Review Questions
Project Ideas
– Helen Keller

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 Introduction
Think for a moment: how many times and in what ways you are using the word
‘think’ in your day-to-day conversations. Sometimes probably, you use it as a
synonym to remember (I can’t think of her name), pay attention (think about it ) or
convey uncertainty (I think today my friend will visit me). ‘Think’ has a wide range
of meanings which cover a number of psychological processes. However, in
psychology, thinking is a core subject area with an independent existence and a
meaning of its own. In this chapter, we will discuss thinking as a mental activity
directed at solving a problem, making inferences, judging certain facts, and deciding
and choosing between options. Further, the nature and characteristics of creative
thinking, what it involves and how it can be developed will also be discussed.
Have you ever seen a small child building a tower with blocks or sand? The child
would build a tower, dismantle it, make another one and so on and so forth. While
doing this, the child sometimes talks to herself or himself. The speech would primarily
include the steps s/he is following or want to follow (“not this”, “a little small”, “a
tree at the back”), evaluation of the design (“nice”). You also might have experienced
talking to yourself while solving a problem. Why do we talk while we think? What
is the relationship between language and thought? In this chapter, we shall also be
discussing the development of language and the relationship between language
and thought. Before starting our discussion on thinking, it is necessary to discuss
thinking as the base of human cognition.

Thinking is mostly organised and goal

NATURE OF THINKING
directed. All day-to-day activities, ranging from
Thinking is the base of all cognitive activities cooking to solving a math problem have a goal.
or processes and is unique to human beings. One desires to reach the goal by planning,
It involves manipulation and analysis of recalling the steps that one has already
information received from the environment. followed in the past if the task is familiar or
For example, while seeing a painting, you are inferring strategies if the task is new.
not simply focusing on the colour of the Thinking is an internal mental process,
painting or the lines and strokes, rather you which can be inferred from overt behaviour.
are going beyond the given text in interpreting If you see a chess player engrossed in thinking
its meaning and you are trying to relate the for several minutes before making a move, you
information to your existing knowledge. cannot observe what he is thinking. You can
Understanding of the painting involves simply infer what he was thinking or what
creation of new meaning that is added to your strategies he was trying to evaluate, from his
knowledge. Thinking, therefore, is a higher next move.
mental process through which we manipulate
and analyse the acquired or existing Building Blocks of Thought
information. Such manipulation and analysis We already know that thinking relies on
occur by means of abstracting, reasoning, knowledge we already possess. Such
imagining, problem solving, judging, and knowledge is represented either in the form
decision-making. of mental images or words. People usually

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think by means of mental images or words. experience in reading a map, remembering the
Suppose you are travelling by road to reach a different places and subsequently locating
place, which you had visited long back. You them in a physical map in your examination.
would try to use the visual representation of In doing this, you were mostly forming and
the street and other places. On the other hand, using mental images. An image is a mental
when you want to buy a storybook your choice representation of a sensory experience; it
would depend upon your knowledge about can be used to think about things, places,
different authors, themes, etc. Here, your and events. You can try out Activity 7.1, which
thinking is based on words or concepts. We demonstrates how images are formed.
shall first discuss mental image and then move
on to concepts as the base of human thought. Activity 7.1
Mental Image Give a map, like the following in Fig.7.2a, to your
friend to observe for 2 minutes and tell her/him
Suppose, I ask you to imagine a cat sitting that later on s/he will be asked to locate the
on a tree with its tail slightly raised and marked places in a blank map. Then present a
curved. You would most likely try to form a map, like the one in Fig.7.2b, with no indications
visual image of the whole situation, of the different places. Ask your friend to locate
the places s/he has seen in the first map. Then
something similar to what the girl in the
ask how s/he was able to locate the places. S/he
picture is doing (Fig.7.1). Or think of another will probably be able to tell you the way s/he
formed an image of the whole situation.

Fig.7.2a : A Map Showing Places

Fig.7.1 : The Girl forming a Mental Image

situation where you are asked to imagine Concepts

yourself standing in front of the Taj Mahal Whenever we come across an object or event
and describe what you see. While doing this familiar or unfamiliar, we try to identify the
you are actually forming a visual image of object or event by extracting its characteristics,
the event. You are probably trying to see matching it with the already existing category
through your mind’s eye, just like the way of objects and events. For example, when we
you would see a picture. Why is it useful to see an apple, we categorise it as fruit, when
draw a map while giving directions to we see a table we categorise it as furniture,
someone? Try to remember your earlier when we see a dog we categorise it as an

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 would also conclude that it would bite
strangers. A concept thus, is a mental
representation of a category. It refers to a class
of objects, ideas or events that share common
properties.
Why do we need to form concepts?
Concept formation helps us in organising our
knowledge so that whenever we need to
access our knowledge, we can do it with less
time and effort. It is something similar to what
we do to organise our things at home.
Children who are very systematic and
organised, put their things such as books,
note books, pen, pencil, and other accessories
in specific places in their cupboard, so that
in the morning, they don’t have to struggle to
Fig.7.2b : A Blank Map Up Side Down find a particular book or the geometry box.
animal, and so on. When we see a new object, In the library too you have seen books
we try to look for its characteristics, match organised as per subject areas and labelled
them with characteristics of an existing so that you would be able to find them quickly
category, and if matching is perfect we give it with less effort. Thus, for making our thought
the name of that category. For example, while process quick and efficient, we form concepts
walking on the road you come across an and categorise objects and events.
unfamiliar quadruped of a very small size, with
a face like a dog, wagging its tail and barking THE PROCESSES OF THINKING
at strangers. You would no doubt identify it
as a dog and probably think that it is of a new So far we have been discussing what we mean
breed, which you have never seen before. You by thinking and what is the nature of thinking.

B o x 7.1 Culture and Thinking

Our beliefs, values, and social practices influence object separately which is called “analytical thinking”.
the way we think. In a study conducted on Asian people (Japanese, Chinese, Koreans) think more
American and Asian students, pictures like the about the relationship between objects and
following (underwater scene) were used. The backgrounds, which is called “holistic thinking”.
subjects were asked to have a look at the scene
for a brief period and then were asked to describe
what they saw. The American students focussed
on the biggest, brightest, and most outstanding
features (for example, “the large fish swimming
to the right”). In contrast, the Japanese students
focussed on the background (for example, “the
bottom was rocky” or “the water was green”).
Based on these kinds of findings, researchers
concluded that Americans usually analyse each

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We also learnt that thinking uses mental friend who has just arrived at your place. In
images and concepts as the base. Now we will problem solving there is an initial state (i.e. the
discuss how thinking proceeds in a particular problem) and there is an end state (the goal).
area: problem solving. These two anchors are connected by means of
several steps or mental operations. Table 7.1
would clarify your understanding of various
PROBLEM SOLVING steps through which one solves a problem.
How do we proceed while repairing a broken You can try out the problems given in
Activity 7.2 with your friends and observe how
cycle, or planning a summer tour or patching
they are approaching the problem. You can ask
up a broken friendship? In some cases the
them the steps they follow while solving these
solution is reached quickly as in repair of a
problems.
bicycle based on immediately available cues
whereas others are more complex and require Obstacles to Solving Problems
time and effort. Problem solving is thinking that
is goal-directed. Almost all our day-to-day Two major obstacles to solving a problem are
activities are directed towards a goal. Here it is mental set and lack of motivation.
important to know that problems are not
always in the form of obstacles or hurdles that Mental Set
one faces. It could be any simple activity that Mental set is a tendency of a person to solve
you perform to reach a defined goal, for problems by following already tried mental
example, preparing a quick snack for your operations or steps. Prior success with a

Table 7.1 Mental Operations I nvolved in Solving a PProblem

roblem

Let us look at the problem of organising a play in school on the occasion of Teachers’ Day.
Problem solving would involve the following sequence.
Mental operation Nature of problem
1. Identify the problem A week is left for teachers’ day and you are given
the task of organising a play.
2. Represent the problem Organising a play would involve identification of
an appropriate theme, screening of actors,
actresses, arranging money, etc.
3. Plan the solution: Search and survey various available themes for
Set sub-goals a play, and consult teachers and friends who have
the expertise. The play to be decided, based on
such considerations as cost, duration, suitability
for the occasion, etc.
4. Evaluate all solutions (plays) Collect all the information/stage rehearsal.
5. Select one solution and execute it Compare and verify the various options to get the
best solution (the play).
6. Evaluate the outcome If the play (solution) is appreciated, think about
the steps you have followed for future reference
for yourself as well as for your friends.
7. Rethink and redefine problems After this special occasion you can still think about
and solutions ways to plan a better play in future.

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 experienced this while solving mathematical
Activity 7.2 problems. After completing a couple of
questions, you form an idea of the steps that
Problem 1
Anagrams : Rearrange the letters to form a word. are required to solve these questions and
(You can also construct some similar words) subsequently you go on following the same
NAGMARA steps, until a point where you fail. At this point
BOLMPER you may experience difficulty in avoiding the
SLEVO already used steps. Those steps would
STGNIH
interfere in your thought for new strategies.
TOLUSONI
However, in day-to-day activities we often rely
Problem 2 on past experiences with similar or related
Joining dots : Without lifting your pencil from the problems.
paper, connect all nine dots by drawing four Like mental set, functional fixedness in
straight lines. problem solving occurs when people fail to
solve a problem because they are fixed on a
thing’s usual function. If you have ever used a
hardbound book to hammer a nail, then you
have overcome functional fixedness.

Lack of Motivation
Problem 3 People might be great at solving problems, but
Try out the ‘water in three bottles’ activity with
your friend.
all their skills and talents are of no use if they
There are three bottles, A, B, and C. Bottle A are not motivated. Sometimes people give up
can hold 21 ml., B can hold 127 ml., and C can easily when they encounter a problem or failure
hold 3 ml. The task for your friend is to get 100 ml in implementing the first step. Therefore, there
of water with the help of these three bottles. There is a need to persist in their effort to find a
are six more problems like this. These seven
solution.
problems are given below.
Problems The required The capacity of the
quantity bottles in ml. REASONING
A B C
If you find a person desperately running on
1. 100 21 127 3 the railway platform, you could infer a number
2. 99 14 163 25 of things such as: he is running to catch the
3. 5 18 43 10
4. 21 9 42 6
train which is about to leave, he wants to see
5. 31 20 59 4 off his friend sitting in the train which is about
6. 20 23 49 3 to leave, he has left his bag in the train and
7. 25 28 76 3 wants to get in before the train leaves the
(Answers are given at the end of the chapter) station. To figure out why this person is
running, you could use different kinds of
reasoning, deductive or inductive.
particular strategy would sometimes help in
Deductive and Inductive Reasoning
solving a new problem. However, this tendency
also creates a mental rigidity that obstructs the Since your previous experience indicates that
problem solver to think of any new rules or people run on the platform to catch a train,
strategies. Thus, while in some situations you would conclude that this person is getting
mental set can enhance the quality and speed late and is running to catch the train.
of problem solving, in other situations it The kind of reasoning that begins with an
hinders problem solving. You might have assumption is called deductive reasoning.

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Thus deductive reasoning begins with making conclude that the person had left his bag in
a general assumption that you know or believe the train. One mistake you would probably
to be true and then drawing specific conclusion make here is jumping to a conclusion without
based on this assumption. In other words, it is knowing all possible facts.
reasoning from general to particular. Your From the above discussion we can conclude
general assumption is that people run on the that reasoning is the process of gathering and
railway platform only when they are getting late analysing information to arrive at conclusions.
for the train. The man is running on the In this sense, reasoning is also a form of
platform. Therefore, he is getting late for the problem solving. The goal is to determine what
train. One mistake that you are making (and conclusion can be drawn from certain given
generally people do commit such mistakes in information.
deductive reasoning) is that you (they) assume Most cases of scientific reasoning are
but do not always know if the basic statement inductive in nature. Scientists and even
or assumption is true. If the base information lay persons consider a number of instances
is not true, i.e. people also run on the platform and try to determine what general rule covers
for other reasons then your conclusion them all. Think of yourself using your
would be invalid or wrong. Look at the mouse knowledge of problem solving steps discussed
in Fig.7.3. earlier in planning for a play, or conducting a
project. Your inductive reasoning is being
applied here.
legs, Analogy is another form of reasoning
ve four ,
ats h
a legs which involves four parts, A is to B as C is to
All c ave four a cat D with the relation between the first two parts
Ih I am
efore
ther being the same as the relation between the
last two. For example, water is to fish as air is
to human; white is to snow as black is to
coal. Analogies can be helpful in solving
problems. They help us in identifying and
visualising the salient attributes of an
object or event, which would otherwise go
unnoticed.

D ECISION - MAKING
Fig.7.3 : Is the mouse making a True and
Valid Conclusion?
Inductive and deductive reasonings allow us
Another way to figure out why the man is to make judgments. In judgment we draw
running on the platform is to use inductive conclusions, form opinions, evaluate events,
reasoning. Sometimes you would analyse other objects, based on knowledge and available
possible reasons and observe what the man is evidences. Consider this example, the man is
actually doing and then draw a conclusion very talkative, likes to mix with people, can
about his behaviour. Reasoning, that is based convince others with ease — he would be most
on specific facts and observation, is called suitable for a salesperson’s job. Our judgment
inductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning is of this person is based on the specific
drawing a general conclusion based on characteristics of an expert salesperson. Here
particular observation. In the earlier example, we will discuss how we make decisions and
you observed the other person’s subsequent judgments.
action or actions such as: entering into the Sometimes judgments are automatic and
train compartment and returning with a bag. require no conscious effort by the person and
Based on your observation you would occur as a matter of habit, for example,

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applying brakes on seeing the red light. differ. In real life situations we take quick
However, evaluating a novel or a literary text decisions and therefore, it is not possible always
requires reference to your past knowledge and to evaluate every situation thoroughly and
experience. Judging the beauty of a painting exhaustively.
would involve your personal preferences. Thus
our judgments are not independent of our
NATURE AND PROCESS OF CREATIVE
beliefs and attitudes. We also make changes
in our judgments based on newly acquired THINKING
information. Consider this example. A new You might have wondered at times how some
teacher joins the school, students make on- one for the first time, thought of acts like
the-spot judgment of the teacher as being very
planting a seed, or devising a wheel, or
strict. However, in subsequent classes, they
decorating the walls of caves with drawings,
closely interact with the teacher and make
etc. Perhaps not satisfied with the old ways of
changes in their evaluation. Now they
carrying out day-to-day activities, such
judge the teacher to be extremely student-
persons thought of something original. There
friendly.
are countless others whose creativity has led
Many of the problems you solve each day
to the present day scientific and technological
require you to make decisions. What to wear
progress that we now enjoy. Music, painting,
for the party? What to eat for dinner? What to
poetry, and other forms of art that give us
say to your friend? The answer to all these lies
pleasure and joy, are all products of creative
in picking or choosing one of several choices.
thinking.
In decision-making, we sometimes choose
among options based on choices of personal You might have heard about A.D. Karve, a
significance. Judgment and decision-making botanist from our country, who got the UK’s
are interrelated processes. In decision-making top energy award for devising a smokeless
the problem before us is to choose among ‘Chullah’. He converted dry, useless sugarcane
alternatives by evaluating the cost and benefit leaves into clean fuel. You might have also
associated with each alternative. For example, heard of Class XI student Ashish Panwar, who
when you have the option to choose between won a bronze medal for assembling a five feet
psychology and economics as subjects in tall robot at the First International Robotics
Class XI, your decision would be based upon Olympiad held at Glasgow. These are only a
your interest, future prospects, availability of few examples of creativity. Try to think of some
books, efficiency of teachers, etc. You could other examples of creativity in different fields.
evaluate them by talking to seniors and faculty It is important to remember that creative
members and attending a few classes, etc. thinking is not always expressed in
Decision-making differs from other types of extraordinary work. One does not have to be a
problem solving. In decision-making we scientist or an artist to be a creative thinker.
already know the various solutions or choices Everyone has the potential to be creative.
and one has to be selected. Suppose your Creative thinking can be applied in almost any
friend is a very good player of badminton. S/ area of human activity at different levels. It
he is getting an opportunity to play at the state could be reflected in activities like writing,
level. At the same time the final examination is teaching, cooking, enacting roles, story telling,
approaching and s/he needs to study hard for conversation, dialogues, asking questions,
it. S/he will have to choose between two options, playing games, trying to solve day-to-day
practising for badminton or studying for the problems, organising activities, helping others
final examination. In this situation her/his resolve conflicts, and so on. This concept of
decision will be based upon evaluation of all ‘Everyday Creativity’, which is reflected in one’s
possible outcomes. way of perceiving thinking and problem solving,
You would observe that people differ in is different from the ‘special talent creativity’
their priorities and therefore their decisions will seen in outstanding creative achievements.

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Nature of Creative Thinking many answers. A few such questions are given
below:
Creative thinking is distinguished from other
• What are the various uses of cloth?
types of thinking by the fact that it involves
• What improvements will you suggest in a
the production of novel and original ideas or
chair so that it becomes more comfortable
solutions to problems. Sometimes, creative
and aesthetically pleasing?
thinking is understood just as a new way of
• What will happen if examinations are
thinking or thinking differently. However, it is
abolished in schools?
important to know that, besides novelty,
Answers to the above questions require
originality is also an important characteristic divergent thinking which is an open-ended
of creative thinking. Every year new models thinking where the individual can think of
of household appliances, tape-recorders, cars, different answers to the questions or problems
scooters, and television sets produced may not in terms of her/his experiences. Such kind of
be original unless unique features are added thinking helps in producing novel and original
to these products. Creative thinking thus ideas.
refers to originality and uniqueness of ideas Divergent thinking abilities generally
or solutions that did not previously exist. include fluency, flexibility, originality, and
Creative thinking is also generally elaboration.
characterised by what Bruner calls “effective • Fluency is the ability to produce many
surprise”. If the product or idea is unusual, ideas for a given task or a problem. The
the response of most who experience it is one more ideas a person produces, the higher
of instant surprise or of being startled. his fluency ability. For example, more the
Another important criterion that number of uses of a paper cup, more would
characterises creative thinking is its be the fluency.
appropriateness in a particular context. • Flexibility indicates variety in thinking. It
Simply thinking of being different without any may be thinking of different uses of an
purpose, doing things in one’s own ways, being object, or different interpretation of a
non-conformist, indulging in fantasy without picture, story or different ways of solving a
any purpose or coming out with a bizarre idea, problem. In case of uses of a paper cup, for
is at times mistaken for creative thinking. example, one may give an idea to use it as
Researchers tend to agree that thinking is said a container or to draw a circle, etc.
to be creative when it is reality-oriented,
appropriate, constructive, and socially
desirable.
J.P. Guilford, a pioneer in creativity
research, proposed two types of thinking:
convergent and divergent. Convergent
thinking refers to thinking that is required to
solve problems which have only one correct
answer. The mind converges to the correct
solution. To illustrate, look at the question
given below. It is based on a number series,
where you have to find the next number. Only
one right answer is expected.
Q. 3,6,9….. what will come next?
Ans. 12.
Now you try to think of certain questions
for which there is no one right answer but Fig.7.4 : Thinking Divergently

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 B o x 7.2 Lateral Thinking

Edward de Bono has used the term ‘lateral the ‘Six thinking hats’ technique to stimulate different
thinking’ to what Guilford termed as divergent modes of thinking. One can put on or take off these
thinking. He makes a distinction between vertical hats according to the type of thinking required to be
thinking and lateral thinking. Vertical thinking used. White hat means gathering information, facts,
involves mental operations that move in a straight figures, and filling gaps in information. Red hat covers
line back and forth between lower and higher expression of feelings, and emotions on the subject.
level concepts whereas lateral thinking involves Black hat represents judgment, caution and logic.
looking for alternative ways of defining and Yellow hat covers thinking on what will work and
interpreting problems. He states “vertical (logical) why it will be beneficial. Green hat is for creativity,
thinking digs the same hole deeper, i.e. thinking alternatives and changes. Blue hat represents
deeper in the same direction; lateral thinking is thinking about the process and not the ideas as such.
concerned with digging a hole in another place”. The ‘six thinking hats’ reflect different perspectives
De Bono suggests that lateral thinking can help from which an issue or problem is viewed. The
make mental leaps and is likely to create a technique can be used individually as well as in
number of ways of thinking. De Bono developed groups.

• Originality is the ability to produce ideas are important for creative thinking. Divergent
that are rare or unusual by seeing new thinking is essential in generating a wide range
relationships, combining old ideas with new of ideas. Convergent thinking is important to
ones, looking at things from different identify the most useful or appropriate idea.
perspectives etc. Research has shown that
fluency and flexibility are the necessary Activity 7.3
conditions for originality. The more and
varied ideas one produces, the greater the Frame five different kinds of questions requiring
divergent thinking on issues and problems related
likelihood of original ideas.
to traffic management/pollution/corruption/
• Elaboration is the ability that enables a illiteracy/poverty. Share and discuss in the class.
person to go into details and workout
implications of new ideas.
Divergent thinking abilities facilitate Process of Creative Thinking
generation of a variety of ideas which may not
seem to be related. For example, what are the In recent years, more and more attention has
common ideas for enhancing food production? been given to the way the human mind
The likely answers would be related to quality operates. Research has made it clear that
thinking of new and unusual ideas involve
of seeds, fertilizers, irrigation, and so on. If
more than a flash of insight. There are stages
someone thinks of cultivation in a desert for
before and after the new ideas come.
extracting protein from weeds, it would be a
The starting point in creative process is the
remote idea. The association here is between
need to think or bring out something new
‘food production’ and ‘desert’ or ‘weeds’. which initiates the effort. Not everyone
Ordinarily, we do not associate these together. experiences this need, as one can be happy and
But, if we let our mind free to seek new and contented, in carrying out routine work. The
remote associations, a number of combination need for search of new ideas and solutions
of ideas may arise out of which one or two may arises from sensing problems and gaps in
turn out to be original. You must remember information. The process of creative thinking
that both convergent and divergent thinking begins with the preparation stage that

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 solutions are tested and judged. Here,
convergent thinking plays its role in selecting
the appropriate idea or solution that works.

Strategies for Creative Thinking

Research on characteristics of creative people
has revealed that there are certain attitudes,
dispositions, and skills which facilitate creative
thinking. Here are some strategies to help you
enhance your creative thinking abilities and
skills:
• Become more aware and sensitive to be
able to notice and respond to feelings,
sights, sounds, textures around you. Spot
problems, missing information, anomalies,
gaps, deficiencies, and so on. Try to notice
Fig.7.5 : The Creative Process
contradictions and incompleteness in
requires one to understand the task or problem situations that others may not do. For this,
in hand, analyse the problem, and become cultivate the habit of wider reading,
aware of the background facts and related exposure to a variety of information, and
information. The process evokes curiosity and develop the art of asking questions,
excitement to think more and more in different pondering over the mysteries of situations
directions. The person tries to look at the task and objects.
or problem from different angles and • Generate as many ideas, responses,
viewpoints. Here, divergent thinking abilities solutions or suggestions on a given task or
discussed earlier play their role to help one situation to increase your flow of thoughts.
Try deliberately to look for multiple angles
extend in new directions.
of a task and situation to increase flexibility
Coming back to the process, when the
in your thinking. It could be, for example,
person is trying to generate alternative ideas
thinking of alternative arrangements of
and trying to view the problem or task from an
furniture in a room to generate more space,
unusual perspective, there may be a feeling of
different ways of conversing with people,
getting stuck. One may even get disgusted with
looking for costs and benefits of a course
failure and may leave the problem or the task
of study or career, looking for ways of
for sometime. This is the stage of incubation.
dealing with an angry friend, helping
Research shows that creative ideas may not
others, etc.
occur immediately during incubation when the
• Osborn’s Brainstorming technique can be
individual is not consciously thinking about used to increase fluency and flexibility of
the problem but seeking relaxation from ideas to open-ended situations.
conscious effort. They may occur or strike Brainstorming is based on the principle
when a person is doing something else, for that producing ideas should be kept
example, going to sleep, waking up, taking a separate from the evaluation of their worth.
bath or just walking along. Followed by The basic assumption is to let the minds
incubation is the stage of illumination - the think freely and the tendency to put
‘Aha’! or ‘I have found it’ experience, the judgment on the worth of ideas may be
moment we normally associate with emergence postponed, i.e. imagination should be given
of creative ideas. There usually is, a feeling of priority over judgment till all the ideas are
excitement, even satisfaction, of having found exhausted. This helps in increasing the
a creative idea. Last is the stage of verification fluency of ideas and piling up alternatives.
when the worth or appropriateness of ideas or Brainstorming can be practised by playing

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 brainstorming games with family members (linguistic determinism). Experimental
and friends keeping its principles in mind. evidence, however, maintains that it is possible
Use of checklists and questions often to have the same level or quality of thoughts
provide a new twist for ideas like, What in all languages depending upon the
other changes? What else? In how many availability of linguistic categories and
ways could it be done? What could be the structures. Some thoughts may be easier in
other uses of this object? and so on. one language compared to another.

Thought as Determinant of Language

THOUGHT AND LANGUAGE
The noted Swiss psychologist, Jean Piaget
Till now, we have discussed the nature and believed that thought not only determines
meaning of thinking and how thinking is based language, but also precedes it. Piaget argued
on images and concepts. We have also that children form an internal representation
discussed the various processes of thought. of the world through thinking. For example,
Throughout the discussion did you feel that when children see something and later copy
words or language are essential to express what it (a process called imitation), thinking does
we think? This section examines the take place, which does not involve language.
relationship between language and thought: A child’s observation of other’s behaviour and
that language determines thought, that thought imitation of the same behaviour, no doubt
determines language, and that thought and involves thinking but not language. Language
language have different origins. Let us examine is just one of the vehicles of thinking. As actions
these three viewpoints in some detail. become internalised, language may affect
children’s range of symbolic thinking but is not
Language as Determinant of Thought necessary for the origins of thought. Piaget
In Hindi and other Indian languages we use a believed that though language can be taught
number of different words for various kinship to children, understanding of the words require
relationships. We have different terms for knowledge of the underlying concepts (i.e.
mother’s brother, father’s elder brother, father’s thinking). Thus, thought is basic, and
younger brother, mother’s sister’s husband, necessary if language is to be understood.
father’s sister’s husband, and so on. An English
person uses just one word uncle to describe Different Origins of Language and
all these kinship relationships. In the English Thought
language there are dozens of words for colours The Russian psychologist, Lev Vyogotsky,
whereas some tribal languages have only two argued that thoughts and language develop
to four colour terms. Do such differences in a child separately until about two years of
matter for how we think? Does an Indian child age, when they merge. Before two years thought
find it easier to think about and differentiate is preverbal and is experienced more in action
between various kinship relationships (Piaget’s sensory motor stage). The child’s
compared to her English-speaking utterances are more automatic reflexes - crying
counterpart? Does our thinking process when uncomfortable - than thought-based.
depend on how we describe it in our language? Around two years of age, the child expresses
Benjamin Lee Whorf was of the view that thought verbally and her/his speech reflects
language determines the contents of thought. rationality. Now children are able to
This view is known as linguistic relativity manipulate thoughts using soundless speech.
hypothesis. In its strong version, this He believed that during this period the
hypothesis holds what and how individuals development of language and thinking become
can possibly think is determined by the interdependent; the development of conceptual
language and linguistic categories they use thinking depends upon the quality of inner

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speech and vice versa. Thought is used without be discussing the salient features of language
language when the vehicle of thinking is non- acquisition.
verbal such as visual or movement-related. You have been using language all your life.
Language is used without thought when Now try to define accurately what it is that you
expressing feelings or exchanging pleasantries, have been using. Language consists of a system
for example “Good morning! How are you?” of symbols organised by means of certain rules
“Very well, I am fine”. When the two functions that we use to communicate with each other.
overlap, they can be used together to produce You will notice that language has three basic
verbal thought and rational speech. characteristics: (a) the presence of symbols, (b)
a set of rules to organise these symbols, and
(c) communication. Here we shall be discussing
DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE AND
these three characteristics of language.
LANGUAGE USE The first characteristic of language is that
it involves symbols. Symbols represent
Meaning and Nature of Language
something or someone else, for example, the
In the previous section we discussed the place where you live is called ‘home’, the place
relationship between language and thought. where you study is called ‘school’, the thing
In this section, we will examine how human that you eat is called ‘food’. Words like home,
beings acquire and use language in different school, food, and numerous other words do
age groups. Think for a moment: what would not in themselves carry any meaning. When
have happened if you did not have a language these words are associated with some objects/
to express whatever you wanted to say? In the events they attain meaning and we begin
absence of language you will not be able to recognising those objects/events, etc. with
communicate your ideas and feelings, nor will particular words (symbols). We use symbols
you have the opportunity to know or have while thinking.
access to what others think and feel. As a child The second characteristic of language is
when you first started saying “ma..ma..ma.”, that it involves rules. While combining two or
it not only gave you tremendous boost to more words we usually follow a definite and
continue repeating this activity but also was a accepted order of presenting these words. For
great moment of joy for your parents and other example, one would most likely say “I am going
care-givers. Slowly you learnt to say ‘ma’ and to school” and not “school am going I”.
‘papa’ and sometime later combined two or The third characteristic of language is that
more words to communicate your needs, it is used for communicating one’s thought,
feelings, and thoughts. You learnt words ideas, intentions, and feelings to others. On
appropriate for situations and also learnt the many occasions we communicate through the
rules of putting these words in sentences. use of our body parts, called gestures or
Initially you learnt to communicate in the postures. This type of communication is called
language being used at home (usually the non-verbal communication. Some people who
mother-tongue), went to school and learnt the cannot use oral speech, like the ones with
formal language of instruction (in many cases severe hearing and speech problems,
this language is different from the mother- communicate through signs. Sign language is
tongue), and were promoted to higher grades also a form of language.
and learnt other languages. If you look back,
you will realise that your journey from crying Development of Language
and saying “ma..ma..ma” to the attainment of
Language is a complex system and unique to
mastery in not one but many languages, has
human beings. Psychologists have tried to
been a fascinating one. In this section we shall teach sign language, use of symbols to

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chimpanzees, dolphins, parrots, etc. But it is and vowel sounds (for example, da—, aa—,
observed that, human language is more ba—). By about nine months of age these
complex, creative, and spontaneous than the sounds get elaborated to strings of some sound
system of communication other animals can combinations, such as ‘dadadadadada’ into
learn. There is also a great deal of regularity repetitive patterns called echolalia. While the
with which children all over the world seem to early babblings are random or accidental in
be learning the language or languages to nature, the later babblings seem to be imitative
which they are exposed. When you compare of adult voices. Children show some
individual children, you find that they differ a understanding of a few words by the time they
great deal in the rate of their language are six months old. Around the first birthday
development as well as in how they go about (the exact age varies from child to child) most
it. But when you take a general view of children enter the one-word-stage. Their first
children’s acquisition of language all over the word usually contains one syllable – ma or da,
world you find some predictable pattern in for instance. Gradually they move to one or more
words which are combined to form whole
which children proceed from almost no use of
sentences or phrases. So they are called
language to the point of becoming competent
holophrases. When they are 18 to 20 months
language users. Language develops through
of age, children enter a two-word stage and
some of the stages discussed below.
begin to use two words together. The two-word
Newborn babies and young infants make stage exemplifies telegraphic speech. Like
a variety of sounds, which gradually get telegrams (got admission, send money) it
modified to resemble words. The first sound contains mostly nouns and verbs. Close to their
produced by babies is crying. Initial crying is third birthday, i.e. beyond two-and-a-half
undifferentiated and similar across various years, children’s language development gets
situations. Gradually, the pattern of crying focused on rules of the language they hear.
varies in its pitch and intensity to signify How is language acquired? You must be
different states such as hunger, pain, and wondering: “How do we learn to speak?” As
sleepiness, etc. These differentiated crying with many other topics in psychology, the
sounds gradually become more meaningful question of whether a behaviour develops as a
cooing sounds (like ‘aaa’, ‘uuu’, etc.) usually result of inherited characteristics (nature) or
to express happiness. from the effects of learning (nurture) has been
At around six months of age children enter raised with regard to language. Most
the babbling stage. Babbling involves psychologists accept that both nature and
prolonged repetition of a variety of consonants nurture are important in language acquisition.

B o x 7.3 Bilingualism and Multilingualism

Bilingualism refers to attaining proficiency in emotional level. It is possible for individuals to have
communicating through any two languages. multiple mother tongues. The Indian social context is
Learning of more than two languages is referred characterised by grass root multilingualism which
to as multilingualism. The term mother tongue has makes bi/multilingualism a characteristic at the levels
been variously defined as one’s native language, of individual as well as society. Most Indians use more
the language spoken by the individual from the than one language to communicate in various domains
cradle; language ordinarily used at home; of their daily life activities. Thus, multilingualism is a
language spoken by the mother; etc. However, way of life in India. Studies reveal that bilingualism/
generally the mother tongue is viewed as a multilingualism facilitates cognitive, linguistic, and
language with which one identifies at the academic competence of children.

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 Behaviourist B.F. Skinner believed we learn built-in readiness to learn grammar helps
language the same way as animals learn to explain why children acquire language so
pick keys or press bars (refer to Chapter 6 on readily without direct teaching.
Learning). Language development, for the
behaviourists follow the learning principles,
Language Use
such as association (the sight of bottle with the
word ‘bottle’), imitation (adults use of word As we have discussed earlier, language use
“bottle”), and reinforcement (smiles and hugs involves knowing socially appropriate ways of
when the child says something right). There is communication. Knowledge of vocabulary and
also evidence that children produce sounds syntax of a language does not ensure proper
that are appropriate to a language of the parent use of language to achieve the purpose of
or care-giver and are reinforced for having done communication in a variety of social situations.
so. The principle of shaping leads to successive When we use language we have various
approximation of the desired responses so that pragmatic intentions such as requesting,
the child eventually speaks as well as the adult. asking, thanking, demanding, etc. In order
Regional differences in pronunciation and to effectively serve these social goals, language
phrasing illustrate how different patterns are use must be pragmatically correct or
reinforced in different areas. contextually appropriate besides being
Linguist Noam Chomsky put forth the grammatical and meaningful. Children often
innate proposition of development of language. have difficulty with choice of appropriate
For him the rate at which children acquire utterances for politeness or for requests and
words and grammar without being taught can
their use of language conveys a demand or a
not be explained only by learning principles.
command instead of a polite request. When
Children also create all sorts of sentences they
children are engaged in conversations, they
have never heard and, therefore, could not be
also have difficulty in taking turns in speaking
imitating. Children throughout the world seem
and listening like adults.
to have a critical period — a period when
lear ning must occur if it is to occur
successfully — for learning language. Children
across the world also go through the same Key Terms
stages of language development. Chomsky
Bilingualism, Brainstor ming, Concepts,
believes language development is just like
Convergent thinking, Creativity, Decision-
physical maturation- given adequate care, it making, Deductive reasoning, Divergent
“just happens to the child”. Children are born thinking, Functional fixedness, Illumination,
with “universal grammar”. They readily learn Images, Incubation, Inductive reasoning,
the grammar of whatever language they hear. Judgment, Language, Mental representation,
Skinner’s emphasis on learning explains Mental set, Multilingualism, Problem solving,
Reasoning, Remote association, Syntax,
why infants acquire the language they hear
Thinking
and how they add new words to their
vocabularies. Chomsky’s emphasis on our

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 Summary
• Thinking is a complex mental process through which we manipulate information (either
acquired or stored). It is an internal process that can be inferred from behaviour. Thinking
involves mental representations that are either mental images or concepts.
• Complex thought processes are problem solving, reasoning, decision-making, judgment,
and creative thinking.
• Problem solving is thinking directed towards the solution of a specific problem.
• Mental set, functional fixedness, lack of motivation and persistence are some of the
hindrances for effective problem solving.
• Reasoning, like problem solving, is goal directed, involves inference and can be either
deductive or inductive.
• In making judgment, we draw conclusions, form opinions, make evaluations about objects
or events.
• In decision-making one must choose among several available alternatives.
• Judgment and decision-making are interrelated processes.
• Creative thinking involves the production of something new and original — it may be an
idea, object or solution to a problem.
• Developing creative thinking requires overcoming blocks to creative expression and using
strategies to enhance creative thinking skills and abilities.
• Language is distinctly human. It consists of symbols, organised on the basis of certain
rules to communicate intentions, feelings, motives, and desires among human beings.
• Major development in language occurs during the first two to three years of age.
• Language and thought are intricately related.

Review Questions
1. Explain the nature of thinking.
2. What is a concept? Explain the role of concept in the thinking process.
3. Identify obstacles that one may encounter in problem solving.
4. How does reasoning help in solving problems?
5. Are judgment and decision-making interrelated processes? Explain.
6. Why is divergent thinking important in creative thinking process?
7. How can creative thinking be enhanced?
8. Does thinking take place without language? Discuss.
9. How is language acquired in human beings?

Project Idea
Observe children of 1 year, 2 years, and 3 years old over a period of one week. Record the
speech and note how the child is learning words and how many words the child has
learnt over this period.

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Answers to problems in Activity 7.2

Problem 1 : ANAGRAM, PROBLEM, SOLVE, INSIGHT, SOLUTION.

Problem 2 :

Problem 3 :
The solution for this problem is fill bottle B (127 ml) completely and then pour out water in bottle A (21 ml)
to fill it completely. Now 106 ml is left in bottle B (127ml–21ml). Next pour enough water out of B to fill up C
(3 ml), and then empty the bottle C by pouring out all the water from C. Now there is 103 ml of water in B and
C is empty. Then again pour water from B to fill up C. Now you will be left with 100 ml of water in B.

In case of the first 5 problems, the desired amount can be reached by the sequence B–A–2C. However, the 6th
and 7th problems are critical. In the 6th problem, the desired amount of water is 20 ml and the capacity of
the three bottles are: A can hold 23 ml, B can hold 49 ml and C can hold 3 ml. Observe how the participant
is solving this problem. Most likely he would successfully solve the problem by following the already tried
sequence {49–23–(2 X 3)} without even thinking or trying a simpler and quick method of pouring water from
A to C. If your friend is following this procedure then you can conclude that solving the 5 problems has
formed a mental set in her/his mind. The 7th problem requires a direct solution of pouring water from A to
C. But the mental set is so powerful that many would fail to think of any other steps, other than the already
tried one.

The standard method A simpler method A case where only the simple method works
Problems 1-5 Problem 6 Problem 7

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 Chapter
8 Motivation and Emotion

After reading this chapter, you would be able to

• understand the nature of human motivation,
• describe the nature of some important motives,
• describe the nature of emotional expression,
• understand the relationship between culture and emotion, and
• know how to manage your own emotions.

Contents
Introduction
Nature of Motivation
Types of Motives
Biological Motives
Psychosocial Motives
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Nature of Emotions
Expression of Emotions
Culture and Emotional Expression
Culture and Emotional Labeling
Managing Negative Emotions
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (Box 8.1)
Management of Examination Anxiety (Box 8.2)
Enhancing Positive Emotions

Emotion has taught mankind Key Terms

Summary
to reason.
Review Questions
Project Ideas
– Marquis de Vauvenargues

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 Introduction
Sunita, a girl from a little known town, puts in 10-12 hours of hard work everyday
in order to get through the various engineering entrance examinations. Hemant, a
physically challenged boy, wants to take part in an expedition and trains himself
extensively in a mountaineering institute. Aman saves money from his scholarship
so that he can buy a gift for his mother. These are just a few examples, which
indicate the role motivation plays in human behaviour. Each of these behaviours
are caused by an underlying motive. Behaviour is goal-driven. Goal-seeking
behaviour tends to persist until the goal is achieved. For achieving their goals people
plan and undertake different activities. How is Sunita going to feel if after all the
hard work she has put in, she does not succeed or Aman’s scholarship money gets
stolen. Sunita, perhaps, will be sad and Aman angry. This chapter will help you to
understand the basic concepts of motivation and emotion, and related developments
in these two areas. The basic emotions, their biological bases, overt expressions,
cultural influences, their relationship with motivation, and some techniques to help
you manage your emotions better will also be dealt with.

drives, needs, goals, and incentives come under

NATURE OF MOTIVATION the broad cluster of motivation.
The concept of motivation focuses on
The Motivational Cycle
explaining what “moves” behaviour. In fact,
the term motivation is derived from the Latin Psychologists now use the concept of need to
word ‘movere’, referring to movement of describe the motivational properties of
activity. Most of our everyday explanation of behaviour. A need is lack or deficit of some
behaviour is given in terms of motives. Why necessity. The condition of need leads to drive.
do you come to the school or college? There
may be any number of reasons for this
behaviour, such as you want to learn or to Need
make friends, you need a diploma or degree
to get a good job, you want to make your
parents happy, and so on. Some combination Reduction of Drive
of these reasons and/or others would explain arousal
why you choose to go in for higher education.
Motives also help in making predictions about
behaviour. A person will work hard in school,
in sports, in business, in music, and in many Achievement Arousal
other situations, if s/he has a very strong need
for achievement. Hence, motives are the
general states that enable us to make Goal-directed
predictions about behaviour in many different behaviour
situations. In other words, motivation is one
of the determinants of behaviour. Instincts, Fig.8.1 : The Motivational Cycle

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A drive is a state of tension or arousal produced psychosocial per se, rather they are aroused
by a need. It energises random activity. When in the individual with varying combinations.
one of the random activities leads to a goal, it
reduces the drive, and the organism stops Biological Motives
being active. The organism returns to a The biological or physiological approach to
balanced state. Thus, the cycle of motivational explain motivation is the earliest attempt to
events can be presented as shown in Fig.8.1. understand causes of behaviour. Most of the
Are there different types of motives? Are theories, which developed later, carry traces of
there any biological bases explaining different the influence of the biological approach. The
kinds of motives? What happens if your motive approach adhering to the concept of adaptive
remains unfulfilled? These are some of the act holds that organisms have needs (internal
questions we will discuss in the following physiological imbalances) that produce drive,
sections. which stimulates behaviour leading to certain
actions towards achieving certain goals, which
TYPES OF MOTIVES reduce the drive. The earliest explanations of
motivation relied on the concept of instinct. The
Basically, there are two types of motives : term instinct denotes inborn patterns of
biological and psychosocial. Biological motives behaviour that are biologically determined
are also known as physiological motives as they rather than learned. Some common human
are guided mostly by the physiological instincts include curiosity, flight, repulsion,
mechanisms of the body. Psychosocial motives, reproduction, parental care, etc. Instincts are
on the other hand, are primarily learned from innate tendencies found in all members of a
the individual’s interactions with the various species that direct behaviour in predictable
environmental factors. ways. The term instinct most approximately
However, both types of motives are refers to an urge to do something. Instinct has
interdependent on each other. That is, in some an “impetus” which drives the organism to do
kind of situations the biological factors may something to reduce that impetus. Some of the
trigger a motive whereas in some other basic biological needs explained by this
situations, the psychosocial factors may trigger approach are hunger, thirst, and sex, which
the motive. Hence, you should keep in mind are essential for the sustenance of the
that no motive is absolutely biological or individual.

Types of Motives

Biological Motives Psychosocial Motives

Focus on the innate, biological causes Focus on psychological and social
of motivation like hormones, (as well as environmental) factors and
neurotransmitters, brain structures how they interact with each other to
(hypothalamus, limbic system, etc.). produce motivation. For example,
For example, hunger, thirst and need for achievement, affiliation, power,
sex motives. curiosity and exploration, and self-
actualisation motives.

Fig.8.2 : Types of Motives

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Hunger Sex
When someone is hungry, the need for food One of the most powerful drives in both animals
dominates everything else. It motivates people and human beings is the sex drive. Motivation
to obtain and consume food. Of course we to engage in sexual activity is a very strong
must eat to live. But, what makes you feel factor influencing human behaviour. However,
hungry? Studies have indicated that many sex is far more than a biological motive. It is
events inside and outside the body may trigger different from other primary motives (hunger,
hunger or inhibit it. The stimuli for hunger thirst) in many ways like, (a) sexual activity
include stomach contractions, which signify is not necessary for an individual’s survival;
that the stomach is empty, a low concentration (b) homeostasis (the tendency of the organism
of glucose in the blood, a low level of protein as a whole to maintain constancy or to attempt
and the amount of fats stored in the body. to restore equilibrium if constancy is disturbed)
The liver also responds to the lack of bodily is not the goal of sexual activity; and (c) sex
fuel by sending nerve impulses to the brain. drive develops with age, etc. In case of lower
The aroma, taste or appearance of food may animals, it depends on many physiological
also result in a desire to eat. It may be noted conditions; in case of human beings, the sex
that none of these alone gives you the feeling drive is very closely regulated biologically,
that you are hungry. All in combination act sometimes it is very difficult to classify sex
with external factors (such as taste, colour, purely as a biological drive.
by observing others eating, and the smell of
food, etc.) to help you understand that you Psychosocial Motives
are hungry. Thus, it can be said that our food
intake is regulated by a complex feeding- Social motives are mostly learned or acquired.
Social groups such as family, neighbourhood,
satiety system located in the hypothalamus,
liver, and other parts of the body as well as friends, and relatives do contribute a lot in
acquiring social motives. These are complex
the external cues available in the environment.
forms of motives mainly resulting from the
individual’s interaction with her/his social
Thirst
What would happen to you, if you were environment.
deprived of water for a long time? What makes
Need for Affiliation
you feel thirsty? When we are deprived of water
for a period of several hours, the mouth and Most of us need company or friend or want to
throat become dry, which leads to dehydration maintain some form of relationship with
of body tissues. Drinking water is necessary others. Nobody likes to remain alone all the
to wet a dry mouth. But a dry mouth does not time. As soon as people see some kinds of
always result in water drinking behaviour. In similarities among themselves or they like each
fact processes within the body itself control other, they form a group. Formation of group
thirst and drinking of water. Water must get or collectivity is an important feature of human
into the tissues sufficiently to remove the life. Often people try desperately to get close
dryness of mouth and throat. to other people, to seek their help, and to
Motivation to drink water is mainly become members of their group. Seeking other
triggered by the conditions of the body: loss human beings and wanting to be close to them
of water from cells and reduction of blood both physically and psychologically is called
volume. When water is lost by bodily fluids, affiliation. It involves motivation for social
water leaves the interior of the cells. The contact. Need for affiliation is aroused when
anterior hypothalamus contains nerve cells individuals feel threatened or helpless and also
called ‘osmoreceptors’, which generate nerve when they are happy. People high on this need
impulses in case of cell dehydration. are motivated to seek the company of others

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and to maintain friendly relationships with socio-cultural influences. Persons high in
other people. achievement motivation tend to prefer tasks
that are moderately difficult and challenging.
Need for Power They have stronger-than-average desire for
feedback on their performance, that is to know
Need for power is an ability of a person to
produce intended effects on the behaviour and how they are doing, so that they can adjust
their goals to meet the challenge.
emotions of another person. The various goals
of power motivation are to influence, control,
Curiosity and Exploration
persuade, lead, and charm others and most
importantly to enhance one’s own reputation Often people engage in activities without a clear
in the eyes of other people. goal or purpose but they derive some kind of
David McClelland (1975) described four pleasure out of it. It is a motivational tendency
general ways of expression of the power to act without any specific identifiable goal. The
motive. First, people do things to gain feeling tendency to seek for a novel experience, gain
of power and strength from sources outside pleasure by obtaining information, etc. are
themselves by reading stories about sports signs of curiosity. Hence, curiosity describes
stars or attaching themselves to a popular behaviour whose primary motive appears to
figure. Second, power can also be felt from remain in the activities themselves.
sources within us and may be expressed by What will happen if the sky falls on us?
building up the body and mastering urges and Questions of this kind (What will happen if…)
impulses. Third, people do things as stimulate intellectuals to find answers.
individuals to have an impact on others. For Studies show that this curiosity behaviour is
example, a person argues, or competes with not only limited to human beings, animals too
another individual in order to have an impact show the same kind of behaviour. We are
or influence on that person. Fourth, people driven to explore the environment by our
do things as members of organisations to have curiosity and our need for sensory stimulation.
an impact on others as in the case of the leader The need for varied types of sensory
of a political party; the individual may use the stimulations is closely related to curiosity. It
party apparatus to influence others. However, is the basic motive, and exploration and
for any individual, one of these ways of curiosity are the expressions of it.
expressing power motivation may dominate, Our ignorance about a number of things
but with age and life experiences, it varies. around us becomes a powerful motivator to
explore the world. We get easily bored with
Need for Achievement repetitive experiences. So we look for something
You might have observed some students work new.
very hard and compete with others for good In the case of infants and small children,
marks/grades in the examination, as good this motive is very dominant. They get
marks/grades will create opportunities for satisfaction from being allowed to explore,
higher studies and better job prospects. It is which is reflected in their smiling and
the achievement motivation, which refers to babbling. Children become easily distressed,
the desire of a person to meet standards of when the motive to explore is discouraged, as
excellence. Need for achievement, also known you have read in Chapter 3.
as n-Ach, energises and directs behaviour as
well as influences the perception of situations. MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
During the formative years of social
development, children acquire achievement There are various views on human motivation,
motivation. The sources from which they learn the most popular among these is given by
it, include parents, other role models, and Abraham H. Maslow (1968; 1970). He

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attempted to portray a picture of human satisfied, the higher needs occupy the
behaviour by arranging the various needs in individual’s attention and effort. However, it
a hierarchy. His viewpoint about motivation is must be noted that very few people reach the
very popular because of its theoretical and highest level because most people are
applied value which is popularly known as the concerned more with the lower level needs.
“Theory of Self-actualisation” (see Fig.8.3).
Activity 8.1
Actual actions sometimes contradict the
hierarchy of needs. Soldiers, police officers, and
Self- fire personnels have been known to protect others
actualisation
by facing very endangering situations, seemingly
needs
in direct contradiction to the prominence of safety
needs.
Esteem needs
Why does it happen? Discuss it in your group
and then with your teacher.
Belongingness needs

NATURE OF EMOTIONS
Safety needs
‘Swati is very happy. Her examination result
has been declared today and she has topped
Physiological needs
the class. She is feeling euphoric. However, her
friend Pranoy is feeling sad, as he has not done
well. Among her friends some are feeling jealous
Fig.8.3 : Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs of Swati’s achievement. Jeevan who has not
Maslow’s model can be conceptualised as performed up to his expectation is angry with
a pyramid in which the bottom of this himself; he feels unhappy that his parents
hierarchy represents basic physiological or would be very disappointed’.
biological needs which are basic to survival Joy, sorrow, hope, love, excitement, anger,
such as hunger, thirst, etc. Only when these hate, and many such feelings are experienced
needs are met, the need to be free from in the course of the day by all of us. The term
threatened danger arises. This refers to the emotion is often considered synonymous with
safety needs of physical and psychological the terms ‘feeling’ and ‘mood’. Feeling denotes
nature. Next comes the need to seek out other the pleasure or pain dimension of emotion,
people, to love and to be loved. After these which usually involves bodily functions. Mood
needs are fulfilled, the individual strives for is an affective state of long duration but of
esteem, i.e. the need to develop a sense of self- lesser intensity than emotion. Both these
worth. The next higher need in the hierarchy terms are narrower than the concept of emotion.
reflects an individual’s motive towards the Emotions are a complex pattern of arousal,
fullest development of potential, i.e. self- subjective feeling, and cognitive interpretation.
actualisation. A self-actualised person is self- Emotions, as we experience them, move us
aware, socially responsive, creative, internally, and this process involves
spontaneous, open to novelty, and challenge. physiological as well as psychological reactions.
S/he also has a sense of humour and capacity Emotion is a subjective feeling and the
for deep interpersonal relationships. experience of emotions varies from person to
Lower level needs (physiological) in the person. In psychology, attempts have been
hierarchy dominate as long as they are made to identify basic emotions. It has been
unsatisfied. Once they are adequately noted that at least six emotions are experienced

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and recognised everywhere. These are: anger, verbal expressions. These verbal and non-
disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise. verbal expressions act as the channels of
Izard has proposed a set of ten basic emotions, communication and enable an individual to
i.e. joy, surprise, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, express one’s emotions and to understand the
shame, guilt, interest, and excitement with feelings of others.
combinations of them resulting in other
emotional blends. According to Plutchik, there Culture and Emotional Expression
are eight basic or primary emotions. All other The verbal channel of communication is
emotions result from various mixtures of these composed of spoken words as well as other
basic emotions. He arranged these emotions vocal features of speech like pitch and loudness
in four pairs of opposites, i.e. joy-sadness, of the voice. These non-verbal aspects of the
acceptance-disgust, fear-anger, and surprise- voice and temporal characteristics of speech
anticipation. are called ‘paralanguage’. Other non-verbal
Emotions vary in their intensity (high, low) channels include facial expression, kinetic
and quality (happiness, sadness, fear). (gesture, posture, movement of the body) and
Subjective factors and situational contexts proximal (physical distance during face-to-face
influence the experience of emotions. These interaction) behaviours. Facial expression is
factors are gender, personality, and the most common channel of emotional
psychopathology of certain kinds. Evidence communication. The amount and kind of
indicates that women experience all the information conveyed by the face is easy to
emotions except anger more intensely than comprehend as the face is exposed to the full
men. Men are prone to experience high view of others (see Fig.8.4). Facial expressions
intensity and frequency of anger. This gender can convey the intensity as well as the
difference has been attributed to the social pleasantness or unpleasantness of the
roles attached to men (competitiveness) and individual’s emotional state. Facial expressions
women (affiliation and caring). play an important role in our everyday lives.
There has been some research evidence
EXPRESSION OF EMOTIONS supporting Darwin’s view that facial
expressions for basic emotions (joy, fear,
Do you get to know that your friend is happy anger, disgust, sadness, and surprise) are
or sad or indifferent? Does s/he understand inborn and universal.
your feelings? Emotion is an internal Bodily movements further facilitate the
experience not directly observable by others. communication of emotions. Can you feel the
Emotions are inferred from verbal and non- difference between your body movements when

Fear Anger Happy Sad

Fig.8.4 : Sketches of Facial Expressions of Emotions

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you feel angry and movements when you feel of contempt. The Japanese produced varied
shy? Theatre and drama provide an excellent emotional labels for facial expressions of
opportunity to understand the impact of body happiness (10 labels), anger (8 labels), and
movements in communicating emotions. The disgust (6 labels). Ancient Chinese literature
roles of gestures and proximal behaviours are cites seven emotions, namely, joy, anger,
also significant. You must have seen how in sadness, fear, love, dislike, and liking. Ancient
Indian classical dances like Bharatanatyam, Indian literature identifies eight such
Odissi, Kuchipudi, Kathak and others, emotions, namely, love, mirth, energy, wonder,
emotions are expressed with the help of anger, grief, disgust, and fear. In Western
movements of eyes, legs, and fingers. The literature, certain emotions like happiness,
dancers are trained rigorously in the grammar sadness, fear, anger, and disgust are uniformly
of body movement and non-verbal treated as basic to human beings. Emotions
communication to express joy, sorrow, love, like surprise, contempt, shame, and guilt are
anger, and various other forms of emotional not accepted as basic to all.
states. In brief, it might be said that there are
The processes involved in emotions have certain basic emotions that are expressed and
been known to be influenced by culture. understood by all despite their cultural and
Cultural differences have also been found in ethnic differences, and there are certain others
the gaze behaviour. It has been observed that that are specific to a particular culture.
the Latin Americans and the Southern
Europeans direct their gaze to the eyes of the MANAGING NEGATIVE EMOTIONS
interactant. Asians, in particular, Indians and
Pakistanis, prefer a peripheral gaze (looking Try living a day in which you do not feel any
away from the conversational partner) during emotion. You would realise that it is difficult
an interaction. even to imagine a life without emotions.
Emotions are a part of our daily life and
Culture and Emotional Labeling existence. They form the very fabric of our life
and interpersonal relations.
Basic emotions also vary in the extent of
Effective emotion management is the key
elaboration and categorical labels. The Tahitian
to effective social functioning in modern times.
language includes 46 labels for the English
The following tips might prove useful to
word anger. When asked to label freely, the
you for achieving the desired balance of
North American subjects produced 40 different
emotions :
responses for the facial expression of anger and
81 different responses for the facial expression

B o x 8.1 Post - Traumatic Stress Disorder

A disaster produces serious disruption of the Either of these conditions may lead to development
functioning of human society, resulting in of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), where the
widespread material or environmental loss, person tends to re-experience the event through
which cannot be dealt with immediately with the flashbacks and get overwhelming thoughts about the
existing resources. Disaster may be natural (like event even after a substantial period of time. This
earthquake/cyclone/tsunami) or man-made (like condition makes a person emotionally disturbed and
war). The trauma an individual experiences the person fails to adopt an appropriate coping
during a disaster may range from mere strategy in regular activities. Emotions manifest in
perception of such an event to actually uniquely recognisable patterns with maladaptive
encountering it, which may be life threatening. behaviour (like depression) and autonomic arousal.

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• Enhance self-awareness : Be aware of • Do some self-monitoring : This involves
your own emotions and feelings. Try to gain constant or periodic evaluation of your past
insight into the ‘how’ and ‘why’ of your accomplishments, emotional and physical
feelings. states, real and vicarious experiences. A
• Appraise the situation objectively : It positive appraisal would enhance your faith
has been proposed that emotion is in yourself and lead to enhanced feeling of
preceded by evaluation of the event. If the wellness and contentment.
event is experienced as disturbing, your • Engage in self-modeling : Be the ideal
sympathetic nervous system is activated for yourself. Repeatedly observe the best
and you feel stressed. If you do not parts of your past performance and use
experience the event as disturbing, then them as an inspiration and motivation to
there is no stress. Hence, it is you who perform better in the future.
decides whether to feel sad and anxious or • Perceptual reorganisation and cognitive
happy and relaxed. restructuring : Try viewing the events

B o x 8.2 Management of Examination Anxiety

For most of us an approaching examination confident and then passing with flying colours.
brings about a feeling of a churning stomach and • Inoculation : Inoculate yourself against
anxiety. In fact, any situation which involves stress. Exposure through rehearsals and role-
performing a task and the awareness of being playing prepares you physically and mentally to
evaluated for the performance is an anxiety- face the examination situation better and with
provoking situation for most people. A certain confidence.
level of anxiety is definitely essential as it • Positive thinking : Have faith in yourself.
motivates and pushes us to put up our best Structure your thoughts with systematically listing
performance but a high level of anxiety becomes the thoughts that worry you and then rationally
an impediment in optimum performance and dealing with them one by one. Emphasise on your
achievement. An anxious individual is highly strengths. Suggest to yourself to be positive and
aroused physiologically and emotionally, and enthusiastic.
hence is not able to perform to the best of her/ • Seek support : Do not hesitate to ask for help
his abilities. from your friends, parents, teachers or seniors.
An examination is a potentially stress Talking about a stressful situation to a close
provoking situation and like other stressful person makes one feel light and helps gain insight.
situations coping involves two strategies, i.e. The situation may not be as bad as it seems.
Monitoring or taking effective action, and Blunting
or avoiding the situation. On the other hand, blunting strategies involve
Monitoring involves taking effective and direct avoiding the stressful situation. True, avoidance is
action to deal with the stressful situation. The neither desirable nor possible in an examination
following strategies can be used for monitoring : situation, but the following techniques may prove
• Prepare well : Prepare well for the useful:
examination and prepare well in advance. • Relaxation : Lear n to relax. Relaxation
Give yourself ample time. Familiarise yourself techniques help you calm your nerves and give
with the pattern of question papers and you an opportunity to reframe your thoughts.
frequently asked questions. This gives you a There are many different relaxation techniques.
sense of predictability and control and In general, this involves sitting or lying down in a
reduces the stress potential of the comfortable posture in a quiet place, relaxing your
examination. muscles, reducing the external stimulation as well
• Have a rehearsal : Make yourself go through as minimising the flow of thoughts and focusing.
a mock examination. Ask your friend to test • Exercise : A stressful situation overactivates the
your knowledge. You can also rehearse sympathetic nervous system. Exercise helps in
mentally in your mind. Visualise yourself channelising the excess energy generated by this.
taking the examination completely relaxed and A brief period of light exercise or active sport will
help you concentrate better on your studies.

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 differently and visualise the other side of not magnify negative feelings.
the coin. Restructure your thoughts to • Do not ascribe intentions and ulterior
enhance positive and reassuring feelings motives to others.
and eliminate negative thoughts. • Resist having irrational beliefs about people
• Be creative : Find and develop an interest and events.
or a hobby. Engage in an activity that • Try to find constructive ways of expressing
interests and amuses you. your anger. Have control on the degree and
• Develop and nurture good relation- duration of anger that you choose to
ships : Choose your friends carefully. In express.
the company of happy and cheerful friends • Look inward not outward for anger control.
you will feel happy in general.
• Give yourself time to change. It takes time
• Have empathy : Try understanding other’s and effort to change a habit.
feelings too. Make your relationships
meaningful and valuable. Seek as well as
provide support mutually. ENHANCING POSITIVE EMOTIONS
• Participate in community service : Help
yourself by helping others. By doing Our emotions have a purpose. They help us
community service (for example, helping an adapt to the ever-changing environment and
intellectually challenged child learn an are important for our survival and well-being.
adaptive skill), you will gain important Negative emotions like fear, anger or disgust
insights about your own difficulties. prepare us mentally and physically for taking
immediate action towards the stimulus that is
Managing your Anger threatening. For example, if there was no fear
we would have caught a poisonous snake in
Anger is a negative emotion. It carries the mind our hand. Though negative emotions protect
away or in other words, the person looses us in such situations but excessive or
inappropriate use of these emotions can
become life threatening to us, as it can harm
Activity 8.2 our immune system and have serious
consequences for our health.
Think of an intense emotional experience you Positive emotions such as hope, joy,
have gone through recently and explain the optimism, contentment, and gratitude energise
sequence of events. How did you deal with it? us and enhance our sense of emotional well-
Share it with your class.
being. When we experience positive affect, we
display a greater preference for a large variety
of actions and ideas. We can think of more
control on behavioural functions during the possibilities and options to solve whatever
state of anger. The major source of anger is the problems we face and thus, we become
frustration of motives. However, anger is not a proactive.
reflex, rather it is a result of our thinking. Psychologists have found that people, who
Neither is it automatic nor uncontrollable and were shown films depicting joy and
caused by others but it is a self-induced choice contentment, came up with more ideas
that the individual makes. Anger is a result of regarding things they would like to do as
your thinking and hence is controllable by compared to those who were shown films
your own thoughts only. Certain key points in evoking anger and fear. Positive emotions give
anger management are as follows: us a greater ability to cope with adverse
• Recognise the power of your thoughts. circumstances and quickly return to a normal
state. They help us set up long-term plans and
• Realise you alone can control it.
goals, and form new relationships. Various
• Do not engage in ‘self-talk that burns’. Do

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ways of enhancing positive emotions are given • Positive interpretations of most daily
below: events.
• Personality traits of optimism,
hopefulness, happiness and a positive self-
regard.
• Finding positive meaning in dire
circumstances.
• Having quality connections with others, Key Terms
and supportive network of close Anxiety, Arousal, Basic emotions, Biological
relationships. needs (hunger, thirst, sex), Esteem needs,
• Being engaged in work and gaining Examination anxiety, Expression of
mastery. emotions, Hierarchy of needs, Motivation,
• A faith that embodies social support, Motives, Need, Power motive, Psychosocial
purpose and hope, leading a life of motives, Self-actualisation, Self-esteem
purpose.

Summary
• The process of persistent behaviour directed towards a specific goal, which results from
certain driving forces, is called motivation.
• There are two types of motivation, namely, biological, and psychosocial motivation.
• Biological motivation focuses on the innate, biological causes of motivation like hormones,
neurotransmitters, brain structures (hypothalamus, limbic system), etc. Examples of biological
motivation are hunger, thirst, and sex.
• Psychosocial motivation explains motives resulting mainly from the interaction of the
individual with his social environment. Examples of psychosocial motives are need for
affiliation, need for achievement, curiosity and exploration, and the need for power.
• Maslow arranged various human needs in an ascending hierarchical order, beginning with
the most basic physiological needs, and then safety needs, love and belongingness needs,
esteem needs, and finally on the top of the hierarchy is the need for self-actualisation.
• Emotion is a complex pattern of arousal that involves physiological activation, conscious
awareness of feeling, and a specific cognitive label that describes the process.
• Certain emotions are basic like joy, anger, sorrow, surprise, fear, etc. Other emotions are
experienced as a result of combination of these emotions.
• Culture strongly influences the expression and interpretation of emotions.
• Emotion is expressed through verbal and non-verbal channels.
• It is important to manage emotions effectively in order to ensure physical and psychological
well-being.

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Review Questions
1. Explain the concept of motivation.
2. What are the biological bases of hunger and thirst needs?
3. How do the needs for achievement, affiliation, and power influence the behaviour of
adolescents? Explain with examples.
4. What is the basic idea behind Maslow’s hierarchy of needs? Explain with suitable examples.
5. How does culture influence the expression of emotions?
6. Why is it important to manage negative emotions? Suggest ways to manage negative
emotions.

Project Ideas
1. Using Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, analyse what kind of motivational forces might have
motivated the great mathematician S.A. Ramanujan and the great shehnai Maestro Ustad
Bismillah Khan (Bharat Ratna) to perform exceptionally in their respective fields. Now
place yourself and five more known people in terms of need satisfaction. Reflect and
discuss.
2. In many households, family members do not eat without bathing first and practise religious
fasts. How have different social practices influenced your expression of hunger and thirst?
Conduct a survey on five people from different backgrounds and prepare a report.

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