The historical origins and transformations of existentialist philosophy  From abstract metaphysical reflection to concrete socio-political engagement (especially

post-WWII France).
Existentialist philosophy, though most prominent in the 19th and 20th centuries, has roots that  From Eurocentric male thinkers to global and intersectional perspectives, e.g.,:
stretch back to earlier philosophical and theological traditions. Its development can be understood o Frantz Fanon: explored colonial alienation.
through its historical origins, key transformations, and central thinkers. o James Baldwin and Toni Morrison: addressed existential themes in African
American literature.
1. Pre-Existentialist Origins o Keiji Nishitani: integrated existential thought with Zen Buddhism.
While existentialism as a formal school emerged later, existential themes—concern with individual 5. Legacy and Continuing Influence
existence, freedom, anxiety, and meaning—can be found in: Though existentialism as a movement declined in the late 20th century, its influence persists in:
 Socrates (5th century BCE): His emphasis on self-examination (“the unexamined life is not  Phenomenology, hermeneutics, post-structuralism.
worth living”) prefigures existentialist concerns with authentic living.  Psychology (e.g., existential therapy).
 Augustine of Hippo (4th–5th century CE): Explored the inner self, restlessness, and the  Literature (Kafka, Dostoevsky, Beckett).
longing for God, themes echoed in later Christian existentialism.  Theology (Paul Tillich, Karl Jaspers).
 Blaise Pascal (17th century): His Pensées reflect anxiety over human finitude, the absurdity It remains a powerful lens for examining freedom, responsibility, and authenticity in a complex,
of existence without God, and the “wager” for meaning—all central to existentialist often disenchanted world.
tension.
2. Proto-Existentialism in the 19th Century Describe and distinguish between a variety of philosophy concepts
Existentialism began to take more recognizable form in the 19th century with two major figures: Let's analyze and distinguish core philosophical concepts developed by the major existentialist and
 Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855): proto-existentialist thinkers we discussed. These concepts often overlap in theme (such as freedom,
o Often called the “father of existentialism.” anxiety, meaning), but differ significantly in their metaphysical or ethical grounding.
o Emphasized subjectivity, individual faith, and authentic existence.
o Explored stages of life (aesthetic, ethical, religious) and the concept of "angst". 1. Søren Kierkegaard – Christian Existentialism
o Advocated for a “leap of faith” in the face of existential despair. Key Concepts:
 Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900):  Subjective Truth: Truth is not merely objective correspondence; it is lived. One must
o A radical critic of religion and morality. appropriate truth personally.
o Proclaimed the “death of God” and urged the creation of values through the  Stages of Life:
Übermensch. o Aesthetic: Living for pleasure.
o Explored nihilism, eternal recurrence, and will to power. o Ethical: Living responsibly, morally.
o While not self-identified as an existentialist, his influence was immense. o Religious: Living in faith beyond reason.
 Leap of Faith: Rationality cannot ground belief in God; one must commit in paradox and
3. 20th-Century Existentialism (The Movement Proper) passion.
The aftermath of World War I and II created fertile ground for existentialism, as thinkers confronted  Anxiety (Angst): The dizziness of freedom; awareness of possibilities can induce existential
absurdity, alienation, and the limits of reason. despair.
 Martin Heidegger (1889–1976): Distinctive Feature: Faith is not rational certainty but a passionate inward commitment—existence
o Focused on Being (Sein) and the nature of Dasein (being-there). is defined by one's relationship with God.
o Explored authenticity, being-toward-death, and thrownness. 2. Friedrich Nietzsche – Atheistic Individualism
o Though not claiming the existentialist label, he shaped its ontological depth. Key Concepts:
 Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980):  Will to Power: The fundamental drive of life is not survival but the will to expand one’s
o Gave existentialism its most recognizable form in Being and Nothingness. strength and creativity.
o Argued that existence precedes essence: humans define themselves through actions.  Übermensch (Overman): An ideal who transcends herd morality and creates values
o Highlighted radical freedom, bad faith, and the burden of choice. independently.
 Simone de Beauvoir (1908–1986):  Eternal Recurrence: The idea that life repeats infinitely—used as a test of existential
o Applied existentialism to gender and ethics, especially in The Second Sex. affirmation.
o Explored ambiguous freedom, oppression, and the construction of the self.  God is Dead: Not a metaphysical claim, but a cultural diagnosis: traditional religious values
o A central figure in existential feminism. are no longer credible.
 Albert Camus (1913–1960): Distinctive Feature: Nietzsche revalues all values, urging a creative affirmation of life without
o Explored the absurd: the conflict between human desire for meaning and the silence metaphysical support.
of the universe.
o In The Myth of Sisyphus, promoted revolt as a response to absurdity. 3. Martin Heidegger – Ontology of Human Existence
Key Concepts:
4. Key Transformations  Dasein: Human existence as being-there, always situated and interpretive.
Over time, existentialism evolved:  Being-toward-death: Awareness of finitude grounds authentic existence.
 From theistic (Kierkegaard) to atheistic forms (Sartre, Camus).  Thrownness (Geworfenheit): We find ourselves in a world not of our choosing.
 Authenticity: Living resolutely in awareness of death and one's ownmost possibilities.
  Being and Time: An inquiry into the meaning of Being, through temporality. The phrase "Truth is subjectivity" originates from Søren Kierkegaard, a 19th-century
Distinctive Feature: Heidegger shifts focus from ethics or theology to the structure of being, Danish philosopher, and lies at the heart of his existential philosophy. It challenges the
grounding existence in temporality and care. classical notion of truth as objective, universal, and dispassionate, and instead emphasizes
4. Jean-Paul Sartre – Radical Freedom and Responsibility the inward, lived experience of the individual.
Key Concepts: Let’s break it down in detail:
 Existence precedes essence: Humans have no pre-given nature; they define themselves 1. What Does "Truth is Subjectivity" Mean?
through choices. Kierkegaard argues that the most important truths in life—ethical, existential, and
 Freedom: Humans are radically free to choose; even refusing to choose is a choice. religious truths—are not known through detached reasoning or empirical observation, but
 Bad Faith (Mauvaise foi): Lying to oneself to escape the anxiety of freedom. are realized through personal, passionate commitment.
 The Look (le regard): Being objectified by another's gaze reveals our facticity and In his view:
alienation.  Objective truth concerns facts, logic, and external verification (e.g., "water boils at
Distinctive Feature: Sartre emphasizes radical human freedom, but this also entails absolute 100°C").
responsibility—a burden many try to escape.  Subjective truth concerns how one relates to the truth. It’s not about the content
5. Simone de Beauvoir – Existential Feminism alone, but the manner and intensity of one's engagement with it.
Thus, truth is not merely a matter of what is true, but of how one lives it.
Key Concepts: Example: Knowing God exists (objectively) is less important to Kierkegaard than how
 The Other: Women have historically been cast as “the Other” in a male-defined world. passionately and sincerely one lives in relation to God (subjectively).
 Ambiguity: Human existence is ambiguous—both free and situated, subjective and
objective. 2. Context in Kierkegaard's Thought
 Freedom and Oppression: True freedom must respect and promote the freedom of others.  Kierkegaard was reacting against the Hegelian system of abstract, objective
 Ethics of Ambiguity: An existentialist ethics acknowledging that we are both agents and philosophy and the detached rationalism of his time.
objects.  He believed that truth without inwardness becomes aesthetic or idle speculation,
Distinctive Feature: De Beauvoir applies existentialism to gender and ethics, recognizing that not something that transforms one’s life.
liberation requires both personal transcendence and social transformation.  In religious terms, belief in God cannot be based on proofs or arguments alone—it
demands a “leap of faith” grounded in subjective inward passion.
6. Albert Camus – The Absurd and Revolt
Key Concepts: 3. Illustration: The Passionate Wrong vs. the Dispassionate Right
 The Absurd: The conflict between the human search for meaning and the indifferent Kierkegaard provocatively claims that:
universe. “An objective uncertainty held fast through appropriation with the most passionate
 Revolt: The proper response to absurdity is not despair, but defiant affirmation—like inwardness is the truth.”
Sisyphus pushing the rock. This means that a person who is objectively wrong but believes with authentic,
 The Myth of Sisyphus: A parable of absurd heroism; meaning is created through lived transformative commitment might be closer to truth than someone who is objectively
rebellion, not divine or rational order. correct but lacks passion or existential engagement.
Distinctive Feature: Camus rejects both religious and nihilistic solutions, advocating lucid, 4. Philosophical Implications
courageous revolt in an absurd world.  Epistemology: Kierkegaard challenges the Enlightenment idea that knowledge is
primarily about detached certainty.
Comparative Distinctions (Summary Table):  Ethics: Moral truths require commitment, not just theoretical agreement.
 Religion: Faith is not assent to doctrines but a subjective, lived relationship with
Thinker God/Metaphysics Human Condition Key Theme Ethical Implication the divine.
Authentic faith beyond 5. Distinctions from Relativism
Kierkegaard Christian Theism Fallen, subjective Leap of faith, anxiety reason
It's important to note: Kierkegaard is not a relativist. He does not claim that “anything
Nietzsche Atheism, naturalism Creative becoming Will to power, Create values through goes” or that truth is merely opinion.
nihilism strength Rather:
Authenticity, death, Understand being via  He insists that some truths are only truly understood when lived, not when merely
Heidegger Ontological analysis Being-in-the-world temporality finitude known.
Atheism, Freedom, Radical freedom, bad Responsibility for self  Subjectivity refers to the mode of apprehension, not the denial of an objective
Sartre world.
existentialism abandonment faith and others
de Beauvoir Existential ethics Ambiguous beings Otherness, ambiguity Free oneself and others In Summary:
Live meaningfully "Truth is subjectivity" means that:
Camus Absurdism Alienated, defiant Absurd, revolt  The deepest human truths require not just knowledge, but personal appropriation.
despite absurdity
 What matters is not just whether something is true, but how the individual relates
to it.
 Authentic existence requires passionate inwardness, not passive observation.