 Theory on continental 1840 Jean Louis  He has been called the ‘Father of glaciology’.

glaciation in Rudolph  His hypothesis says that much of continent of north

Agassiz America as well as northern Europe covered by Glacial
ice.
 Theory of mass  Based on glacial features there.
extinction  Theory of mass extinction based on his discovery of
‘Great ice age’.

 Elastic re bound theory 1906 Ried  Earthquake.

Ice age hypothesis - -  Carbon di oxide hypothesis

 Ozone depletion hypothesis
 Volcanic dust hypothesis.

Uniformitarianism 1785 James Hutton  In the book ‘Theory of the earth’

(Scottish)  ‘Present is the key to the past’.
 Modified by john playfair in 1802.
 Illustration of the Huttonian Theory of Earth given
by John Playfair. (June 2023)
 Sir Charles Lyell popularized the concept of
uniformitarianism in his book ‘Principle of geology’.
 The premise that present that the present day
processes have been operating throughout geological
time is the principle of ‘uniformitarianism’.

Ice crystal theory or cloud 1933 Tor Bergeron  Norwegian meteorologist.

instability theory

Theories of Coral formation - -  Darwin-Subsidence theory (1837 and modified in 1842)

 Murray-Stand still theory
 Daly-glacial control theory

Theories of cavern - -  Davis-Two cycle theory in 1930

formation  First cycle: Phreatic water dissolves the limestone to
form caverns. Phreatic water is water from the
phreatic zone, which is the area below water table
where the soil is saturated with water.

 Second cycle: The water table lowers, draining the

areas and leaving behind spaces that form caverns.
These spaces are often filled with air and Vadose
water, which is water above the water table that
moves downward.

 Swinnerton-Water table theory

 States that caves are not formed by phreatic water
under hydrostatic pressure but are formed by
lateral flow of water in the vadose zone or by freely
moving water at the level of water table

 J.H. Garder-Static water theory

  C.A. Malott-The invasion theory
 The ‘invasion theory’ of C.A. Malott states that most
of the present caverns and galleries in limestone
regions have been formed by the subterranean
streams. The theory explains that surface streams
disappear at sink holes and then dissolve and abrade
limestone to form passages underground.

Theory of cycle of erosion 1899 W.M. Davis  He gave concept of peneplain –old age of a fluvial cycle
and level surface formed as an end product of erosion.

Concept of parallel retreat 1924 Penck  In his work ‘Die morphologiche analyze.

Concept of base level 1875 J.W. Powell  According to the concept there is limit for maximum
vertical erosion by a river beyond which it cannot
degraded it valley.

Lateral planation theory 1882 G.K. Gilbert  Lateral planation theory regarding the pediment
formation.
 Theory advocates that formation of pediments to
lateral corrosion by streams.

 The concept of stream competence-Energy of stream

is measured by the product of its discharge, its slope
and acceleration of gravity.

Panplain Crickmay  Panplain –A surface formed at the meeting point of

flood plain.
Panfan Lawson  Used term panfan- to designate the termination of the
stage of geomorphic.

Etchplains 1934  E.J. Wayland in 1934 and Bailey Willis in 1936:

Originally coined to describe surfaces in East Africa.
 It is weathered planation surface that develops when
deep weathering occurs on a landscape.
 There are two types of Etchplains:
1. Mantled Etchplains: Flat weathering surface by
laterites
2. Stripped Etchplains: Mantled Etchplains that have
been dissected by rivers or retouched by
pedimentation.

Dynamic equilibrium theory 1960 J.T. hack  Rejection of Davis model
 Against the time dependent models

Origin of continents and - -  Chamberlin-Planetesmial hypothesis

oceans
 Lothian green (1875)=tetrahedral hypothesis-supports
the north pole in arctic and south in Antarctic.

 F.B. Taylor (1908, published in 1910)-Continental drift

in his concept of ‘horizontal displacement of the
 continents’

 A.G. Wegener (1912 and in English 1924- continental

drift in ‘Die Entsehung Der Kontinente and ozeane’

 Authur holmes (1928-29)-convectional current theory

 Harry Hess (1960)-Sea floor spreading.

Theory of Geosyncline - -  Hall and Dana

Mountain building theories - -  Kober-Geosynclinal theory in book ‘Der bau der erde’
 Jeffrey-Thermal Contractionary theory
 Daly-Sliding theory
 Holmes-Thermal Contractionary theory

The concept of anticyclone 1860 Sir Francis  First discovered this concept.
Galton
Hydraulic slope theory 1945 E. Harton  He was the first to formulize the importance of
topography to hill-slope hydrology by proposing that
the critical hill slope length was required to generate a
channel.

 Concept Evolution of isostasy:

Airy (1855) Airy’s central Theme about isostasy was uniform density with varying thickness.
Pratt (1859) Pratt gave his concept of isostasy in 1859. His Central theme about isostasy was ‘ uniform depth
with varying density’
Dutton  Isostasy is an ideal condition of gravitational equilibrium that controls the height of continent and
(1959) ocean floor in accordance with the density of their underlying rock. Thus he supported the views
of Airy and Pratt.
Daly (1940)  Isostasy is a principle in earth-science whereby one understands, why continents stand nearly 3
miles above the floor of deep ocean.
Base on the above concepts, the ideas of airy and Pratt aggradation and have scientific base.

Many Scholar’s tried to define isostasy like S.W. Wooldridge, R.S. Morgan, 1959, J.A. Steers (1961) etc.

J.A. steers Unstable earth

S.W. Wooldridge Spirit and purpose of geography
Walter penck Morphology analysis of
landforms
Thornbury Principles of geomorphology
L.C. king Morphology of earth
A. Holmes Principles of physical geology
Sparks Geomorphology
Thornbury Principles of geomorphology
K.W. butzer Geomorphology from the earth
W.M. Davis The geomorphic cycle
B. Embleton Process of geomorphology
J. thornes Geomorphology and time
 R.J. small Morphology of earth
John playfair Illustration of the huttonian
theory of earth
Lobeck Geomorphology
Dury River and river terraces
Strahler Physical Geography

MILANKOVITCH CYCLE

 The shape of Earth’s orbit: Eccentricity

 The title of its axis: Obliquity
 Direction of its axis: Precession
 These cycles cause variations in the amount of solar energy reaching the earth.
 These Milankovitch cycles are named after the Siberian Mathematician, Milutin Milankovitch, who used them to
explain the advance and retreat of the polar ice caps.

BASIC GEOMOPHOLOGY

 Classification of Relief Features by R.D. Salisbury Catastrophism =It is the geological theory that the Earth’s
(1919): landscape and shape were formed by sudden, violent and
1. First Order: Continents and Oceans short lived events.

2. Second Order (Endogenic origin): Mountains,

Fault, Fold, Plains, Plateaus, lowlands, Rifts and
Rift Valleys.

3. Third Order (Exogenic origin): Caves, dunes,

beaches, cliffs, valleys, gorges and volcanoes.

ORIGIN OF UNIVERSE

Monistic concepts Dualistic concepts

 Gaseous theory  Planetesmial theory
 Nebular hypothesis  Tidal Theory
 Meteoric hypothesis  Binary state
 Inter staller Dust hypothesis

**** Big Bang Theory:

INTERIOR OF THE EARTH

 ‘In a real sense, the Earth’s internal heat engine builds mountains and its external heat engine, the sun, destroys
them’-------F. Press and Siever (1974)
DENSITY VOLUME
 Crust (Density 2.8 -3.0 ) and 0-30 km 1. Crust: 1%
 Mantle (Density 4.3 -5.5) and 30 to 2900 km 2. Mantle: 84%
 Core (Density 12.0 to 13.6) 2900 km to 6371 km 3. Core: 15%
 CHEMICAL DIVISION BY E. SWES MACHANICAL DIVISION BY A. HOLMES
1. SIAL (Silica + Aluminium): Density 2.9 and Depth 1. Lithosphere (0-100 km): Crustal plate
50-300 km 2. Asthenosphere (100-200 km): Low Velocity zone
2. SIMA (Silica + Magnesium): Density 2.9 to 4.7 (Liquid and Plastic)
and Depth 1000-2000 km 3. Mesosphere: Complete ‘Mantle’
3. NIFE (Nickle and Ferrous): Density 11 4. Barysphere: Complete ‘Core’

ENTIRE EARTH: IN CRUST: (Lithosphere)

1. Maximum amount: Iron 1. Maximum O2 (46.7%)
2. Lowest: Aluminium 2. Lowest Mg (2.09%)

Temperature Decreasing rate = 1 Degree / 32 km

Average Density: 5.5 g/cm3

ORIGIN OF CONTINENTS AND OCEAN BASINS

Tetrahedral hypothesis 1875  Lowthian Green

Continental Drift Hypothesis 1908-10  F.B. Taylor
Continental Drift Theory / 1912  A. Wegner (German)
Displacement Theory o Carboniferous period: Pangea + Panthalasa
o Lauretia (North America, Europe, Asia and Greenland )
PYQ: o Gondwana (South America, Africa, India, Madagascar,
 Continental drift mainly Australia)=> Jurassic period further break down
propounded to explain:
 Geological similarities of  Proof of the theory
the coasts and o Jig Saw fit
Glaciations o Both side of Atlantic mountain, fossils, flora same
 Distribution of o Glossopteris: Ancient seed fern plant Glossopteris grew
landforms and ocean on all of the southern continents. (India, South Africa,
floors. Falkland, Australia, Antarctica)
o Glacier Grooves: Grooves and rock deposits left by
ancient glaciers are found on different continents near
the equator.
o Tillite: The Gondwana system of sediments from India
has counterparts in other landmasses of the southern
hemisphere.
o Placer deposits: Gold Deposits in Ghana Come from Brazil
which once connected to Ghana.
o Leming Bird in the Scandinavian countries.

 Forces:
o Gravitational force
o Tidal force

Plate Tectonic Theory 1960  Word first used by Tujo Wilson in 1965.
 Theory given by Herry Hass.
 Concept Given by W.J. Morgan
 Two fundamental Basis of the plate tectonics:
1. Continental Drift theory (Wegner)
2. Sea floor spreading (Herry Hass)
  There are 6 major and 20 minor plates.
 Density: Mountain <<Plateaus<<Plains<< Ocean surfaces<<
Ocean Bottom.
 3 types of plate boundaries:
1. Constructive margins/ Divergent boundaries.
2. Destructive
3. Conservative/ Transform plate boundaries.
 Nazca plate is moving towards East.
 Indo Australian plate is moving towards North.
 Cocos plate is moving towards North East.
 Pacific plate is moving towards West.

PYQ OF PLATE TECTONIC THEORY

Sea Floor Spreading 1960  Harry Hess.

THEORY OF ISOSTASY

‘Isostasy simply means a mechanical stability between the upstanding part and low lying basin on a rotating earth’
 Word given by Dutton and borrowed from Greek work ‘Isostasios’.
 Dutton ‘Same weight but different density’
 Level of compensation

 ‘This Doctrine states that whenever equilibrium exists on the Earth’s surface equal mass must underline equal surface
area’---J.A. STEERS (The unstable earth)

 Concept of SIR GEORGE AIRY: ‘Uniform Density with Varying Depth’.

o A part above and 9 parts below.

 Concept of PRATT: ‘Uniform Depth with varying density’. (Mountain< Plateau< Plain<Ocean substratum)

 Concept of Bowi: ‘Equal mass under equal surface area’

EARTH MOVEMENT
FOLD BASICS FAULT:
 Strike-Dip makes 90 degree angle. 1. Normal fault
 Types of Fold: 2. Reverse fault
1. Symmetrical fold 3. Lateral fault:
2. Asymmetrical fold  Left Lateral (Sinister fault)
3. Monoclinal fold: One steep fold, one gentle  Right Lateral (Decstral fault) E.g. San Andreas
4. Isoclinal fold: Same force from both side fault
5. Recumbent fold: one side horizontally over 4. Step fault
another 5. Horst
6. Overturned fold: not broken unless 6. Rift valley / Graben Valley
recumbent
7. Open fold: Angle > 90 degree but < 180
degree
8. Closed fold: Acute angle < 90 Degree
9. Nappes : Thrust
 Autochthon: Near
 Allochthonous block: Far
10. Klippe: A solitary outcrop of the Nappe in the
middle of autochthonous material
11. Parautochthonous: Rock having a character
intermediate between that of autochthonous
rock and Allochthonous rock. Poor correlation between rock resistance and
topographical form is the strongly presumptive of fault
line scrap.
 VOLCANIC ACTIVITY PYQ
1. Sea Floor spreading, subduction boundaries and hot spots: At all the places volcanic activities are
associated.

2. HAWAII ISLAND:
 On Hawaii islands volcanic eruptions are effusive types.
 Less viscous lava erupt quietly
 Hawaii island is a region of volcanic activity
 Convergent plate margins are sites of volcanic eruptions.

3. Mauna Loa, in Hawaii is famous for : Continuous monitoring of atmospheric CO2 since 1957

4. Main source of a vast reservoir of relatively inert nitrogen in homo sphere is: Volcanic Activities.

5. Volcanic eruption + Combustion of fossil fuels are the sources of carbon released.

6. Strato Volcano:
 Involves inter layered strata
 Magma is Glassy and highly viscous

ROCKS

FQP, AMO

‘A rock should be conceived as a product of its environment when environment is changed rock changed’---Lobeck

 In the crust maximum elements founded are

1. Oxygen
2. Silicon
3. Aluminium
4. Iron
5. Calcium
6. Magnesium

 Classification of rocks:

IGNEOUS ROCK SEDIMENTARY ROCK METAMORPHOSIS ROCK

 No layering  Via Erosion  Most rough
 No chemical weathering but  Comprises 75% of crust but helps  Devoid of fossils
physical and mechanical only 5% in making Slate=> phylite
weathering  Fossils are found phylite=> Schist
 Without fossil  Oil storage mostly found in the Grabo=> Serpentinite
 90% of crust comprise igneous sedimentary rock
rock (Most abundant)  They are transported rocks
*Granite associated with the  Transformation
Cratons. Shale=> Slate
Granite => Gneiss Limestone=>Marble
Basalt=> Amphibolite Chalk/ Dolomite=> Marble
Basalt=> Schist rock Sandstone=> Quartzite
 Conglomerate=> Quartzite

Rock Conglomerate: All these transportation, fluvial and consolidation are important.

 According to Texture (particle): Igenous rock

1. Pegmatitic: Very Big particle to Big Particle
2. Phaneritic: Big particle
3. Aphanitic: Small particle
4. Glassy: No particles
5. Porphyritic: Mixed particles

 According to Chemical structure

1. Acid igneous rock: silica (65 to 85%)
2. Basic igneous rock: Silica (45 to 60%)
3. Intermediate igneous rock: Silica
4. Ultra Basic igneous rock: silica (> 45%)

 Rocks:
1. Ex-foliation (E.g. Ranchi Plateau)
2. Mesa (Broad and Big) and Butte
3. Hogback
4. Cuesta

5. Unconformity: rocks of different ages

6. Disconformity: Type of unconformity in geology that occurs between parallel payers of sedimentary rocks.

SEISMIC WAVES

1. P waves
2. S waves
3. Pg
4. Sg
5. P* (P-Pg)
6. S* (S-Sg)
7. Isoseismic lines: Same Intensity
8. Homoseismal lines: Same time
PYQ SERIES:
 Outer Core is differentiated from inner core on the basic of variations in the velocity of P WAVES.
 Cambay Graben is associated with Bhuj Earthquake, that means Cambay Graben is due to Faulting.
 Kratatoa Volcanic eruption is due to the Indian Australian and Eurasian plate tectonics.
 Most Destructive wave at the epicenter: L WAVE Purely shear wave, while surface waves are most destructive
wave
 IMD divided into 4 Seismic zones (II, III, IV and V)
 Point of origin of Earth Quake is called as ‘Seismic focus’
 A: the Magnitude of an earthquake is greater near the epicenter.

THEORIES OF MOUNTAIN BUILDING

1. Mountain Ridge: Same age

2. Mountain Range: Same age but different structure
3. Mountain chain: E.g. Appalachian mountain chain
4. Mountain Group
5. Cordillera: E.g. Pamir knot

Classification of mountains:

1. Folded mountains: Himalayas, Alps, Atlas, Rockies, and Andes etc.

2. Block Mountains: Great Basin Range (USA), Black forest (Europe), Salt Range (Pakistan), Sierra Nevada
(California), Satpura.
3. Dome mountains: Sinai of USA, Black Hills (USA), Big Horse
4. Mountain of Accumulation / Volcanic mountain: E.g. Mt Shasta (USA), Hud Mountain (USA), Mount Rainier
(USA), Mt. Mayon (Philippines), Mt. Fujiyama (Japan), Popocatepetl (Mexico), Lawson peak (California),
Vesuvius (Itlay), Aconcagua (Chile), Cotopaxi (Ecuador=Highest of the world volcanic mountain)
5. Residual Mountain: E.g. Satpura, Mahadev, Aravali, Appalachian (USA).

Classification of mountain according to different periods:

1. Pre-Cambrian
2. Caledonian: Residual mountains
3. Hercynian: Block mountains (E.g. Black forest)
4. Alpine: Young fold mountains

GEOSLNCLINAL THEORY

 Hall and Dana has given Geosynclinal Theory Geosynclinal orogen theory of Kober:
1. Theory of Haug:
 4 Rigid Mass
 4 Geosynclines
2. Concept of Evans
3. Concept of Schuchert (Mono Geosyncline,
Poly geosyncline, Meso Geosyncline)
4. Stages of Geosynclinal
4.1. Lithogenesis
4.2. Orogenesis
4.3. Gliptogenesis
 Other Theories:
1. Thermal contraction theory (Jefferys)
2. Continental sliding theory (Daly) in our
mobile earth, 1926
3. Convectional current theory of Holmes
4. Radioactive theory of Jolly

PYQ
1. The Rigid waves surrounding the Geosyncline were called by Kober: Kretogen.
2. The concept of geosyncline was propounded by: Hall and Dana
3. A Narrow block elevated between two normal faults is called: Horst.
4. Crustal compression, force is responsible for syncline formation.

WEATHERING AND MASS WASTING

1. Denudation= weathering + Erosion + Mass wasting.

2. Disintegration=Physical factors: Heat, Forst and Water
3. Decomposition=Chemical Factors: oxygen, Hydrogen, Carbonation
4. Gradation: The process of leveling and smoothing the land’s surface through the use of natural agents such as
rivers, wind, glaciers, groundwater and sea waves.

Controlling factor of weathering: Types of weathering:

1. Structure of rock 1. Physical weathering
2. Slope 2. Chemical weathering: Chemical decay of rocks is one of
3. Climate the outstanding features of humid tropical region
4. Vegetable because intensity of chemical weathering depends to
large extent on abundance of water and higher air
temperature.
 Chemical weathering is most effective in the cool and
temperature region.
 Spheroidal weathering is the result of chemical
weathering===Here water penetrates joints and dissolves
the rock cementing material.
 Rusting of iron by the oxidation.
3. Animal weathering
Landform created by weathering: Types of mass movement
1. Stone lattice 1. Fall: highest fall
2. Hogback  Further divided into Rock Fall, Debris Fall and Earth Fall.
3. Buttes 2. Slide
4. Ex foliated Dome  Slump, Rock, Debris and Earth
3. Flow
 Solifluction, Debris, Mud and Earth

4. Topple
5. Lateral Spread
Theories of Slope: 6. Creep
1. Slope Declining Theory: Davis  In periglacial Region
 2. Slope replacement theory: Penck o Solifluction: J.J. Anderson
Statement ‘The slope profiles are convex, o Congifluction: J. Daylik
plane or concave according to the o Cryoturbation: Bryan
circumstance the principle action’ 7. Slope: Elements of Slope
3. Parallel Retreat theory: L.C. King

SLOPE ARRANGEMENT:
1. Waxing slope
2. Free Face
3. Debris Slope
4. Wanning slope

PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTION

1. Corrosion: Process of erosion, the removal of materials by the solution.

2. Carbonation, process is responsible for the weathering of rock in the Karst region.
3.

CYCLE OF EROSION

 James Hutton given ‘Uniformitarianism’ where he talked about ‘No vestige of beginning and no prospect of an
end’.

W.M. DAVIS  Geographical cycle is a period of timer during which an uplifted landmass undergoes
its transformation by the process of land sculpture ending in to a low featureless plain
called as ‘Peneplain’
o A level of surface formed in the old age of fluvial cycle.
o A level surface formed as an end product of erosion.
 Trio of Davis: Landscape is the function of ‘Structure, process and time’.
 Monadnocks= inselbergs of penck
 Davis developed concept of cycle of erosion in Montana.
 Walter Penck

 Primarumpf: To represent characteristics landscape before upliftment.

 Aufsteigende Entwickelung: Waxing or accelerated rate of development.
 Gleichforminge Entwickelung: Uniform rate of development.
 Absteigende Entwickelung: Wanning or decelerating rate of development.
 He Said that Slope profiles are convex, plane or concave according to the
circumstances of the uplifting action

Lateral planation theory  G.K. Gilbert

 He has given concept of Pediment formation.
 Pediment situated between mountain front and Baijada in intermontane basin.

Panplain  Crickmey
 A plane formed by joining the flood plains.

Pediplain  L.C. King in the arid region

 ‘Landscape is the product of process, stucture and stage’
 The term proposed by Maxon and Anderson.
 Group of scholars stressed role of lateral erosion by streams in the formation of
pediments: Paige, Blackwelder, and Lawson
 According to Lawson: PEDIMENTS are formed by gradual recession of mountain
front caused by weathering and erosion.

Theory of cycle of erosion 1899 W.M. Davis  He gave concept of peneplain –old age of a fluvial cycle
and level surface formed as an end product of erosion.
 He also proposed slope declining theory.

Concept of parallel retreat 1924 Penck  In his work ‘Die morphologiche analyze.
and slope replacement
theory
Concept of base level 1875 J.W. Powell  According to the concept there is limit for maximum
vertical erosion by a river beyond which it cannot
degraded it valley.

Lateral planation theory 1882 G.K. Gilbert  Lateral planation theory regarding the pediment
formation.
 Theory advocates that formation of pediments to
lateral corrosion by streams.

 The concept of stream competence-Energy of stream

is measured by the product of its discharge, its slope
and acceleration of gravity.
Panplain Crickmay  Panplain –A surface formed at the meeting point of
flood plain.
Panfan Lawson  Used term panfan- to designate the termination of the
stage of geomorphic.

Etchplains 1934  E.J. Wayland in 1934 and Bailey Willis in 1936:

Originally coined to describe surfaces in East Africa.
 It is weathered planation surface that develops when
deep weathering occurs on a landscape.
 There are two types of Etchplains:
3. Mantled Etchplains: Flat weathering surface by
laterites
4. Stripped Etchplains: Mantled Etchplains that have
been dissected by rivers or retouched by
pedimentation.

Dynamic equilibrium theory 1960 J.T. hack  Rejection of Davis model
 Against the time dependent models
Hydraulic slope theory 1945 Robert E.  It was first to formalize the importance of topography
Horton to hill slope hydrology.
 Horton worked on rainfall and runoff throughout his
life.
Slope based formula 1930 C.K.  Tan Proporsonal Number of contour per mile * Contour
Wentworth interval.

DRAINAGE SYSTEM AND PATTERN

 GLACIAL LANDFORMS

Erosional Landforms Depositional landforms

1. Hanging Valley 1. Moraine
2. ‘U’ shaped Valley 2. Drumlins
3. Cirque or Corrie
4. Torn Glacio Fluvial Depositional landforms
5. Arete 1. Eskers
6. Horn 2. Kame
7. Nunatak 3. Kettles and Humockes
8. Crag Tail 4. Outwash plain
9. Roche Moutonee
10. Glacial Stairways
11. Fjords

PERIGLACIAL PROCESSES

1. Frost weathering/ Congelifraction

2. Frost heaving
3. Nivation (E.E. Mathes)
4. Fluvial process
5. Wind action
6. Involution
7. Tuffs Hummocks
8. Pingos
9. Thermokarst
10. Patterned Ground
11. Palsa
12. Apltiplanation Terrances
13. Tar
14. Nivation Hollows
15. Asymmertrical Valleys
16. Nivation Hollows

KARST / UNDERGROUND WATER LANDFORMS

EROSIONAL / UNDERGROUND WATER LANDFORMS DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORMS

1. Sink Hole
2. Shallow Hole
3. Doline
4. Uvala
5. Polije

TIDE RELATED THEORIES

1. Equilibrium Theory: Newton
2. Dynamic Theory: Laplace
3. Progressive wave Theory: Whewell
4. Stationary wave Theory: Harris