1.
Introduction to Clause Structure
Syntactic Functions
• Clause = a grammatical unit with at least a subject and a verb (predicator).
• Key syntactic functions:
o Subject: the doer or topic of the clause.
o Predicator: the verb or verb phrase.
o Object:
▪ Direct object: receives the action.
▪ Indirect object: benefits from or is affected by the action.
o Complement:
▪ Subject complement: describes the subject (e.g. "She is smart").
▪ Object complement: describes the object (e.g. "They elected her
president").
o Adjunct: provides additional information (time, place, manner, reason);
optional.
Structures
• Basic clause types:
o SV (e.g., "She sleeps.")
o SVO (e.g., "He kicked the ball.")
o SVC (e.g., "She is a doctor.")
o SVOO (e.g., "He gave her a book.")
o SVOC (e.g., "They named him captain.")
2. Complementation of the Verb
Verb Valency
• Refers to how many arguments (participants) a verb requires.
o Avalent: No participants (e.g., "It rains.")
o Monovalent: One participant (e.g., "She sleeps.")
o Divalent: Two participants (e.g., "He saw her.")
o Trivalent: Three participants (e.g., "She gave him a gift.")
Patterns
• Intransitive verbs: no object (e.g., "He sleeps.")
• Transitive verbs: require a direct object (e.g., "She reads books.")
• Ditransitive verbs: direct + indirect object (e.g., "He gave her flowers.")
• Complex transitive verbs: direct object + object complement (e.g., "They made
him leader.")
Finite and Non-finite Clauses
• Finite: have tense (e.g., "I know that she left.")
• Non-finite: no tense, often using:
o Infinitive: "to go"
o Gerund: "going"
o Participle: "gone," "going"
3. Processes, Participants, Circumstances
(from Systemic Functional Linguistics, Halliday)
Types of Processes
• Material: actions/events (e.g., "He built a house.")
• Mental: sensing (e.g., "She likes music.")
• Relational: being/having (e.g., "She is happy.")
• Verbal: saying (e.g., "He said hello.")
• Behavioral: physiological/psychological behavior (e.g., "She laughed.")
• Existential: existence (e.g., "There is a problem.")
Participants
• Who/what is involved in the process:
o Actor: does the action.
o Goal: receives the action.
o Senser: experiences mental processes.
o Phenomenon: thing experienced.
o Sayer, Receiver, Target, etc.
Circumstances
• Add detail: when, where, how, why.
o Types: time, place, manner, cause, accompaniment, condition,
concession, etc.
4. Clause Combinations
Clause Relationships
• Parataxis (coordination): equal clauses (e.g., "She sang and he danced.")
• Hypotaxis (subordination): one clause depends on another (e.g., "Because she
was tired, she left early.")
Logical-semantic relations:
• Elaboration: restating, clarifying (e.g., "He’s a teacher, that is, he teaches
math.")
• Extension: adding new info (e.g., "She came and stayed.")
• Enhancement: adding conditions, reasons, time, etc. (e.g., "She left because
she was tired.")
Reporting Speech and Thought
• Direct: “He said, ‘I’m tired.’”
• Indirect: “He said he was tired.”
• Often involves verbal and mental processes.
5. Verbal Group
Basic Structure
• Auxiliary verbs + main verb
o Tense, aspect, mood, voice are expressed here.
o e.g., "has been eating" → [have (perfect) + be (progressive) + eat (main
verb)]
Semantics
• Processes (as above)
• Expressing experience: verbal groups allow nuance:
o "She might have been working" = uncertainty + past + continuous action.
6. Tense, Aspect, Modality
Tense
• Past vs. Present vs. Future
o e.g., "walked," "walks," "will walk"
Aspect
• Progressive: ongoing (e.g., "is walking")
• Perfect: completed (e.g., "has walked")
• Perfect Progressive: "has been walking"
Modality
• Degrees of certainty, obligation, possibility
o Modal verbs: can, could, will, would, shall, should, may, might, must
o Types:
▪ Epistemic: possibility, probability (e.g., "She might come.")
▪ Deontic: obligation/permission (e.g., "You must go.")
7. Nominal Group
Functions
• Head noun + modifiers
o e.g., "The big red balloon in the sky"
Definite, Indefinite, Generic
• Definite: specific (the cat)
• Indefinite: any one (a cat)
• Generic: general truth (Cats are playful.)
Components
• Determiners: a, the, this, that, my
• Pre-modifiers: adjectives, noun modifiers (e.g., "big red")
• Post-modifiers:
o Prepositional phrases: "the man with the hat"
o Relative clauses: "the car that I bought"
o Noun complement clauses: "the idea that she should leave"
8. Adjectival and Adverbial Groups
Adjectival Group
• Structure: premodifiers (e.g., very) + adjective + postmodifiers (rare)
o e.g., "very happy," "proud of his son"
Adverbial Group
• Function: modifies verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs
o e.g., "very quickly," "so easily"
Degrees of Comparison
• Positive: big
• Comparative: bigger
• Superlative: biggest
• May involve intensifiers like very, too, more, rather.
9. Prepositional Phrase
Syntactic Functions
• Act as:
o Adverbials: "She left in a hurry."
o Postmodifiers: "The girl with red hair."
o Complements: "She is in love."
Semantic Roles
• Time: in the morning, after dinner
• Place: on the table, at the park
• Cause/Reason: because of the noise
• Instrument: with a knife
Stranded Prepositions
• Occurs in questions or relative clauses:
o "Who did you talk to?"
o "The person whom I spoke to."
Summary Chart (Quick Reference)
Topic Key Elements
Clause Structure Subject, Object, Complement, Adjunct
Complementation Verb patterns, valency
Types of processes, participants,
Processes etc.
circumstances
Clause Combos Coordination, subordination, logic
Structure of verb phrases, expressing
Verbal Group
experience
Tense, Aspect, Modality Time, ongoing actions, speaker attitude
Nominal Group Determiners, modifiers, complements
Adjective/Adverb
Degrees, modification
Groups
Prepositional Phrase Functions, meanings, stranding
