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Research Methods and Analysis

CSE MAINS Syllabus
• Qualitative and quantitative methods.
• Techniques of data collection.
• Variables, sampling, hypothesis, reliability and validity.

QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE METHODS

Before analyzing methods, it is necessary to understanding phenomenon. It is a procedure of
understand difference between ‘scientific method’ empirical investigation. It is not concerned with
and ‘scientific methodology’. building knowledge but how knowledge is built,
i.e., how facts are collected, classified and analysed.
Method is a tool or a technique used to collect data.
The approach of a social scientist is
It is a procedure for obtaining knowledge based on
different from that of a natural scientist. A natural
empirical observations and logical reasoning.
scientist does not participate in the phenomenon, he
Methodology is logic of scientific investigation.
studies,
Methodology means description, explanation and
• does not interview elements,
justification of methods and not the methods
• has a laboratory for conducting experiments,
themselves.
• uses instruments and chemical and
When we talk of methodology of any social
• can control many variables, in his experiment.
science, say of sociology, we refer to the method(s)
Against this, a social scientist….
used by sociologist, e.g. survey method,
• participates in the phenomenon under study,
experimental method, case study method,
• interviews elements from whom collects data,
statistical method and so on. The word ‘technique’
• has no laboratory,
is also used in the contexts of inquiry of any science,
• does not use any instruments for measuring etc.,
e.g., techniques in a mass opinion, survey, for
like barometers and so on,
conducting interviews, for observation and so on.
• cannot control many variables.
There is a right way and a wrong way or a good way
Thus, the difference in the approach of
and a bad way to do anything in science as in any
two scientists is of methodology and not method.
other work. The techniques of a science are the
Methodology refers to philosophy on which research
ways of doing the work of that science.
is based. This philosophy includes assumptions and
Methodology is concerned with techniques in this
values that serve as basis (rationale) for research
sense.
and are used for interviewing data and reaching
Methodology inquires into the potentialities
conclusions. It is said that the methodology used in
and limitations of some technique or other. It is a
natural sciences is more rigorous than that of social
plan and procedure for carrying out the research.
sciences.
It refers to research techniques and strategies for
obtaining valid information. It is an approach to
the cost of poll violence (in cores) in Lok Sabha
QUANTITATIVE METHOD:
elections in last ten elections in India? How many
This research employs quantitative measurement and mandays have been lost due to strikes and lockouts in
the use of statistical analysis. For example, what industries in India in the last two decades?
percentage of medical, engineering, law, arts, science This type of research is based on the methodological
and commerce students takes drugs or uses alcohol? principles of positivism and adheres to the standards
What percentage of prisoners rejects prison norms of strict sampling and research design.
and internalizes norms of the inmate world? What
QUALITATIVE METHOD
percentage of women leading unhappy marital life
takes initiative to divorce their husbands? What was

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This research presents non-quantitative type of In the former, the hypotheses are formulated
analysis. It describes reality as experienced by the before the study; in the latter, hypotheses are
groups, communities, individuals etc. For example, propounded either during the study or after
how does the structure and organisation of wall-less the study.
prisons (or minimum security jails) differ from that In the former, concepts are operationalized; in
of the central or district jails (or maximum security the latter concepts are only sensitized.
jails) and contribute to the reformation and In the former, in designing research, the design
resocialisation of criminals? What has been the is prescriptive; in the latter, the design is not
partywise stand on women’s reservation in prescriptive.
Parliament and state assemblies? In the former, sampling is planned before data
collection; in the latter, it is planned during
Difference in Designing Quantitative data collection.
and Qualitative Method In the former, sampling is representative; in the
Quantitative researchers tend to be more latter, it is not representative.
prescriptive than qualitative researchers. The later In the former, all types of measurements/scales
operate with as few prescriptions as possible. are employed; in the latter, mostly nominal
Some people hold that the qualitative scales are used.
researchers usually do not employ a design. They In the former, for data collection, generally
are more open and flexible and have greater freedom investigators are employed in big researches;
of choice. But this is not correct. Investigators in the latter, the researchers analyse data
engaged in qualitative research are equally single-handed.
concerned with how, what, where and when the data In the former, in processing data, usually
are to be collected. However, some differences in inductive generalization is made; in the latter,
designing the two types of research (quantitative is usually analytical generalization are made.
described here as ‘former’ and qualitative as In reporting in the former research the finding
‘later) may be pointed here (Sarantakos): are highly integrated; in the latter, the findings
In the former research, the problem is specific are mostly not integrated.
and precise in the later research, it is general
and loosely structured.

TECHNIQUES OF DATA COLLECTION

• Questionnaire • Interview
• Observation • Case Study
their expenses. The follow up request for returning
QUESTIONNAIRE the questionnaire is made through repeated letters.
Questionnaire is described as “a document that Questionnaire is used as a tool when…
contains a set of questions, the answers to which are • Very large samples are desired,
to be provided personally by the respondents”. • Costs have to be kept low,
Questionnaire is the structured set of questions • the target groups who are likely to have high
usually sent by mail, though sometimes it is delivered response rates are specialized,
by hand also. The hand delivery could be at home, • ease of administration is necessary, and
school/college, office, organization, and so on. The • moderate response rate is considered
importance of the survey is explained to the satisfactory.
respondents through a covering letter. Usually, a Following guidelines should be followed
self-addressed stamped envelop is sent to the for framing and asking questions:
respondents along with the questionnaire to reduce • Questions should be clear and unambiguous:
The question like, “What do you think about the

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proposed peace plan for Kashmir?” may not be provides information about a specific aspect of
clear to respondent who does not know anything the topic. For example, for determining the type
about the peace plan. of family (whether it is husband-dominant, wife-
• Questions should be relevant: Sometimes the dominant, equalitarian), the question “who takes
respondents are asked to give opinions on issues decisions in your family” is a primary question.
on which they have never given any thought, • Secondary questions elicit information which
e.g., “What is your opinion on the economic do not relate directly to the topic, i.e., the
policies of the BJP, the Congress and the CPI information is of secondary importance. They
parties?” Such questions are bound to be only guard the truthfulness of the respondents,
disregarded by the respondents. e.g., in the above topic, the question “who
• Questions should be short: Long and decides the nature of gift to be given in marriage
complicated items are to be avoided. The to family relative” or “who finally selects the
respondent should be able to read an item boy with whom the daughter is to be married”
quickly, understand its meaning and think of an are the secondary questions.
answer without difficulty. • The tertiary questions are of neither primary
• Negative questions should be avoided: The nor of secondary importance. These only
appearance of a negation in the question paves establish a framework that allows convenient
the way for easy misinterpretation. For example, data collection and sufficient information
asking to agree or disagree with the statement, without exhausting or biasing the respondent.
“India should not recognize the military rule in
Closed-ended and Open-ended Questions:
Fiji”, a sizeable portion of the respondents will
not read the word ‘not’ and answer on that basis. • The closed-ended questions are the fixed-choice
• Biased terms should be avoided: Prejudice questions. They require the respondent to choose
affects the answers. For example, the question, a response from those provided by the
“Have military rulers in the neighbouring researcher. Here is one example: “Whom do you
country always hampered our country’s consider an ideal teacher?” (a) who takes
progress?” may encourage some respondents to teaching seriously; (b) who is always available to
give particular response more than other students for discussions and guidance; (c) whose
questions do. approach to students’ problems is flexible; (d)
• Respondents must be competent to answer: who does not believe in punishing students; (e)
The researcher should always ask himself who takes interest in co-curricular and extra-
whether the respondents he has chosen are curricular activities.
competent enough to answer questions on the • The open-ended questions are free-response
issue of research. For example, asking daily questions which require respondents to answer in
wage labourers to give their views on ‘communal their own words. For example: (1) Whom do
violence’ may not be rational. Similarly, asking you consider an ideal teacher? (2) How would
students to indicate the manner in which you rate the performance of the last government?
university’s total income ought to be spent will (3) What do you feel is the most important issue
be wrong because students may not have fairly facing India today?
good knowledge of the nature of activities and The advantages of open-ended questions are:
the costs involved in them. • The researcher gets insight in respondent’s
• Respondents must be willing to answer: Many understanding.
a time people are unwilling to share opinions • When the total answers categories are very large
with others, e.g., asking Muslims about (say, 50 or more), it would be awkward to list all
Pakistan’s attitude towards Muslims in India. of them on a questionnaire; but if some were
omitted, then there would not be appropriate
Types of Questions: answers available for all respondents.
Primary, Secondary and Tertiary: • Since the respondent gets freedom in answering,
• Primary Questions elicit information directly the researcher gets more and varied information
related to the research topic. Each question based on the respondent’s logic and thought

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processes. Sometimes, the information and • The respondent who does not know the response
responses received are so unexpected that the guesses and chooses one of the convenient
researcher’s ideas are completely changed. responses or gives an answer randomly.
• They are preferable for complex issues that • Detecting the mistake whether the respondent
cannot be condensed into a few small categories. has ticked the right answer is not possible.
The disadvantages of open-ended questions are : Direct and Indirect Questions :
• Sometimes responses received are irrelevant. • Direct questions are personal questions which
• It is difficult to classify and code all responses. elicit information about the respondent
• Since the data are not standardized, statistical himself/herself, e.g., “Do you believe in God?”
analysis and computation of percentages become • Indirect questions seek information about other
difficult. people, e.g., “Do you think that people of your
• Sometimes the responses given are very lengthy status and age believe in God now-a-days?”
and analyzing them becomes time-consuming. Other examples are:
• Semi-literate respondents find it difficult to • Indirect Question : Do college teachers these
answer open questions since they require better days read more English or Hindi Books?
ability to express one’s feelings. Direct Question : Do you read English books?
On the other hand, the advantages of closed-ended • Indirect Question : How would you describe
questions are: the relations among members in your family?
• They provide a greater uniformity of responses. • Direct Question : Do you quarrel with your
• It is easy to code, score and process standard spouse frequently/occasionally/rarely/never?
answers which saves time and money. Nominal, Ordinal and Interval Questions:
• The respondent has not to use much brain as he • Nominal question is one in which its response
is often clearer about the meaning of question. falls in two or more categories, e.g.,
• Little time is taken to complete questionnaire. male/female; rich/poor, married/unmarried;
• Answers can be compared from person to rural/urban; illiterate/educated; Shia/Sunni;
person. Hindu/Muslim. Nominal question is also called
• Irrelevant responses are not received and the classification scale.
answers are relatively complete, e.g., an open- • Ordinal question is one in which the responses
ended question “how often do you smoke” may are placed in rank order of categories. The
receive an answer “whenever I feel like categories may be ranked from highest to lowest,
smoking”, but a closed-ended question may greatest to least, or first to last.
receive an answer, “one packet a day, or two Examples:
packets in a day, or four cigarettes in a day”, and Smoking: regularly/occasionally/never
so on. Reserving 33 per cent seats for women in
• Response rate is high, particularly in sensitive Parliament: Agree/disagree/don’t know
questions like income, age, etc. If the answer in Relations with colleagues in office:
closed-ended question is a category, the excellent/satisfactory/dissatisfactory/can’t say
respondent may easily identify himself with the Ordinal scales are sometimes referred to as ranking
range in which his income/age falls. scales.
The disadvantages of closed-ended questions are: • Interval question is one in which the distance
• The respondent may not get all alternative between two numbers is equal. For example:
responses as some important responses might Present age: 10 or below/11-20/21-30/31-40/41
have been omitted by the researcher. and above
• The respondent does not think and does not Income per annum: Below Rs. 18,000/18,000-
involve himself in giving free information. He 36,000/36,000-54,000/54,000-72,000/Above
ticks even wrong answer. 72,000
• Many a time the respondents do not find those Age at marriage: Below 18/18-22/22-26/26-
answers in the closed questions which 30/Above 30.
correspond to their true feelings or attitudes. Steps in Questionnaire Construction

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Questionnaires are constructed in a systematic meaning of certain concepts, the respondent may
manner. The process goes through a number of leave the question blank.
inter-related steps. The most commonly steps are Questionnaires do not provide an opportunity to
(Sarantakos): collect additional information while they are
Preparation: The researcher thinks of various being completed.
items to be covered in the questionnaire, Researchers are not sure whether the person to
arrangement of these items in relation to one whom the questionnaire was mailed has himself
another, and taking into consideration questions answered the questions or somebody else has
prepared and used in other similar studies. filled up the questionnaire.
Constructing the first draft: The researcher Many questions remain unanswered. The partial
formulates a number of questions including response affects the analysis.
direct/indirect, closed/open-ended and The respondent can consult other persons before
primary/secondary/tertiary questions. filling in the questionnaire. The responses,
Self-evaluation: The researcher thinks about therefore, cannot be viewed as his opinions.
relevance, symmetry, clarity in language, etc. The reliability of respondent’s background
External evaluation: The first draft is given to information cannot be verified. A middle-class
one or two experts/colleagues for scrutiny and person can identify himself as rich person or a
suggestions for changes. person of intermediate caste can describe himself
Revision: After receiving suggestions, some as upper-caste person.
questions are eliminated, some changed and Since the size of the questionnaire has to be kept
some new questions added. small, full information cannot be secured from
Pre-test or pilot study: A pre-test or a pilot study the respondents.
is undertaken to check the suitability of the There is lack of depth or probing for a more
questionnaire as a whole. specific answer.
Revision: The minor and major changes may Advantages of Questionnaire
be made on the basis of experience gained in pre- Lower cost: Questionnaires are less expensive
testing. than other methods. Even the staff required is
Second pre-testing: The revised questionnaire is not much as either the researcher himself may
then subjected to a second test and amended, if mail or one or two investigators may be
necessary. appointed for hand-distributing the
Preparing final draft: After editing, checking questionnaires.
spelling, space for response, pre-coding, and the Time saving: Since the respondents may be
final draft is prepared. geographically dispersed and sample size may be
Limitations of Questionnaire very large, the time required for getting back the
The mailed questionnaires can be used only questionnaires may be little greater but usually
for educated people. This restricts the number of less than that for face-to-face interviews. Thus,
respondents. since all questionnaires are sent simultaneously
The return rate of questionnaires is low. The and most of the replies are received in 10-15
common return rate is 30 to 40 per cent. days, schedules take months to complete. In
The mailing address may not be correct which simple terms, questionnaires produce quick
may omit some eligible respondents. Thus, the results.
sample selected many a time is described as Accessibility to widespread respondents:
biased. When the respondents are separated
Sometimes different respondents interpret geographically, they can be reached by
questions differently. The misunderstanding correspondence which saves travel cost.
cannot be corrected. No interviewer’s bias: Since the interviewer is
There may be bias in the response selectivity not physically present at interviewee’s place, he
because the respondent having no interest in the cannot influence his answers, either by
topic may not give response to all questions. prompting or by giving his own opinion or by
Since the researcher is not present to explain the misreading the question.

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Greater anonymity: The absence of the social reality. Since the interviewer spends some
interviewer assures anonymity which enables time with the respondents, he can understand
respondent to express free opinions and answers their feelings and attitudes more clearly, and
even to socially undesirable questions. The seek additional information wherever necessary
absence of the interviewer assures privacy to the and make information meaningful for him.
respondents because of which they willingly give Exploration: Interview provides insight into
details of all events and incidents they would unexplored dimensions of the problem. In the
have not revealed otherwise. problem of “exploitation of widows by the in-
Respondent’s convenience: The respondent can laws and office colleagues”, it is the personal
fillin the questionnaire leisurely at his interview with the victims which enables the
convenience. He is not forced to complete all interviewer to get details about widows’ position
questions at one time. Since he fills up the in the support system, and their sticking to their
questionnaire in spare time, he can answer easy traditional values which make their life
questions first and take time for difficult miserable and adjustment difficult. The
questions. interview can prove to be effective exploratory
Standardized wordings: Each respondent is device for identifying new variables for study
exposed to same words and therefore there is and for sharpening of conceptual clarity. Even
little difference in understanding questions. The the new hypotheses can be thought of for testing.
comparison of answers is thus facilitated. For example, in the study of problems faced by
No variation: Questionnaires are a stable, husbands and wives in inter-caste and inter-
consistent and uniform measure, without community marriages, probing their attitudes,
variation. beliefs and behaviour patterns in considerable
depth, one can come up with interesting data
INTERVIEW about different aspects of adjustment.
Interview is verbal questioning. As a research Characteristics of Interview
tool or as a method of data collection, interview Black and Champion have pointed out the
is different from general interviewing with following characteristics of an interview:
regard to its preparation, construction and • Personal communication: There is a face-to-
execution. This difference is that: research face contact, conversational exchange and verbal
interview is prepared and executed in a interaction between the interviewer and the
systematic way, it is controlled by the researcher respondent.
to avoid bias and distortion, and it is related to a • Equal status: The status of the interviewer and
specific research question and a specific purpose. the interviewee is equal.
Lindzey Gardner (1968) has defined interview as • Questions are asked and responses received
“a two-person conversation, initiated by the verbally.
interviewer for the specific purpose of obtaining • Information is recorded by the interviewer and
research-relevant information and focused by not the respondent.
him on the content specified by the research • The relationship between the interviewer and the
objectives of description and explanation”. interviewee, who are strangers to each other, is
In the research interview, thus, the interviewer transitory.
asks specific questions pertaining to research • The interview is not necessarily limited to two
objectives/criteria and the respondent restricts his persons. It could involve two interviewers and a
answers to specific questions posed by the group of respondents, or it could be one
interviewer. interviewer and two or more respondents.
Functions of Interview • There is considerable flexibility in the format of
The two major functions of the interview the interview.
technique are described as under: Types of Interview
Description: The information received from the There are many types of interview which differ
respondent provides insight into the nature of from one another in terms of structure, the
interviewer’s role, number of respondents involved in

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the interview. Some types of interviews are the questions. In this type of interviewing, the
employed in both quantitative and qualitative interviewer is expected to act in a neutral manner
researches but others are used in one research type offering the same impression to all the
only. respondents. The purpose is to reduce the
Unstructured V/s structured interviews: interviewer’s bias to the minimum and achieve
In the unstructured interview, there are no the highest degree of informality in procedure.
specifications in the wording of the questions or This form of interview is employed in
the order of the questions. The interviewer quantitative research.
forms questions as and when required. The Standardized V/s unstandardised interviews:
structure of these interviews is flexible, being In standardized interviews, answer to each
presented in the form of guide. In this interview, question is standardized as it is determined by a
the interviewer has only the general nature of the set of response categories given for this purpose.
questions in mind. He has no prior indication of The respondents are expected to choose one of
the specific issues on which the questions are to the given options as the answer. For example,
be asked. He has not ordered questions in a the alternative answers could be yes/no/don’t
particular way. He has no time-limit for know; agree/disagree; illiterate/less
continuing the interview. Thus, what is asked educated/highly educated; for/against/undecided;
from one respondent in the beginning may be and so on. This is mainly used in quantitative
asked from the other respondent in the end and research.
from yet other respondent in the middle. Unstandardised interview is one in which the
The advantages of this type of (unstructured) responses are left open to the respondent. This is
interview are: used mainly in qualitative research.
• The questions being asked spontaneously, the Individual V/s group interviews:
interview can be conducted in the form of natural Individual interview is one in which the
conversation. interviewer interviews only one respondent at a
• There is a greater possibility of exploring in an time.
unrestricted manner. In group interview, more than one respondent
• Finding the interest of the respondent in a are interviewed simultaneously. The group can
specific aspect of the problem, the interviewer be small, say, of two individuals (e.g., husband
can focus his attention on that particular aspect. and wife, or two co-workers in a factory, etc.) or
But this type of interview has some limitations also: large, say, of 10 to 20 persons (e.g., all students
• The data obtained from different respondents in a class).
cannot be compared with each other. Self-administered V/s other administered
• With no systematic control over asking interviews:
questions, the reliability of the data becomes In self-administered interview, the respondent
doubtful. is supplied a list of questions along with
• The obtained data cannot be quantified. instructions for writing answers in the
• Much time can be wasted adding nothing or appropriate place on the interview form.
little to the knowledge already obtained. Time is In other administered interview, the inter-
also wasted in repetitions and unproductive viewer himself writes answers to questions on
conversations. the response sheet.
• Some aspects may be left out in discussions, Unique V/s panel interviews:
when conversation is focused on a few aspects. Unique interview is one in which the
The structured interview is based on the interviewer collects entire information in one
structured interview guide which is little interview. However, he is not barred for
different from the questionnaire. In reality, it is a approaching the interviewer for the second time
set of specific points and definite questions for seeking additional information.
prepared by the interviewer. It allows little In panel inter view, the interviewer collects
freedom to make adjustments to any of its information from the same group of respondents two
elements, such as content, wording, or order of or more times at regular intervals. If different

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respondents are involved in various stages for asking • Seek appointment from the respondent before
the same questions, it is called trend study. approaching him for the interview.
Personal V/s non-personal interviews: • Manipulate the situation of the interview in such
In the personal interview, there is a face-to- a way that only the respondent is available at the
face contact between the interviewer and the place of interview and others leave the place
interviewee, willingly.
In the non-personal interview there is no face- • Inform the respondent about the approximate
to-face relationship, but the information is time the interview is to last.
collected through telephone, computer or some • Begin interview by stating the organization he
other medium. represents, and explaining how he (respondent)
Conditions for A Successful Interview was selected for the interview.
Gardner has pointed out three conditions for • Appear with an attitude so that the respondent
successful interviewing: accessibility, understanding feels free to express his views.
and motivation. • Probe questions phrased in an impartial way.
Accessibility: For giving information, it is • On no account give an indication of own views.
important that the respondent understands what This will either prevent the respondent from
is required of him and he is also willing to giving the opposite view or he might favour the
provide information he possesses. The interviewer’s view. In either case, the answers
possibilities are that the respondent might have would misrepresent the respondent’s true
no information or he might have forgotten some opinion.
fact, or he is under emotional stress and • Increase the respondent’s motivation to
therefore, unable to give information or the cooperate.
question is so framed that he cannot answer it. • Reassure the respondent of keeping his identity a
Understanding: The respondent sometimes is secret.
not able to understand what is expected of him. • Training the interviewer that all applicable
Unless he understands the significance of the questions have to be asked in a given order.
research/survey, the extent of interview demand, Advantage of Interview
the concepts and the terms used, the nature of Some more advantages are:
answers which the interviewer expects from him, • the response rate is high,
his answers might be off the point. • in-depth probing is possible,
Motivation : The respondent needs to be • respondent’s confidence can be sought through
motivated not only for giving information but personal rapport,
also for giving accurate information. The fear of • interviewer can explain difficult terms and
consequences, embarrassment at ignorance, remove confusion and misunderstandings,
being suspicious about the interviewer, and • administration is easy because respondents are
dislike of the subject are some of the factors not required to be educated or handle long
which decrease the level of respondent’s questionnaires,
motivation. The interviewer, therefore, has to try • interviewer gets opportunity to observe
to reduce the effect of these factors. respondents’ non-verbal behaviour,
Process of Interviewing • identity of the respondent is known, and
It could be said that the training to the • since all questions asked by the interviewers are
interviewer or the process of training implies answered by the respondents, completeness of
explaining the interviewer the process of conducting the interview is guaranteed.
the interview in a number of stages. Each stage Disadvantages of Interview
including certain tasks. These are: • The interviewees can hide information or give
• Fully explain the researcher what the study is all wrong information because of fear of identity.
about, what the objectives of the study are and • Interviews are more costly and time-consuming
what aspects of the theme are to be focused. than questionnaires.
• Select and locate the sampled members. • The nature and extent of responses depends upon
interviewee’s mood. If he is tired, he will be

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distracted. If he is in hurry, he will try to dispose sometimes modify their views, sometimes
off the interviewer quickly. contradict themselves, and sometimes are so
• There could be variability in responses with swayed away by the situation that they react
different interviewers, particularly when differently altogether, e.g., clerks’ behaviour in
interview is unstructured. office; tone of voice, facial expressions and
• The interviewer may record the responses content of slogans by the demonstrators.
differently, depending upon his own • To provide more graphic description of social
interpretation sometimes. life than can be acquired in other ways. For
• If offers less anonymity than other methods. example, how do women behave when they are
• It is less effective for sensitive questions. physically assaulted by their husbands? How do
young widows behave when they are humiliated,
OBSERVATION harassed and exploited by the in-laws? How are
Lindsey Gardner has defined observation bounded labourers treated by their landlords?
as “selection, provocation, recording and encoding • To explore important events and situations.
of that set of behaviours and settings concerning There are many instances when little is known
organisms ‘in situ’ (naturalistic settings or familiar about the topic/issue. By being on the scene,
surroundings) which are consistent with empirical issues that might otherwise be overlooked are
aims”. In this definition, examined more carefully, e.g., visiting office
• Selection means that there is a focus in soon after the office hours and finding that the
observation and also editing before, during and married men and single women were working
after the observations are made. overtime and single men and married women had
• Provocation means that though observers do not gone home.
destroy natural settings but they can make subtle • It can be used as a tool of collecting information
changes in natural settings which increase in situations where methods other than
clarity. observation cannot prove to be useful, e.g.,
• Recording means that the observed workers’ behaviour during strike.
incidents/events are recorded for subsequent Types of Observation
analysis. Encoding involves simplification of
records. Participant and non-participant observation:::
• Participant observation is a method in which
Characteristics of Observation the investigator becomes a part of the situation
Scientific observation differs from other methods of he is studying. He involves himself in the setting
data collection specifically in four ways: (i) and group life of the research subjects. He
observation is always direct while other methods shares the activities of the community observing
could be direct or indirect; (ii) field observation takes what is going on around him, supplementing this
place in a natural setting; (iii) observations tend to be by conversations and interview. In India, M.N.
less structured; and (iv) it makes only the qualitative Srinivas had used this method in studying the
(and not the quantitative) study which aims at process of ‘sanskritisation’ in Mysore while
discovering subjects’ experiences and how subjects Andre Beteille had used it to study social
make sense of them (phenomenology) or how inequality in rural areas (Tanjore village) on the
subjects understand their life (interpretive). basis of class, status and power.
Loftland has said that this method is more The weaknesses in this type (participant) of
appropriate for studying lifestyles or sub-cultures, observation are:
practices, episodes, encounters, relationships, groups, • since the observer participates in events,
organizations, settlements and roles, etc. sometimes he becomes so involved that he loses
objectivity in observation;
Purpose of Observation • he influences the events;
• To capture human conduct as it actually happens. • he interprets events subjectively;
In other methods, we get a static comprehension • his presence so sensitizes the subjects that they
of people’s activity. In actual situation, they do not act in a natural way;

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• he may record some information but may fail to subjected to high levels of control and
record other information as well as to differentiation.
explain reasons why information was not • Unstructured observation is loosely organized
recorded; and the process is largely left to the observer to
• he fails to be precise about the procedures for define.
data accumulation; Natural and laboratory observation:
• since he fails to specify the procedures for • Natural observation is one in which observation
gathering information, others cannot replicate his is made in natural settings.
research findings for verification and validity; • Laboratory observation is one in which
• There is less attention to precision; and observation is made in a laboratory.
• this method cannot be used for studies where Direct and indirect observation:
people indulge in illegal activities. • In direct observation, the observer plays a
• In non-participant observation, the observer passive role, i.e., there is no attempt to control or
remains detached and does not participate or manipulate the situation. The observer merely
intervene in the activities of those who are being records what occurs.
observed. He merely observes their behaviour. • Indirect observation is one in which direct
Sometimes this places the persons being observation of the subject(s) is not possible
observed in an awkward position and their because either the subject is dead or refuses to
conduct becomes unnatural. But some say that take part in the study. The researcher observes
though initially the observer’s behaviour may the physical traces which the phenomena under
affect the behaviour of the observed but after a study have left behind and make conclusions
little while, less and less attention is paid to his about the subject, e.g., observing the site of
presence. This type of observation is more bomb explosion where the dead and the injured
useful as a tool of data collection because the people and vehicles destroyed is lying.
observer can choose the situations to be observed Convert and overt observation:
and can record the data freely. • In convert observation, subjects are unaware
Systematic/unsystematic observation : that they are being observed. Generally, the
Reiss (1971) has classified observation as researcher in this type of observation is himself a
systematic and unsystematic on the basis of the participant in all the activities; otherwise it
ability of the observational data to generate becomes difficult for him to explain his
scientifically useful information. presence. These observations are mostly
• The systematic observation is one in which unstructured.
explicit procedure is used in observation and • In overt observation, subjects are aware
recording by following certain rules, which that they are being observed. Sometimes this causes
permits the use of logic, and which makes them to act differently than they do normally. For
replication possible. example, if a policeman in a police station knows that
• The unsystematic observation does not follow his behaviour is being watched by a researcher, he
any rules or logic which makes replication will never think of using third-degree methods in
difficult. dealing with the accused person; rather he would
Naive and scientific observation: show that he is polite and sympathetic.
• Naïve observation is unstructured and unplanned Process of Observation
observation. One of the most striking aspects of observational
• It becomes scientific when it is systematically field research is the absence of standardised operating
planned and executed, when it is related to a procedures. As all cultures have their own distinctive
certain goal, and when it is subjected to tests and characteristics, different demands are placed on
controls. researchers. Since observation involves sensitive
Structured and unstructured observation: human interaction, it cannot be reduced to a simple
• Structured observation is organized and planned set of techniques. Yet some scholars have tried to
which employs formal procedure, has a set of point out the path that the observer in the fieldwork
well-defined observation categories, and is

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has to follow. Sarantakos has pointed out the Relating to the characteristics of the
following six steps in observation: observed: In getting information from the
Selection of the topic: This refers to investigated people, their characteristics play an
determining the issue to be studied through important role. The status of the interviewee vis-
observations, e.g., marital conflict, riot, caste à-vis the interviewer is a major factor in
Panchayat meeting in a village, child labourers in determining whether observation will be feasible
a glass factory, and so on. as a method of data collection. Many people
Formulation of the topic: This involves fixing who are to be observed give such importance to
up categories to be observed and pointing out their privacy because of their occupational
situations in which cases are to be observed. position, economic status, sub-cultural values
Research design: This determines identification and social norms that they do not permit the
of subjects to be observed, preparing observation observer to observe them in all situations. It is
schedule, if any, and arranging entry in situations easy to observe those who are in economically
to be observed. disadvantaged position relative to the well-to-do;
Collection of data: This involves familiarization easy to observe teachers, clerks, etc., than
with the setting, observation and recording. doctors and lawyers who have to maintain
Analysis of data: In this stage, the researcher sanctity and confidentiality of their relations with
analyses the data, prepares tables, and interprets their clients.
the facts. Basic Problems in Observation
Report writing: This involves writing of the Festinger and Katz have specified six basic
report for submission to the sponsoring agency problems:
or for publication. • Under what conditions are observations to be
Factors Affecting Choice of Observation made? How is the observation situation
Observers are influenced by a number of factors structured?
in the process of observation. Black and Champion • What behaviour is to be selected and recorded in
have identified three such factors: order to obtain the information required.
Relating to the problem: Certain types of • How stable are the conditions in which
situations are not easy to be observed, e.g., mafia observations can be made so that same results
group’s functioning, daily lifestyle of may be obtained under what appears to be same
professional criminals, prisoners in jails, patients conditions. Are the measures reliable?
in hospitals and so on. Some theoretical • What is the validity of the process which has
orientations like ethnomethodology (the study of been observed or inferred?
the methods used in everyday routine social • What evidence is there that some process with
activity), phenomenology (approach that functional unity is being observed?
observes the phenomena as perceived by the • Has an attempt been made to summarize what is
acting individual, emphasizing perception and observed in quantitative terms? Can a score be
consciousness), and symbolic interactionism assigned?
(approach that stresses linguistic and gestural According to Lyn Lofland (1995: 63), the
communication in the formation of mind, self following activities need to be avoided by a
and society) are orientations in which researcher while using observation technique:
observation holds a central place as a method. • The observation purpose should not be kept
Relating to skill and characteristics of the secret from the subjects under observation.
investigator: All social scientists do not feel • Information should be collected from all people
comfortable in observing a situation for a long and not from a few people only.
time. They feel more at ease in asking questions • Help should not be offered to people even if its
for an hour or so. Only a few scholars adjust severe need is felt.
themselves in an observable situation. Thus, • There should be no commitment for anything.
persons with certain characteristics and skills can • The researcher should be strategic in relations.
prove to be good observers. • In factionalized situations, taking sides should be
avoided.

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• Paying cash or kind for getting information • The observer is able to record the context
should be totally avoided. which gives meaning to respondent’s expressions.
Advantages of Observation Disadvantages of Observation
Bailey has pointed out four advantages of According to Bailey, the disadvantages in
observation: observation technique are:
Superior in data collection on non-verbal • Lack of Control : In artificial setting, control
behaviour : When a person’s opinion on a over variables is possible but in natural
particular issue is to be assessed, survey method environment, the researcher has little control
is definitely more useful, but when the non- over variables that affect the data.
verbal behaviour is to be discovered or where • Difficulties of quantification : The data
memory failure of the respondent is possible, collected through observation cannot be
observation will be more functional. It allows quantified. The recorded data will show how
not the restrictive study of the individuals but persons interacted with one another but it cannot
their in-depth study. The unstructured be completed the number of times they
observational method, being very flexible, interacted. In communal riots, looting, arson,
allows the observer to concentrate on any killing may be observed but it cannot be
variables that prove to be important. quantified what type of people indulged in what?
Intimate and informal relationship : Since the It is difficult to categorise in-depth emotional
observer often lives with the subjects for an and humanistic data.
extended period of time, the relationship between • Small sample size: Observational studies use a
them is often more intimate and more informal smaller sample than survey studies. Two or
than in a survey in which the interviewer meets more observers can study a bigger sample but
the respondents for 30-40 minutes on a very then their observations cannot be compared.
formal basis. The relationship sometimes Since observations are made for a longer period,
becomes primary than secondary. Being close to employing many observers can become a costly
the subject does not necessarily mean that affair.
observer will lose objectivity in recording facts. • Gaining entry: Many times the observer has
This becomes possible only when the observer difficulty in receiving approval for the study. It
becomes emotionally attached to his subjects. is not always easy to observe the functioning of
Natural environment : The behaviour being an organization or institution without obtaining
observed in natural environment will not cause permission from the administrator. In such
any bias. Observation will neither be artificial cases, he may not record observations then and
nor restrictive. there but may write notes at night.
Longitudinal analysis : In observation, the • Lack of anonymity/studying sensitive issues:
researcher is able to conduct his study over a In observational study, it is difficult to maintain
much longer period than in the survey. the respondent’s anonymity. In survey, it is easy
Sarantakos has mentioned the following for the husband to say that he has no quarrels and
advantages of observation: conflicts with his wife but in observation over a
• It is less complicated and less time-consuming. longer period of time, he cannot conceal them.
• It offers data when respondents are unable or • Limited study: All aspects of the problem
unwilling to cooperate for giving information. cannot be observed simultaneously. The
• It approaches reality in its natural structure and observation technique studies only limited
studies events as they evolve. issues. Similarly, internal attitudes and opinions
• It allows collection of wide range of information. cannot be studied.
• It is relatively inexpensive. Williamson et. al. have discussed the following
Besides these advantages, two other advantages limitations of observation method :
in observation tool are: • This method is not applicable to the
• Observer can assess the emotional reactions of investigation of large social settings.
subjects.

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• There are few safeguards against biases of • It employs several methods in data collection to
the researcher. prevent errors and distortions.
• There is the related problem of selectivity in • If often studies a single unit: one unit is one
data collection. study.
• The mere presence of the researcher in the • It perceives the respondent as a knowledgeable
setting may change the group/social system to some person, not just as a source of data.
extent. • It studies a typical case..
• Since there is no set procedure of Purposes of Case Study
observation technique, the researcher may not be able Following are the purposes of a case study :
to explain exactly how the work was done. It, • To use it as a preliminary to major investigation
therefore, becomes difficult to replicate the study. as it may bring to light variables, processes and
It could thus be concluded that observation relationships that deserve more intensive
becomes an effective tool of scientific study when it investigation.
is planned systematically, recorded systematically, is • To probe the phenomenon deeply and analyse it
subjected to checks and control, and selected intensively with a view to establishing
observers have skills and are trained. generalizations about the wider population to
which the unit belongs.
CASE STUDY • To get anecdotal evidence that illustrates more
Case study is an intensive study of a case which may general findings.
be an individual, an institution, a system, a • To refute a universal generalization. A single
community, an organization, an event, or even the case can represent a significant contribution to
entire culture. Yin has defined case study as “an theory building and assist in focusing the
empirical inquiry that investigates a direction of future investigations in the area.
contemporary phenomenon within its real-life • To use it as a unique, typical and an interesting
context, when the boundaries between case in its own right.
phenomenon and context are not clearly evident, According to Berger et. al. reasons for employing
and in which multiple sources of evidence are case study method can be :
used”. Kromrey holds that “case study involves • To get intimate and detailed information about
studying individual cases, often in their natural the structure, process and complexity of the
environment and for a long period of time”. research object,
Case study is not a method of data • To formulate hypotheses,
collection; rather it is a research strategy, or an • To conceptualise,
empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary • To operationalize variables,
phenomenon by using multiple sources of evidence. • To expand quantitative findings, and
Mitchell has also maintained that a case study • To test the feasibility of the quantitative study.
is not just a narrative account of an event or a Types of Case Studies
series of events but it involves analysis against an Burns has stated six types of case studies:
appropriate theoretical framework or in support • Historical case studies: These studies trace the
of theoretical conclusions. Case study can be development of an organization/system over
simple and specific, such as “Ram, the delinquent time. The study of an adult criminal right from
boy”, or complex and abstract, such as “decision- his childhood through adolescence and youth is
making in a university”. But whatever the subject, to an example of this type of case study. This type
qualify as a case study, it must be a bounded depends more on interviews, recording and
system/unit, an entity in itself. documents.
• Observational case studies: These focus on
Characteristics of Case Study
observing a drunkard, a teacher, a student, a
Hartfield has referred to the following
union leader, some activity, events, or a specific
distinguishing characteristics of case study:
group of people. However, the researchers in
• It studies whole units in their totality and not
some selected aspects or variables of these units.

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this type of study are rarely total participants or accurate or may be biased. But they specify events
total observers. and issues in greater detail than interviews can.
• Oral history case studies: These are usually Interviews may be structured or unstructured.
first person narratives that the researcher collects Both these methods most commonly, it is the
using extensive interviewing of a single unstructured interview which is used by the
individual. For example, the case of a drug investigators. The questions are usually open-ended
addict or an alcoholic, or a prostitute or a retired with a conversational tone. However, at times, the
person who fails to adjust himself in son’s structured interview is also used as part of a case
family. The use of this approach depends more study.
on the nature and cooperation of the respondent. The observation method used could either be
• Situational case studies: This form studies participant or non-participant. The latter has been
particular events. The views of all participants in used more by sociologists in India like M.N.
the event are sought. For example, a communal Srinivas, Sachchidananda, L.P. Vidyarthi, etc. For
riot: how it started with conflict between two some topics, the non-participant observation is more
persons of two different religious groups, how suitable.
each person sought support of persons of his own Advantages of Case Study
religion present at the spot, how police was • It makes in-depth study possible.
informed, how police arrested persons of one • It is flexible with respect to using methods for
particular religious group, how power elite collecting data, e.g., questionnaire, interview,
interfered and pressurized the police department, observation, etc.
how did public and the media react, and so on. • It could be used for studying any dimension of
Pulling all these views together, a depth is the topic, i.e., it could study one specific aspect
provided that contributes significantly to the and may not include other aspects.
understanding of the event. • It can be conducted in practically any kind of
• Clinical case studies: This approach aims at social setting.
understanding in depth a particular individual • Case studies are inexpensive.
such as a patient in the hospital, a prisoner in the Yin has referred to following three uses of
jail, a woman in a rescue home, a problem child single case study :
in a school, etc. These studies involve detailed • It provides a critical test of a theory to
interviews, observation, going through records corroborate, challenge or extend it.
and reports, and so on. • It helps in studying a unique case which is useful
• Multi-case studies: It is a collection of case not only in clinical psychology but also in
studies or a form of replication, i.e., multiple sociology for the study of deviant groups,
experiments. For example, we can take three problem individuals, and so on.
case studies and analyse them on replication • It helps in studying the phenomenon that occurs
logic. This logic is that each case will either in a situation where it (the phenomenon) has not
produce contrary results or similar results. The been studies before, e.g., studying the problems
outcome will demonstrate either support for the and rehabilitation of the sufferers of cyclones in
initial propositions or a need to revise and retest the coastal areas (sociology of disaster),
with another set of cases. The advantage of management of irrigation canals for the farmers,
multi-case design is that the evidence can be environment disasters, etc.
more compelling. However, this approach Criticisms of Case Studies
requires more time and effort. Case study method is generally criticized on
Sources of Data Collection for Case Studies the following basis :
Two main sources of primary data collection are • Subjective bias : The case study design is
interviews and observation, while the secondary regarded with disdain because of investigator’s
data are collected through a variety of sources like subjectivity in collecting data for supporting or
reports, records, newspapers, magazines, books, files, refuting a particular explanation. Many a time
diaries, etc. The secondary sources may not be the investigator allows personal views to

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influence the direction of the findings and his establish their comparability. Each case has too
conclusions. many unique aspects.
• Little evidence for scientific generalizations: It • Case studies take too long time and produce
is said that case study provides little evidence for unmanageable amounts of data. In fact, it is not
inferences and generalizing theory. The the case study but the methods of data collection
common complaint is: How can generalization which are time-consuming.
be made from a single case?
• Time-consuming : Case study is time-
SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
consuming as it produces a lot of information
which is difficult to analyse adequately.
Selectivity has naturally a tendency to be biased.
But if the case study is focused on relevant
Social Survey
issues of person or event under study, it need not
be lengthy. The basic procedure in survey is that people are
asked a number of questions on that aspect of
• Doubtful reliability: It is very difficult to behavior which the sociologist is interested in. A
establish reliability in the case study. The number of people carefully selected so that their
investigator cannot prove his authenticity for representation of their population being studied are
obtaining data or having no bias in analysing asked to answer exactly the same question so that
them. It is not easy to fix steps and procedures the replies to different categories of respondents may
explicitly to the extent that others are enabled to be examined for differences. One type of survey relies
replicate the same study. on contacting the respondents by letter and asking
• Missing validity: The investigators in the case them to complete the questionnaire themselves
before returning it. These are called Mail
study fail to develop a sufficiently operational set
questionnaires. Sometimes questionnaires are not
of measures. As such, checks and balances of completed by individuals separately but by people in a
reliable instruments are found missing. For group under the direct supervision of the research
investigator, what seems true is more important worker. A variation of the procedure can be that a
than what is true. The case study can trained interviewer asks the questions and records the
oversimplify or exaggerate leading to erroneous responses on a schedule from each respondent.
conclusions.The validity question also arises These alternate procedures have different
because the investigator by his presence and advantages and disadvantages. Mail questionnaires
actions affects the behaviour of the observed but are relatively cheap and can be used to contact
respondents who are scattered over a wide area. But
he does not give importance to this reaction
at the same time the proportion of people who return
while interpreting the facts. Yet one more questionnaires sent through post is usually rather
argument against the case study is that it has no small. The questions asked in main questionnaires
representativeness, i.e., each case studied does have also to be very carefully worded in order to avoid
not represent other similar cases. ambiguity since the respondents cannot ask to have
Yin has criticized case studies mainly on three questions clarified for them. Using groups to complete
grounds : questionnaires means that the return rate is good and
• The findings of case studies are biased because that information is assembled quickly and fairly.
the research is usually sloppy. This criticism is Administrating the interview schedules to the
respondents individually is probably the most reliable
probably based on the prejudice that quantitative
method. Several trained interviewers may be
researchers are against qualitative data. They employed to contact specific individuals. The
think that only numbers can be used to describe questionnaires and schedules can consist of both
and explain social life validly and reliably. close-ended and open-ended questions. Also a
• Case studies are not useful for generalization. special attention needs to be paid to ensure that the
One argument is that it is not possible to questionnaires are filled in logical order.
generalize from a single case. The other Where aptitude questions are included great care
argument is that if a number of cases are used for must be exercised to ensure the proper words are
the purpose, it will be extremely difficult to used. In case of schedules emphasis and interactions
may also be standardized between different

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individuals and from respondents to respondents.

Finally proper sampling techniques must be used to According to Idiographic Method, Qualitative
ensure that the sample under study represents the methods are best; case study method will
universe of study. In order to enhance the reliability of provide a more complete and global
data collected through questionnaires and schedules, understanding of the individual who should be
these questionnaires and schedules must be studied using flexible, long terms and detailed
pretested through pilot studies. procedures in order to put them in a ‘class of
their own’.
Advantages of Nomothetic Method - In line
with the deterministic, law abiding nature of
science, useful in predicting and controlling
behaviour; nomothetic findings on prejudice and
discrimination perhaps helpful (reduce
SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES discrimination)
Disadvantages of Nomothetic Method -
NOMOTHETIC AND IDEOGRAPHIC Superficial understanding of any one person;
METHODS even if two persons have same IQ they may
Ideographic and nomothetic methods have answered different questions in the test; a
represent two different approaches to person may have
understanding social life. An ideographic 1% chance of developing depression (but is he
method focuses on individual cases or events. among the 1%?); classification manuals are not
Ethnographers, for example, observe the minute accurate and does not help people.
details of everyday life to construct an overall Advantages of Idiographic Method: More
portrait. A nomothetic method, on the other complete and global understanding of an
hand, focuses on general statements that individual; sometimes the most
account for larger social patterns that form the efficient; often lead to results that spark off
context of single events or individual behavior experimental investigation of behaviour.
and experience.
Disadvantages of Idiographic Method
Nomothetic Method refers to the approach of Difficult to generalize findings; Sociologists
investigating large groups of people in order to create universal theories on the basis of a
findgeneral laws of behaviour that apply to limited and unrepresentative sample; Idiographic
everyone. Idiographic Method refers to the research tends to be more unreliable and
approach of investigating individuals in personal, unscientific (subjective, long term and
in-depth detail to achieve a unique unstandardised procedures)
understanding of them. While comparing Sociology and History,
“Nomos” refer to laws in ancient Greek; this Radcliff Brown said “sociology is
approach assumes that an individual is a nomothetic, while history is idiographic”. In
complex combination of many universal laws; it other words, sociologists produce
is best to study people on a large scale. “Idios” generalizations while historians describe
refer to ‘private’ or ‘personal’ in ancient Greek; unique events.
this approach assumes that humans are unique.
According to Nomothetic Method,
Quantitative Experimental methods are best
to identify the universal laws governing SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
behaviour. The individual will be classified with CONTENT ANALYSIS
others and measured as a score upon a Content analysis is a research method used
dimension, or be a statistic supporting a general to analyze social life by interpreting words
principle (‘averaging’). and images from documents, film, art, music,
and other cultural products and media. It has

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been used extensively to examine the place the media source or publication the researcher
of women in society. In advertising, for wishes to study. Finally, it can present an
example, women tend to be portrayed as objective account of events, themes, and issues
subordinate, often through their lower that might not be immediately apparent to a
physical positioning in relation to the males reader, viewer, or general consumer.
or the unassertive nature of their poses or
gestures. Content analysis also has several
weaknesses as a research method. First, it is
Researchers can learn a great deal about a
limited in what it can study. Since it is based
society by analyzing cultural artifacts such
only on mass communication – either visual,
as newspapers, magazines, television
oral, or written – it cannot tell us what people
programs, or music. This is called content
really think about these images or whether they
analysis. Researchers who use content analysis
affect people’s behavior. Second, it may not be
are not studying the people, but are studying the
as objective as it claims since the researcher
communications the people produce as a way of
must select and record data accurately. In some
creating a picture of their society.
cases, the researcher must make choices about
Content analysis is frequently used to how to interpret or categorize particular forms of
measure cultural change and to study behavior and other researchers may interpret it
different aspects of culture. Sociologists also differently. A final weakness of content analysis
use it as an indirect way to determine how social is that it can be time consuming.
groups are perceived. For example, they might
examine how African Americans are depicted in
television shows or how women are depicted in SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
advertisements.
FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION
In conducting a content analysis,
Focus group Discussion is a form of
researchers quantify and analyze the
qualitative research that is used most often
presence, meanings, and relationships of
in product marketing and marketing
words and concepts within the cultural
research. During a focus group, a group of
artifacts they are studying. They then make
individuals - usually 6-12 people - is brought
inferences about the messages within the
together in a room to engage in a guided
artifacts and about the culture they are studying.
discussion of some topic.
At its most basic, content analysis is a statistical
exercise that involves categorizing some aspect Focus groups are often used in social
of behavior and counting the number of times science research as well. Take William
such behavior occurs. For example, a Gamson’s research on political views as an
researcher might count the number of minutes example. In 1992, he used focus groups to
that men and women appear on screen in a examine how U.S. citizens frame their views of
television show and make comparisons. This political issues. He chose four issues for
allows us to paint a picture of the patterns of discussion: Affirmative action, nuclear power,
behavior that underlie social interactions troubled industries, and the Arab-Israeli conflict.
portrayed in the media. First Gamson conducted a content analysis of
the press coverage on these topics to get an
Strengths And Weaknesses: idea of the media context within which the
Content analysis has several strengths as a participants would be thinking and talking about
research method. First, it is a great method these topics and politics in general. Then he
because it is unobtrusive. That is, it has no conducted the focus groups to observe the
effect on the person being studied since the process of people discussing these issues with
cultural artifact has already been produced. their friends.
Second, it is relatively easy to gain access to

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The participants of a focus group are There are several basic steps that should be
selected based on their relevance and involved when conducting a focus group, from
relationship to the topic under study. They preparation to data analysis.
are not typically chosen through
Preparing For The Focus Group:
rigorous, probability sampling methods, which
means that they do not statistically represent • Identify the main objective of the focus
any meaningful population. Rather, participants group.
are chosen through word-of-mouth, advertising, • Carefully develop your focus group
snowball sampling, or similar, depending on the questions. Your focus group should generally
type of person and characteristics the last 1 to 1.5 hours, which is usually enough
researcher is looking to include. time to cover 5 or 6 questions.
• Call potential participants to invite them
Advantages of Focus Groups: to the meeting. Focus groups generally
There are several advantages of focus groups: consist of 6-12 participants who have some
similar characteristic (e.g., age group, status
As a socially oriented research method, it in a program, etc). Select participants who
captures real-life data in a social setting. are likely to participate in discussions and
who don’t all know each other.
It is flexible. • Send a follow-up invitation with a
proposed agenda, questions up for
It has high face validity, meaning that it discussion, and time/location details.
measures what it is intended to measure. • Three days before the focus group, call
each participant to remind them of the
It generates quick results. meeting.

It costs little to conduct. Planning The Session:

• Schedule a time that is convenient for
Group dynamics often bring out aspects of the most people. Plan the focus group to take
topic or reveal information about the subject that between 1 and 1.5 hours. Lunchtime or
may not have been anticipated by the dinnertime is usually a good time for people,
researcher or emerged from individual and if you serve food, they are more likely to
interviews. attend.
• Find a good setting, such as a
Disadvantages of Focus Group conference room, with good air flow and
There are also several disadvantages of focus lighting. Configure the room so that all
groups: members can see each other. Provide
• The researcher has less control over the nametags as well as refreshments. If your
session than he or she does in individual focus group is at lunch or dinnertime, be sure
interviews. to provide food as well.
• Data are often difficult to analyze. • Set some ground rules for the
• Moderators require certain skills. participants that help foster participation and
• Differences between groups can be keep the session moving along appropriately.
troublesome. For example: 1. Stay focused on the
• Groups can often be difficult to pull subject/question, 2. Keep the momentum of
together. the conversation going, and 3. Get closure on
• The discussion must be conducted in a each question.
conducive environment. • Make an agenda for the focus group.
Consider the following: Welcome, review of
Basic Steps In Conducting A Focus Group agenda, review of the goal of the meeting,

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review of ground rules, introductions,

questions and answers, wrap up. Serendipity
• Don’t count on your memory for In general, serendipity is the act of finding
information shared at the focus group. Plan to something valuable or delightful when you are
record the session with either an audio or not looking for it. In information technology,
video recorder. If this isn’t possible, involve a serendipity often plays a part in the recognition
co-facilitator who takes good notes. of a new product need or in solving a design
problem. Web surfing can be an occasion for
Facilitating The Session: serendipity since you sometimes come across a
• Introduce yourself and your co- valuable or interesting site when you are looking
facilitator, if you have one. for something else.
• Explain your need and reason for
The term was coined by English writer Horace
recording the focus group discussion.
Walpole on January 28, 1754, in a letter written
• Carry out the agenda.
to Horace Mann. He credited it to a "silly fairy
• Carefully word each question to the tale" he once read called 'The Three Princes of
group. Before a group discussion, allow Serendip’.
everyone a few minutes to carefully record his
or her responses or answers. Then, facilitate Three goodly young princes were traveling the
discussion around the answers to each world in hopes of being educated to take their
question, one at a time. proper position upon their return. On their
• After the discussion of each question, journey they happened upon a camel driver who
reflect back to the group a summary of what inquired if they had seen his missing camel. As
you just heard. If you have a note-taker/co- sport, they claimed to have seen the camel,
facilitator, he or she may do this. reporting correctly that the camel was blind in
• Ensure even participation among the one eye, missing a tooth, and lame. From these
group. If a few people are dominating the accurate details, the owner assumed that the
conversation, then call on others. Also, three had surely stolen the camel, and they were
consider a round-table approach in which you subsequently thrown into jail. Soon the wayward
go in one direction around the table, giving camel was discovered, and the princes brought
each person a chance to answer the to the perplexed Emperor of the land, who
question. inquired of them how they had learned these
• Close the session by thanking the facts. That the grass was eaten on one side of
participants and telling them that they will the road suggested that camel had one eye, the
receive a copy of the report generated as a cuds of grass on the ground indicated a tooth
result of the discussion. gap, and the traces of a dragged hoof revealed
Immediately After The Session: the camel's lameness.
• Verify that the audio or video recorder This exotic tale, told of ancient princes of Sri
worked throughout the entire session (if one Lanka, then known as Serendip, inspired Horace
was used). Walpole, the English novelist (e.g., The Castle of
• Make any additional notes on your Otranto), politician, and belle lettrist. In this last
written notes that you need. capacity, Walpole coined the term 'serendipity"
• Write down any observations you made while writing to the British diplomat, Horace
during the session, such as the nature of Mann, in January 28, 1754. Walpole created
participation in the group, any surprises of the serendipity to refer to the combination of
session, where and when the session was accident and sagacity in recognizing the
held, etc. significance of a discovery.
Serendipity in classical fieldwork
SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

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think, and feel" (p. 19). Merton (1968, p. 157)

Qualitative research inevitably contains such
provided a systematic attempt to make sense of
"good fortune," but serendipity consists in how
serendipity in sociology, speaking of the
we transform our fortune into substantive
serendipity pattern, whereby unexpected data
discovery.
provide the spark for the creation of theoretical
Since Malinowski (1950), many fieldwork analysis. For Merton three features characterize
classics provide evidence of the importance of datum that fit into a serendipity pattern: it must
interpreting and capitalizing on unpredicted, be "unanticipated," "anomalous," and "strategic"
unplanned events. Yet, traditionally, (i.e., with implications for the development of
ethnographers were reluctant to discuss their theory).
errors and chance occurrences, even when
these events proved to be the basis of Merton, of course, operated from the scientific
subsequent insight, perhaps fearing that it would model described above, which is also implicated
confirm the belief that ethnography was truly in the princes' tale. That is, a real world exists for
dilettantism. Hortense Powdermaker (1966) which clues provide insight. In contrast to a
recognized this absence when she remarked: positivist (or postpositivist) view, we suggest that
serendipitous insight provides the opportunity for
Little record exists of mistakes and learning from them, and constructing a plausible story. We do not deny
of the role of chance and accident in stumbling upon the reality of an external world, but only suggest
significant problems, in reformulating old ones, and in
devising new techniques, a process known as "serendipity."
that numerous possible explanations exist and
A lack of theory, or of imagination, an over commitment to a that chance events can be made serendipitous if
particular hypothesis, or a rigidity in personality may prevent the event provides the opportunity for story-
a fieldworker from learning as he stumbles. building. In this way, story-telling is a means, not
With the growth of the "reflexive turn" in an end. We use stories in much the same way
ethnography - what some have labelled the "new as researchers might use an illustrative case
ethnography" (Dowd, 1994), the inclusion of decorating a statistical study. Our stories are
occurrences of serendipity in accounts of intended as supporting evidence for the paper's
fieldwork is a battle won long ago, perhaps conclusions and, it is hoped, permit the reader to
contributing to the heroic image of the experience an abbreviated version of
ethnographer who pulls meaning from chaos. the verstehen and inference processes of the
We have come to present ourselves as lovers of researcher.
the play and surprise of research. Although we

Variables, Sampling,
now have what Atkinson (1990) described as a
"mythological corpus" of ethnographers' tales of
discovery - frequently in the form of "
confessionals" we know little of how serendipity
Hypothesis, Reliability and
operates in qualitative research. The Validity
conceptualization of the dimensions of
serendipity must be made more explicit. The THE VARIABLE
question becomes: How do our own lived
experiences of insight lead to substantive A variable is a characteristic that takes on two
discovery? or more values. It is something that varies. It is a
characteristic that is common to a number of
The serendipity pattern individuals, groups, events, objects, etc. The
The most influential attempt to apply the concept individual cases differ in the extent to which they
of serendipity to social scientific theorizing has possess the characteristic. Thus, age (young,
been the one by Robert Merton. As Merton middle-aged, old) income class (lower, middle,
(1962) noted, "There is a rich corpus of literature upper), caste (low, intermediate, high), education
on how social scientists ought to think, feel, and (illiterate, less educated, highly educated),
act, but little detail on what they actually do,

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occupation (low status, high status), etc., are all availability of social security and so forth. In another
variables. study on factors affecting student’s achievement
The variables selected for analysis are called (high or low marks), we may examine the
explanatory variables and all other variables are absence/availability of books, libraries, good
extraneous variables. Extraneous variables which teachers, use of visuals and so on. All these will be
are not part of the explanatory set are categorized as experimental variables or experimental manipulations
controlled or uncontrolled variables. Controlled for the researcher. It is important when planning and
variables, commonly called control variables, are executing research to distinguish between these two
held constant or prevented from varying during the types of variables.
course of study. This is to limit the focus of the Active and assigned variables :
research. For example, in age, all males and females Manipulated or experimental variables will be called
under 18 years of age may be excluded from study. active variables, while measured variables will be
This would mean that the hypothesis is not concerned called assigned variables. In other words, any
with specific sub-groups. variable that is manipulated is an active variable and
Types of Variables variable that cannot be manipulated is an assigned
Dependent and Independent Variables : variable.
Qualitative and quantitative variables:
• A dependent variable is one which changes in
• The quantitative variable is one whose values
relationship to changes in another variable. An
or categories consist of numbers and if
independent variable is one whose change results
differences between its categories can be
in the change in another variable. In a controlled
expressed numerically. Thus, age, income, sizes
experiment, the independent variable is the
are quantitative variables. The qualitative
experimental variable, i.e., one which is withheld
variable is one which consists of discreet
from the control group.
categories rather than numerical units. This
• In experiments, the independent variable is the
variable has two or more categories that are
variable manipulated by the experimenter. For
distinguished from each other. Class (lower,
example, a teacher wants to know which method
middle, upper), caste (low, intermediate, high)
of teaching is more effective in the students’
sex, (male, female), religion (Hindu, non-Hindu)
understanding: lecture method, question-answer
are all qualitative variables.
method, visual method or combination of two or
• Relationships among quantitative variables
more of these methods. Here, teaching method
may be either positive or negative (Singleton
is independent variable which is manipulated by
and Straits). A positive relationship exists if an
the teacher. The “effect on students’
increase in the value of one variable is
understanding” is the dependent variable. The
accompanied by an increase in the value of the
dependent variable is the condition we are trying
other, or if decrease in one is accompanied by
to explain. In this experiment, besides the
decrease in the other. In other words, the two
methods of teaching, other independent,
variables constantly change in the same
variables could be personality types (of
direction, e.g., the taller a father, the taller will
students), social class (of students), types of
be his son. The negative relationship between
motivation (reward and punishment) class
variables exists if the decrease in the value of
atmosphere, attitude towards teacher, and so on.
one variable is accompanied by an increase in
the value of the other, e.g., as age increases, the
Experimental and measured variables : life expectancy decreases.
• Therese Baker has used the terms categorical
The experimental variables spell out the and numerical variables for qualitative and
details of the investigator’s manipulations while the quantitative variables, respectively. The
measured variables refer to measurement. For former (e.g., occupation, religion, caste, gender,
instance, rural development (measured variable) may education, income) are made up of sets of
be assessed in terms of increase in income, literacy categories (or attributes) which must follow two
level, infrastructure, availability of medical facilities, rules: one, the categories must be distinct from

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one another, i.e., they must be mutually For making the target population operational, the
exclusive; two, the categories must be sampling frame needs to be constructed. This denotes
exhaustive, i.e., they should cover all the the set of all cases from which the sample is actually
potential range of variation in a variable. After selected. It should be noted that sampling frame is
putting himself in the categories of educated not a sample; rather it is the operational definition of
(other being illiterate) in the field of education, the population that provides the basis for sampling.
one can put himself in the sub-category of For example, in the above example of Vidya Mandir,
undergraduate, graduate, postgraduate, etc. if students studying in school and in college are
The variables can also be dichotomous or excluded, only students of professional courses
continuous. (MBA, Computer Science, B.Ed., Home Science and
While sex is dichotomous variable, intelligence is Biotechnology) are left out from which the sample is
continuous variable. Ordinarily, only a few variables to be drawn. Thus, the sample frame reduces the
are true dichotomies. Most variables are capable of number of total population and gives us the target
taking on continuous values. Nevertheless, it is population (i.e., students of professional courses
useful to remember that it is often convenient or only).
necessary to convert continuous variables to There are two objectives of sampling (a) Estimate
dichotomous or trichotomous variables. of parameters (b) Testing of hypothesis
Estimate of parameters:
SAMPLING The major objectives is to estimate certain population
A sample is a portion of people drawn from a parameters (e.g. the proportion of clerk did an office
larger population. It will be representative of the working overtime).Thus, the researches attempts to
population only if it has same basic characteristics of select a sample and calculate the relevant statistics
the population from which it is drawn. Our concern (i.e. average and proportion. He can use this statistic
in sampling is not about what types of units (persons) as an estimate to make a statement about its precision
will be interviewed/observed but with how many in terms of standard errors and conclude about its
units of what particular description and by what population in terms of probability.
method should be chosen. Testing of hypothesis:
According to Manheim, “a sample is a part of The second objective of sampling may be to test
the population which is studied in order to make statistical hypothesis about a population (i.e. the
inferences about the whole population”. In defining hypothesis that at least 60 percent of the household in
‘population’ from which the sample is taken, it is Kurukshetra town have T.V sets).The researchers
necessary to identify ‘target population’ and may select a sample of household and then calculate
‘sampling frame’. The target population is one which the proportion of household possessing T.V sets. The
includes all the units (persons) for which the problem now is to assess whether the sample result is
information is required, e.g., drug abuser students in such as to reject the hypothesis or whether it supports
one university, or voters in one village/constituency, the hypothesis. To resolve this problem, the
and so on. In defining the population, the criteria researcher has to find out a criterion by which he can
need to be specified for explaining cases which are determine the precise deviation of the sample result
included and excluded. from the hypothetical value..
For example, for studying the level of Purposes of Sampling,
awareness of rights among women in one village Sarantakos has pointed out the following
community, the target population is defined as all purposes of sampling:
women–married and unmarried–in the age group of • Population in many cases may be so large and
18-50 years. If the unit is an institution (say, Vidya scattered that a complete coverage may not be
Mandir), then the type of its structure, size as possible.
measured by the number of students in school • It offers a high degree of accuracy because it
section, college section, and in professional courses deals with a small number of persons. Most of
the number of teachers and employees needs to be us have had blood samples taken, sometimes
specified. from the fingers and sometimes from the arm or

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another part of the body. The assumption is that the village will necessarily have the same opinion.
the blood is sufficiently similar throughout the The opinion may vary in terms of religion,
body and the characteristics of the blood are educational level, age, economic status and such
determined on the basis of a sample. Singleton other factors. The wrong inference is drawn or
and Straits have also said that studying all cases generalization is made from the study of few persons
will describe population less accurately than a because they constitute inadequate sample of the total
small sample. population.
• In a short period of time, valid and comparable The study of sample becomes necessary because
results can be obtained. A lengthy period of data study of a very large population would require a long
collection generally renders some data obsolete period of time, a large number of interviewers, a
by the time the information is completely in large amount of money, and doubtful accuracy of
hands. For example, collecting information on data collected by numerous investigators. The
the attitudes of voters’ preferences during planning of observation/study with a sample is more
election period, or demanding action against manageable.
police personnel responsible for using violence The important principles of sampling are
against women demonstrators, or for making a (Sarantakos):
large number of accused persons in the police • Sample units must be chosen in a systematic and
lockup blind. Besides, opinions expressed at the objective manner.
time of incidence and those expressed after a few • Sample units must be clearly defined and easily
months are bound to be different. The findings identifiable.
are thus bound to be influenced if long period is • Sample units must be independent of each other.
involved in data collection, i.e., not taking a • Same units of sample should be used throughout
small sample but studying the entire population. the study.
• Sampling is less demanding in terms of • The selection process should be based on sound
requirements of investigators since it requires a criteria and should avoid errors, bias and
small portion of the target population. distortions.
• It is economical since it contains fewer people. Advantages of Sampling
Large population would involve employing a The above mentioned purposes and principles of
large number of interviewers which will increase sampling point out some advantages of sampling.
the total cost of the survey. These are:
• Many research projects, particularly those in • It is not possible to study large number of people
quality control testing, require the destruction of scattered in wide geographical area. Sampling
the items being tested. If the manufacturer of will reduce their number.
electric bulbs wishes to find out whether each • It saves time and money.
bulb met a specific standard, there would be no • It saves destruction of units.
product left after the testing. • It increases accuracy of data (having control on
Principles of Sampling the small number of subjects).
The main principle behind sampling is that we seek • It achieves greater response rate.
knowledge about the total units (called population) • It achieves greater cooperation from respondents
by observing a few units (called sample) and extend • It is easy to supervise few interviewers in the
our inference about the sample to the entire sample but difficult to supervise a very large
population. For purchasing a bag of wheat, if we number of interviewers in the study of total
take out a small sample from the middle of the bag population.
with a cutter, it will give us the inference whether the • The researcher can keep a low profile.
wheat in the bag is good or not. But it is not The Significance of Sampling:
necessary that study of sample will always give us There are various reasons for the signifance o\f
the correct picture of the total population. sampling in colleting statistical data.
If few people in a village are found in favor of Only Possible, Quick, Economic Method: Perhaps
family planning, it would not mean that all people in it is the only possible method; it is quick and
economic. In a manufacturing unit, quality of

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products is tested with the help of sample. After Two types of sampling: probability
testing, if the quality of the product is unsatisfactory, sampling and non-probability sampling.
it is reprocessed or scrapped. Thus, there is no Probability sampling is one in which every unit of the
alternative to sampling for measuring quality. population has an equal probability of being selected
Likewise instead of observation of all items, selection for the sample. It offers a high degree of
of a sample from the universe and inferring its representativeness. Non-probability sampling makes
characteristics from that sample forms the quick and no claim for representativeness, as every unit does
economical method. It is a highly useful device for not get the chance of being selected. It is the
the researchers and the practitioners concerned for researcher who decides which sample units should be
interring within limits certain characteristics of a chosen.
population. Probability Sampling:
Representativeness and Size of Sampling:- Probability sampling today remains the primary
Problem of representatives of sample The basic method for selecting large, representative
point in the selection of a sample is to ensure that it is samples for social science and business
as representative of the universe as possible. researches. According to Black and Champion,
Explicitly, the size of sample does not necessarily the probability sampling requires following
determine its representivess.Thus, if a relatively conditions to be satisfied:
small sample is scientifically selected , it may be • Complete list of subjects to be studied is
more reliable than an arbitrary selected large sample. available;
The process of sample selection should be such that • size of the universe must be known;
every items in the population under study has the • Desired sample size must be specified, and
same chance representative of the population. • each element must have an equal chance of being
A sample which does not represent the population is selected.
called biased sample .As Yule and Kendal observes, It means use some kind of randomization in one or
“the human beings is extremely poor instrument, for more of their phases. Leabo classifies probability
the conduct of a random selection. Whenever there is samples in five categories-sample random samples,
any scope for personal choice or judgment on the part stratified samples.
of the observes, bias is almost certain to creep in, The SIMPLE RANDON SAMPLING: Although simple
studies based on biased sampling are intrinsically random samples are not used widely, they form a
inaccurate and misleading. This is true of several basis for other types of sampling. A simple random
studies in behavioral science which are based on sample of n items refers to a smple which has been
mailed questionnaires involving incomplete and selected from a population in such a manner that each
distorted returns. Of course, the original mailing list possible combination of n units has the same chance
of prospective respondents any be representative or probability of being selected.
sample However ,the questionnaires actually received THE ADVANTAGES OF SIMPLE RANDON
may be extremely in view of operation of selective SAMPLING:-
factors. 1. Its saves time- As against complete coverage,
Problem of Sample Size:-A scientific sample is one sampling is cheaper of course, per unit cost is higher.
which in conjunction with representing the 2.It saves labour- Sampling includes a smaller
population also consists of enough cases to ensure number of staff for the collection, tabulation and
reliable results. The issue of adequacy of a sample is processing of the data. Thus it saves labour
highly complex. As indicate by Hagood and price considerably.
,the size of the sample cn be determine by the 3. It saves time-Because of these advantage, sampling
following items of information :the designation of was first used with the census of population in
parameters which one intends to study, the range of 1951.This procedure save a of time.
reliability permissible in estimates and a cride 4.It improve accuracy: A sample coverage provides a
estimate of the dispersion of studied characteristics. higher overall level of accuracy. It permits a higher
Types of Sampling quality of the field, more checks for accuracy, more
care editing and the analysis and more elaborate
information.

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STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING: These Indeed, it results are only a rough estimate and thus ,
samples involve division of population into similar cannot be tested for reliability.
groups and selection of a random sample from each Purposive Sampling: It involves use of judement
other. The population can be divided into groups in and a concerted attempt to obtain representative
the light of the knowledge about it and effect of a under the impression of including typical areas or
certain characteristic group. The population can be groups in this sample.A study conducted by
divided into groups in the light of the knowledge Namjoshi exemplifies the nature of purposive sample
about it and effect of a certain characteristic upon the .In this study two types respondants were selected
estimate to be made. 1.marries males and females2. Unmarried males and
ADVANTAGE: This procedure ensures proper females. Both the samples were selected by this
representation from each group and probability procedure in order to get sufficient representation of
sample. The basis for division into groups or strata respondents from higher and lower castes, socio-
related to the nature of the problem to be studied economic groups and from both the sexes. A sample
.For e.g. if the problem involves the estimates of the of 400 married male and female respondents and a
average income in an area occupational groups can sample of 400 unmarried boys and girls were
be used as biases for dividing the population. The selected.
stratified random sample, if properly carried out, Accidental sampling:- This involves use of available
forms improvements upon the sample random , samples and , is therefore, the weaker type of
sample. Indeed, the reliability of the results for a sampling. This kind of sampling can be used if no
given size increases with the smaller range of all other types of sample are available.
possible sample averages accordingly, it can said Snowball Sampling:- It related to set of procedure
that a properly stratified random sampling is more whereby the initial respondents’ are selected by
reliable the a simple random sample of the same size probability methods and thereafter, additional
Non-probability sampling: respondents’ are obtained on the basis of information
In many research situations, particularly those where provided by them. This technique is used to identify
there is no list of persons to be studied (e.g., wife elements of rare populations by referral. For e.g, a
battering, widows, Maruti car owners, consumers of a manufacture is interested in marketing a mahogany
particular type of detergent powder, alcoholics, croquet set for serious adult players as the market for
students and teachers who cut classes frequently, this product is small, the researches is required to use
migrant workers, and so on), probability sampling is this technique in order to accomplish the task
difficult and inappropriate to use. In such researches, economically.
non-probability sampling is the most appropriate one.
Non-probability sampling procedures do not employ HYPOTHESIS
the rules of probability theory, do not claim
A hypothesis is an assumption about relations
representativeness and are usually used for
between variables. It is a tentative explanation of the
qualitative exploratory analysis.
research problem or a guess about the research
These samples do not use randomization and can be
outcome. Before starting the research, the researcher
classified as quota sampling, purposive sampling,
has a rather general, diffused, even confused notion
accidental sampling, and snowball sampling.
of the problem. It may take long time for the
Quota sampling: It is used in marketing research. It
researcher to say what questions he had been seeking
is a stratified sampling but of the non-random type.
answers to. Hence, an adequate statement about the
In this sampling, the population is divided into two or
research problem is very important.
three parts in terms of characteristics. Quota is then
• Theodor son and Theodor son, “a hypothesis is
fixed up and interviewer is asked a specified number
a tentative statement asserting a relationship
from each division. The interviewer may select a
between certain facts.
member of the population who is conveniently
available. Because of this convenience, bias is likely • Ker linger describes it as “a conjectural
to color. The bias can be reduced by restricting his statement of the relationship between two or
convenience. This method is useful where merely more variables”.
rough estimates (rather than results)are needed.

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• Black and Champion have described it as “a • The statements in the hypothesis should not be
tentative statement about something, the validity contradictory.
of which is usually unknown”. This statement is • It should specify variables between which the
intended to be tested empirically and is either relationship is to be established.
verified or rejected. If the statement is not • It should describe one issue only.
sufficiently established, it is not considered a A hypothesis can be formed either in descriptive
scientific law. or relational form. In the former, it describes events,
• Webster has defined hypothesis as “a tentative whereas in the latter, it establishes relations between
assumption made in order to draw out and test its variables. A hypothesis can also be formed in the
logical or empirical consequences”. ‘Test’ here directional, non-directional or null form.
means “either to prove it wrong or to confirm it”. Nature of Hypotheses
Since statements in Hypothesis have to be put to A scientific justified hypothesis must meet the
empirical investigation, the definition of following criteria:
hypothesis excludes all statements which are • It must accurately reflect the relevant
merely opinions (e.g., aging increases ailments), sociological fact.
value judgements (e.g., contemporary politicians • It must not be in contradiction with approved
are corrupt and have a vested interest to serve), relevant statements of other scientific disciplines.
or normative (e.g., all people should go for a • It must consider the experience of other
morning walk). Normative statement is a researchers.
statement of what ought to be, not a factual Hypotheses cannot be described as true or false.
statement that can be shown through They can only be relevant or irrelevant to the
investigation to be right or wrong. research topic. For instance, the causes of poverty in
Following are a few examples of a village can be explored in terms of:
hypotheses: • Low development of agriculture (caused by lack
• Group study increases higher division of irrigation, sandy soil, erratic rainfall and use
achievement. of traditional agriculture implements) causes
• Hostlers use more. poverty.
• Young girls (between 15-30 years) are more • Lack of infrastructure (electricity, roads,
victims of crimes against women than middle- markets) causes poverty.
aged women (between 30-40 years). • Barriers in rural development are resource
• Lower-class men commit more crimes than barriers (water, soil, minerals), support barriers
middle-class men. (rainfall, irrigation, livestock) and social system
• Suicide rates vary inversely with social barriers (credit, infrastructure, extravagant
integration. expenditure and market barriers).
• Educated women have more adjustment The important hypotheses could be :
problems after marriage than illiterate women. • Rural poverty is positively co-related with
• Children from broken homes tend to become availability of and accessibility to credit.
delinquents. • Rural poverty is the result of lack of
• Unemployment decreases juvenile delinquency. infrastructural facilities.
• Upper-class people have fewer children than • Poverty is associated with extravagant social
lower-class people. expenditure.
Criteria for Hypotheses Construction • Rural poverty is adversely related to resource
Hypothesis is never formulated in the form of a barriers (water, soil, minerals).
question. Bailey, Becker, Selltiz and Sarantakos Types of Hypotheses
have pointed out a number of standards to be met in Hypotheses are classified as working hypotheses,
formulating a hypothesis: research hypotheses, null hypotheses, statistical
• It should be empirically testable, whether it is hypotheses, alternative hypotheses and scientific
right or wrong. hypotheses.
• It should be specific and precise.

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• Working hypothesis is a preliminary assumption Goode and Hatt have given the following three
of the researcher about the research topic, types of hypotheses on the basis of level of
particularly when sufficient information is not abstractness :
available to establish a hypothesis, and as a step • Which presents proposition in common sense
towards formulating the final research terms or, About which some common sense
hypothesis. Working hypotheses are used to observations already exist or, Which seeks to test
design the final research plan, to place the common sense statements. For example: Bad
research problem in its right context and to parents produce bad children, or Committed
reduce the research topic to an acceptable size. managers always give profits, or Rich students
For example, in the field of business drink more alcohol.
administration, a researcher can formulate a • Which are somewhat complex, i.e., which give
working hypothesis that “assuring bonus statement of a little complex relationship. For
increases the sale of a commodity”. Later on, by example:
collecting some preliminary data, he modifies • Communal riots are caused by religious
this hypothesis and takes a research hypothesis polarization.
that “assuring lucrative bonus increases the sale • Growth of cities is in concentric circles
of a commodity”. (Burgess).
• Scientific hypothesis contains statement based • Economic instability hampers development of an
on or derived from sufficient theoretical and establishment.
empirical data. • Crime is caused by differential associations
• Alternative hypothesis is a set of two hypotheses (Sutherland).
(research and null) which states the opposite of • Juvenile delinquency is related to residence in
the null hypothesis. In statistical tests of null slums (Shaw).
hypotheses, acceptance of Ho (null hypothesis) • Deviant behaviour is caused by mental disorders
means rejection of the alternative hypothesis; (Healy and Bronner).
and rejection of Ho means similarly acceptance • Which are very complex, i.e., which describe
of the alternative hypothesis. relationship between two variables in more
• Research hypothesis is a researcher’s proposition complex terms, e.g., high fertility exists more in
about some social fact without reference to its low income, conservatives and rural people than
particular attributes. Researcher believes that it in high income, modern and urban people. Here
is true and wants that it should be disproved, dependent variable is ‘fertility’ while
e.g., Muslims have more children than Hindus, independent variables are income, values,
or drug abuse is found more among upper-class education and residence, etc. The other example
students living in hostels or rented rooms. is: Muslims have high fertility rate than Hindus.
Research hypothesis may be derived from We have to keep number of variables constant to
theories or may result in developing of theories. test this hypothesis. This is abstract way to
• Null hypothesis is reverse of research handle the problem.
hypothesis. It is a hypothesis of no relationship. Difficulties in Formulating Hypotheses
Null hypotheses do not exist in reality but are According to Goode and Hatt, three main
used to test research hypotheses. difficulties in formulating hypotheses are:
• Statistical hypothesis, according to Winter • Inability to phrase the hypothesis properly.
(1962), is a statement/observation about • Absence of clear theoretical framework or
statistical populations that one seeks to support knowledge of theoretical framework, e.g.,
or refute. The things are reduced to numerical awareness of rights among women depends upon
quantities and decisions are made about these personality, environment (education).
quantities, e.g., income difference between two • Lack of ability to utilize the theoretical
groups: Group A is richer than Group B. Null framework logically, e.g., workers’ commitment
hypothesis will be: Group A is not richer than and role skills and role learning.
group B. Here, variables are reduced to • Evaluating whether a hypothesis is good or bad
measurable quantities. depends upon the amount of information it

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provides about the phenomenon. For example, • Divorce is used as a last resort by a woman to
let us take the following hypothesis, given in break her marriage.
three forms: • Caste is related to voting behaviour among
(i) X is associated with Y. Indians.
(ii) X is dependent on Y. • Indian family comprises of not only primary and
(iii) As X increases Y decreases. secondary kin but most often of tertiary and
Of these three forms, third form explains the distant kin too.
phenomenon better. Past research : Hypotheses are often inspired by
Characteristics of A Useful Hypothesis: past research. For example, a researcher
Goode and Hatt have described the following studying the problem of student unrest may use
characteristics of a good hypothesis: the finding of another study that “students
• It must be conceptually clear. This means that having spent two or three years in the
concepts should be defined lucidly. These should college/university take more interest in students’
be operationalized. These should be commonly problems in the campus than freshers; or that
accepted. These should be communicable. In the “students with high ability and high social status
hypothesis, “as institutionalization increases, participate less in students, agitations than those
production decreases”, the concept is not easily who have low ability and low social status”.
communicable. Such hypotheses could be used either to replicate
• It should have empirical referents. This means past studies or revise the hypotheses that the
that it should have variables which could be put alleged correlation does not exist.
to empirical test, i.e., they should not merely be Folk wisdom : Sometimes researchers get the
moral judgements. For example, capitalists idea of a hypothesis from commonly held lay
exploit workers, or officers exploit subordinates, beliefs, e.g., caste affects individual’s behaviour,
or young people are more radical in ideas, or or that geniuses lead unhappy married life, or
efficient management leads to harmonious married women without children are less happy,
relations in an establishment. These hypotheses or that young illiterate married girls are more
cannot be considered useful hypotheses. exploited in joint families, or that being an only
• It should be specific, e.g., vertical mobility is child creates barriers in child’s development of
decreasing in industries, or exploitation leads to some personality characteristics, and so on.
agitation. Discussions and conversations: Random
• It should be related to available techniques, i.e., observations during discussions and
not only the researcher should be aware of the conversations and reflections on life as a person
techniques but these should be actually available. throw light on events and issues.
Take the hypothesis: “Change in infrastructure Personal experiences: Very often researchers
(means of production and relations of see evidence of some behaviour pattern in their
production) leads to change in social structure daily lives.
(family, religion, etc)”. Such hypothesis cannot Intuition: Sometimes the investigators get a
be tested with available techniques. feeling from inside that certain phenomena are
• It should be related to a body of theory. correlated. The suspected correlation leads the
Sources of Deriving Hypotheses investigator to hypothesize a relationship and
Cultural values of society : American culture, conduct a study to see if his/her suspicions are
for example, emphasizes individualism, confirmed. For example, living in a hostel for a
mobility, competition and equality, while Indian few years gives an idea to the hostler that “lack
culture emphasizes tradition, collectivism, karma of control leads to deviant behaviour”. He/she
and unattachment. Therefore, Indian cultural therefore decides to study hostel sub-culture.
values enable us to develop and test the Functions or Importance of Hypotheses
following hypotheses: Sarantakos has pointed out following three
• Residential jointness in Indian family has functions of hypotheses:
decreased but functional jointness continues to • To guide social research by offering directions to
exist. the structure and operation;

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• To offer a temporary answer to the research they must not precede the research but rather
question; and result from an investigation.
• To facilitate statistical analysis of variables in the • Despite these two contradictory arguments,
context of hypothesis testing. many investigators use hypotheses in their
The importance of hypotheses can also be research implicitly or explicitly. The greatest
pointed out in following terms: • advantage is that they not only guide in goals of
Hypotheses are important as tools of research but help in concentrating on the
scientific inquiry/research because they are important aspects of the research topic by
derived from theory or lead to theory. avoiding less significant issues.
• The facts (in hypotheses) get a chance to
establish the probable truth or falsify it. RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY
• Hypotheses are tools for the advancement of
knowledge as they stand apart from man’s values
Reliability
and opinions. Reliability is the consistency of your measurement,
• Hypotheses help the social scientists to suggest a or the degree to which an instrument measures the
theory that may explain and predict events. same way each time it is used under the same
• Hypotheses perform a descriptive function. The condition with the same subjects. In short, it is the
tested hypothesis tells us something about the repeatability of your measurement. A measure is
phenomenon it is associated with. considered reliable if a person’s score on the same
In a nutshell, the main functions of hypotheses test given twice is similar. It is important to
are: remember that reliability is not measured, it is
• To test theories, estimated.
• To suggest theories, and There are two ways that reliability is usually
• To describe social phenomena. estimated: test/retest and internal consistency.
The secondary functions are: • Test/Retest: Test/retest is the more conservative
• to help in formulating social policy, say, for rural method to estimate reliability. Simply put, the
communities, penal institutions, slums in urban idea behind test/retest is that you should get the
communities, educational institutions, solutions same score on test 1 as you do on test 2. The
to various kinds of social problems; three main components to this method are as
• to assist in refuting certain ‘common sense’ follows:
notions (e.g., men are more intelligent than 1. Implement your measurement instrument at
women); and two separate times for each subject;
• To indicate need for change in systems and 2. Compute the correlation between the two
structures by providing new knowledge. separate measurements; and
3. Assume there is no change in the underlying
Criticism of Hypotheses condition (or trait you are trying to measure)
• Some scholars have argued that each study needs between test 1 and test 2.
a hypothesis. Not only exploratory and
• Internal Consistency: Internal consistency
explanatory researches but even the descriptive
estimates reliability by grouping questions in a
studies can benefit from the formulation of a
questionnaire that measure the same concept. For
hypothesis. But some other scholars have
example, you could write two sets of three
criticized this position. They argue that
questions that measure the same concept (say
hypotheses make no positive contribution to the
class participation) and after collecting the
research process. On the contrary, they may bias
responses, run a correlation between those two
the researchers in their data collection and data
groups of three questions to determine if your
analysis. They may restrict their scope and limit
instrument is reliably measuring that concept.
their approach. They may even predetermine the
The primary difference between test/retest and
outcome of the research study.
internal consistency estimates of reliability is that
• Qualitative researchers argue that although test/retest involves two administrations of the
hypotheses are important tools of social research, measurement instrument, whereas the internal

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consistency method involves only one administration and outcomes to broader constructs of the same
of that instrument. concepts.
Validity: • External validity refers to our ability to
Validity is the strength of our conclusions, inferences generalize the results of our study to other
or propositions. More formally, Cook and Campbell settings. In our example, could we generalize our
(1979) define it as the “best available approximation results to other classrooms?
to the truth or falsity of a given inference, proposition Validity and Reliability Compared:
or conclusion.” In short, were we right? Let’s look at The real difference between reliability and
a simple example. Say we are studying the effect of validity is mostly a matter of definition. Reliability
strict attendance policies on class participation. In our estimates the consistency of your measurement, or
case, we saw that class participation did increase after more simply the degree to which an instrument
the policy was established. Each type of validity measures the same way each time it is used in under
would highlight a different aspect of the relationship the same conditions with the same subjects. Validity,
between our treatment (strict attendance policy) and on the other hand, involves the degree to which you
our observed outcome (increased class participation). are measuring what you are supposed to, more
Types of Validity simply, the accuracy of your measurement. It is my
There are four types of validity commonly belief that validity is more important than reliability
examined in social research : because if an instrument does not accurately measure
• Conclusion validity asks is there a relationship what it is supposed to, there is no reason to use it
between the programme and the observed even if it measures consistently (reliably).
outcome? Or, in our example, is there a So what is the relationship between validity and
connection between the attendance policy and reliability? The two do not necessarily go hand-in-
the increased participation we saw? hand. At best, we have a measure that has both high
• Internal Validity asks if there is a relationship validity and high reliability. It yields consistent
between the programme and the outcome we results in repeated application and it accurately
saw, is it a causal relationship? For example, did reflects what we hope to represent.
the attendance policy cause class participation to It is possible to have a measure that has high
increase? reliability but low validity – one that is consistent in
• Construct validity is the hardest to understand in getting bad information or consistent in missing the
my opinion. It asks if there is there a relationship mark. It is also possible to have one that has low
between how I operationalzed my concepts in reliability and low validity – inconsistent and not on
this study to the actual causal relationship I’m target.
trying to study? Or in our example, did our Finally, it is not possible to have a measure
treatment (attendance policy) reflect the that has low reliability and high validity – you can’t
construct of attendance, and did our measured really get at what you want or what you’re interested
outcome - increased class participation – reflect in, if your measure fluctuates wildly.
the construct of participation? Overall, we are
trying to generalize our conceptualized treatment

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