2536803gajendra Moksha
2536803gajendra Moksha
PROTHROMBIN TIME
Prothrombin Time - Test 12.6 seconds 12.1 - 15.5
Method : Fully Automated Coagulometer(STAGO SATELLITE MAX). using citrate plasma sample.
Note :
*Change in Prothrombin Time reference ranges are as per the MNPT derived values.
*Change in INR normal range (w.e.f.29/03/2025)
INTERPRETATION:
Prothrombin Time helps in the detection and diagnosis of a bleeding disorder or an excessive clotting disorder.
It is used as a screening test to assess the coagulation activity of the Extrinsic and the common coagulation pathway and may be prolonged
due to deficiencies of Factor I,II,V,VII or X, due to a liver disease, Vitamin K deficiency or due to presence of inhibitors.
The test is also used to monitor effects of anti coagulant therapy (Heparin, Warfarin etc)
The INR is preferred for patients stabilized on oral anti coagulant therapy, as it reduces the inter method variability.
An INR < 2 reflects insufficient anticoagulation, and a marked elevation of INR > 3 in patients on oral anti coagulants is a marker of
excessive anticoagulation and requires prompt action.
LIMITATIONS:
•The Prothrombin Time (PT) may not be sensitive to mild deficiencies of single clotting factors and is usually prolonged if the plasma levels
of any of the requisite factors is below 10 % of the normal.
•The PT is more sensitive to deficiencies of Factor VII and X than to deficiencies of factor I and II, and is not sensitive to abnormalities in
factors involved in the intrinsic coagulation pathway ( factors VIII, IX,XI and XII) or in Protein C or S deficiencies.
•The Prothrombin Time (PT) is less sensitive to the anticoagulant action of Heparin than is the APTT.
•An Excessive intake of a diet rich in Green leafy vegetables (Spinach, Broccoli), increases the body’s absorption of Vitamin K and could
interfere with the anti coagulant mechanism.
•Alcoholism or excessive alcohol ingestion prolongs PT levels.
•Diarrhea and vomiting may decrease PT levels due to dehydration.
•Various drugs, including over the counter medications (Aspirin, laxative products, acetaminophen etc), also alter the effects of
anticoagulants and PT value.
Note : Laboratory Test Results should always be considered in the context of clinical observations in making a final Diagnosis and Patient
management decisions.
Interpretation:
As Per the ADA (American Diabetes Association) criteria, diagnosis of Diabetes Mellitus is based on any one/more of the following:
* Fasting Plasma Glucose (FPG) > 126 mg/dl on more than one occasion.
* Symptoms of Diabetes Mellitus (Polydipsia, Polyuria, Unexplained weight loss, Polyphagia etc ) and a Random Plasma Glucose > 200 mg/dl.
* Two Hour Plasma Glucose >/= 200 mg/dl.
* Glycosylated Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) >/= 6.5 %
Note: Laboratory Test Results should always be considered in the context of clinical observations in making a final diagnosis and Patient
management decisions.
Interpretation:
*The test is indicated in the diagnosis of renal insufficiency, adjusting the dosage of renally excreted medications, and monitoring renal
transplant patients.
*An estimated GFR (e-GFR) is calculated from serum Creatinine using an isotope dilution mass spectrometry (IDMS) traceable equation (MDRD
Equation) for ages 18 and above, as an effective way to help detect CKD and those with risk factors for CKD (DM, Hypertension, cardiovascular
disease or family history of kidney disease).
GFR categories as per the KDIGO (Kidney Disease: Improving Global outcome) Guidelines are as follows:
====================================================================
STAGE DESCRIPTION GFR (ml/min /1.73m2)
====================================================================
G1 Normal or High >/= 90
--------------------------------------------------------------------
G2 Mildly Decreased 60 - 89
--------------------------------------------------------------------
G3a Mildly to Moderately Decreased 45 - 59
--------------------------------------------------------------------
G3b Moderately to severely decreased 30 - 44
--------------------------------------------------------------------
G4 Severely Decreased 15 - 29
--------------------------------------------------------------------
G5 Kidney Failure < 15
====================================================================
* In the absence of evidence of Kidney Damage, Neither GFR category G1 nor G2 fulfill the criteria for CKD.
Limitations:
*The MDRD Equation does not require weight and height variables because the results are reported normalized to the accepted average adult
surface area. The MDRD study Equation can therefore be applied to determine level of kidney function, regardless of a patient’s size. (Consult
a nephrologist if a patient has unusual physical considerations).
*Creatinine based estimating equations should be used only for patients with stable Creatinine concentrations.
*Creatinine –based estimating equations may not be suitable for all populations and are not recommended for use with
- Individuals with unstable creatinine concentrations (pregnant woman, patients with serious co-morbid conditions and hospitalized
patients).
- Patients of extreme body size or muscle mass (e.g obese, severely malnourished, paraplegics or in other muscle wasting diseases or a
neuromuscular disorder) or in patients with unusual dietary intake vegetarian, creatine supplements etc).
[Application of the equation to the above patient groups may lead to errors in the GFR estimation.
Thus, Confirmatory tests with exogenous measured GFR or measured Creatinine Clearance should be performed for such people, in whom estimates
based on serum/plasma/ blood creatinine alone may be Inaccurate].
*Interferences have been reported with marked increase in serum Bilirubin.
*Methodological interferences have also been observed with ascorbic acid, L-dopa etc.
Note: The reported e-GFR is the best estimate of a patient’s GFR; It is not the patients actual GFR.
LIPID PROFILE
Total Cholesterol 153 mg/dl Less than 200
HDL Cholesterol 47 mg/dl 40 - 60
Cholesterol/HDL Ratio 3.3 2-5
Triglyceride 97 mg/dl Less than 150
LDL Cholesterol 87 mg/dl Less than 100
VLDL Cholesterol 19 mg/dl 0 - 35
LDL / HDL Ratio 1.8 0 - 3.5
INTERPRETATION :
Following are the results interpretation as per the recommendations of The Adult Treatment Panel III of the national cholesterol education
program for coronary risk analysis :
==========================
TOTAL CHOLESTEROL LEVEL
==========================
< 200 mg/dl : Desirable[Low Risk of Coronary Heart Disease]
200 – 239 mg/dl : Borderline High[Cholesterol level = 200 mg/dl raises the risk of CHD]
>/= 240 mg/dl : High [Person has more than twice the risk of developing CHD]
*The Cholesterol/HDL ratio provides more information than either values alone. The higher the Cholesterol/HDL ratio,the greater the risk for
developing atherosclerosis.
Limitations: * Test results may show interferences due to pregnancy, certain drugs such as estrogens and other drugs (such as androgenic and
related steroids),and insulin therapy etc.
* Values may be increased in acute illness, colds or flu.Obesity, Stress, physical inactivity, cigarette smoking and alcohol consumption may
lead to increased test values.
* Intraindividual variations, seasonal as well as positional variations have been observed.
Note:Laboratory Test Results should always be considered in the context of clinical observations in making a final diagnosis and Patient
management decisions.
SGOT,serum 24 U/L 5 - 34
Method: UV without P5P (Photometry)
SGPT,serum 40 U/L 0 - 55
Method: UV without P5P (Photometry).
GGT,Serum 33 U/L 12 - 64
Interpretation:
Liver function tests are a group of tests performed to help diagnose or monitor liver diseases by measuring the levels of proteins, liver
enzymes and bilirubin. The test may also be performed as part of a regular checkup to screen patients who are at risk of liver disease or to
monitor the progress of disease and response to drugs or other treatments.
Note :
*Reference ranges vary with method/analyser used for a particular test.
*Laboratory Test Results should always be considered in the context of clinical observations in making a final Diagnosis and Patient management
decisions.
IMMUNOLOGY
INSULIN (FASTING)
Insulin Fasting,Serum 17.40 µU/ml 2 - 25
Method: CMIA
Interpretation :
*The primary clinical application of insulin measurement is in the evaluation of patients with fasting hypoglycemia and in the diagnosis of
insulinoma. Also helpful in evaluating insulin resistance and insulin secretion, and in selecting the optimal management therapy for patients
with type 2 diabetes mellitus.
Limitations :
* Measuring insulin along with OGTT, as an aid to early diagnosis of diabetes mellitus, is an approach which is not recommended.
* A single random blood sample may provide insufficient information due to wide variations in the time responses of insulin and blood glucose
which are found among individuals and various clinical conditions.
* To differentiate between insulinoma and factitious hypoglycemia, ratio of insulin to blood glucose or a insulin to C-peptide ratio may be
more valuable than insulin alone.
* Antibodies to insulin develop in almost all diabetics treated with exogenous insulin and monitoring of insulin may be of significance in the
treatment of such patients.
* Depressed levels of insulin are generally seen in type 1 Diabetes mellitus and hypopituitarism.
* Individuals who are obese have somewhat higher fasting insulin levels than adults with a normal weight.
* Patients on oral contraceptives may have increased levels of fasting insulin.
Note:Laboratory Test Results should always be considered in the context of clinical observations in making a final diagnosis and Patient
management decisions.
Interpretation :
*The primary clinical application of insulin measurement is in the evaluation of patients with fasting hypoglycemia and in the diagnosis of
insulinoma. Also helpful in evaluating insulin resistance and insulin secretion, and in selecting the optimal management therapy for patients
with type 2 diabetes mellitus.
Limitations :
* Measuring insulin along with OGTT, as an aid to early diagnosis of diabetes mellitus, is an approach which is not recommended.
* A single random blood sample may provide insufficient information due to wide variations in the time responses of insulin and blood glucose
which are found among individuals and various clinical conditions.
* To differentiate between insulinoma and factitious hypoglycemia, ratio of insulin to blood glucose or a insulin to C-peptide ratio may be
more valuable than insulin alone.
* Antibodies to insulin develop in almost all diabetics treated with exogenous insulin and monitoring of insulin may be of significance in the
treatment of such patients.
* Depressed levels of insulin are generally seen in type 1 Diabetes mellitus and hypopituitarism.
* Individuals who are obese have somewhat higher fasting insulin levels than adults with a normal weight.
* Patients on oral contraceptives may have increased levels of fasting insulin.
Note:Laboratory Test Results should always be considered in the context of clinical observations in making a final diagnosis and Patient
management decisions.
THYROID PANEL
Free T3, Serum 2.35 pg/ml 1.71 - 3.71
Method:CMIA
Note:Laboratory Test Results should always be considered in the context of clinical observations in making a final diagnosis and Patient
management decisions.
VITAMIN B12
Vitamin B12,Serum 238.00 pg/ml WHO CRITERIA FOR VITAMIN B12
INTERPRETATION:
< 150 : Deficient
150 - 200 : High risk of Vitamin B12
deficiency
> 201:Unlikely to be deficient
Method: CMIA
Interpretation:
* Vitamin B 12 is mainly used in the investigation of Macrocytic anemia and in the workup of deficiencies seen in Megaloblastic anemias.
* Vitamin B12 also assists in the diagnosis of CNS disorders and evaluation of malabsorption syndromes.
* As low concentrations of Holotranscobalamin (Active B12) occur before low concentrations of Total serum B12, preceding the stage of B12
deficiency or the stage of hematological or irreversible neurological damage; Active B12 is considered a more reliable marker of impaired B12
status than a low concentration of Serum Vitamin B12 and should be considered as a first line laboratory parameter to screen for Vitamin B12
deficiency.
Limitations :
* Vitamin B12 concentrations within the reference intervals may not necessarily reflect adequate vitamin B12 status. Conversely, low serum
vitamin B12 concentrations may not be indicative of vitamin B12 deficiency as low serum B12 concentrations may be due to reduction in
Haptocorrin.
* Since measurement of Total Vitamin B12, has limitations of sensitivity and specificity, Vitamin B12 bound to transcobalamin (holoTC) has been
proposed as a potentially more useful alternative indicator of Vitamin B12 status. Measurement of both holoTC (Active vitamin B12) and Total
Vitamin B12 however, provides a better screen for Vitamin B12 deficiency than either assay alone.
* If clinical symptoms suggest deficiency, measurement of Active- B12 and testing of other metabolic markers (Folic acid, Intrinsic factor
blocking antibodies, MMA and Homocystein) should be considered, even if B12 concentrations are normal.
* Renal insufficiency constitutes a common and important exceptional condition for the interpretation of cobalamine markers.
* Alcohol, pregnancy, smoking and drugs such as anticonvulsants, ascorbic acid, metformin, oral contraceptives etc may decrease vitamin B12
levels.
* Patients taking Vitamin B12 supplementation may have misleading results.
* Methylmalonic acid and Homocystein are increased in vitamin B12 deficiency and are generally considered more sensitive indicators of Vitamin
B12 status.
* Active Vitamin B12, like total serum B12, varies to a limited extent by age, gender or race.
* Active B12 levels reflect vitamin B12 status independent of recent absorption.
Note:Laboratory Test Results should always be considered in the context of clinical observations in making a final diagnosis and Patient
management decisions.
Method : Refractometry & Digital Imaging Analysis done on Fully Automated Beckman Iris Analyser.
Note :
* Urine routine and microscopy is a screening test.
* Pre-test conditions & improper sample collection container if not observed may interfere with test results (e.g.mid-stream urine,collected in
a clean,dry,sterile container is recommended for routine urine analysis,avoid contamination with any discharge from vaginal urethra,perineum,as
applicable,avoid prolonged transit time & undue exposure to sunlight).
* Negative nitrite test does not exclude the presence of bacteria or urinary tract infections.
* Trace Proteinuria can be seen with many physiological conditions like prolonged recumbency,exercise,high protein diet etc.
* False reactions for bile pigments,proteins,glucose and nitrites can be caused by peroxidase like activity by disinfectants,therapeutic
dyes,ascorbic acid and certain drugs etc.
* Physiological variations may affect the test results.
The reference ranges may vary widely between individual laboratories and between different assay methods.
IMMUNOLOGY SPECIAL
VITAMIN D (25-HYDROXY)
VITAMIN D,Serum 35.4 ng/ml 30 - 50
Method :CMIA
Interpretation:
*Vitamin D (25 –OH vitamin D) is generally accepted as the best indicator of an individual’s Vitamin D status and is mainly indicated in the
diagnosis of Vitamin D deficiency, differential diagnosis of causes of rickets and Osteomalacia, monitoring Vitamin D replacement therapy and
in the diagnosis of Hypervitaminosis D.
-------------------------------------------------
Vitamin D Status Reference Range(ng/ml)
--------------------------------------------------
Deficient : < 10
Insufficient : 10 - 30
Sufficient : 30 - 50
At risk of adverse effects : > 50
Toxicity : > 100
--------------------------------------------
Guidelines from the Endocrine Society and the UK osteoporosis society recommends that , routine screening for Vitamin D deficiency is
warranted in those with risk of deficiency and not on a population basis.
[Candidates for screening are listed as patients with rickets, Osteomalacia,Osteoporosis,CKD,hepatic failure,malabsorption
syndromes,hyperparathyroidism,granuloma forming disorders, pregnant and lactating woman,older adults with history of falls or with history of
non traumatic fractures,obese,patients with some lymphomas and patients on medications such as anticonvulsants, glucocorticoids, AIDS
medication and antifungal.]
Limitations:
* Given the absence of assay standardization and lack of consensus regarding clinical cut off values, Vitamin D levels must be interpreted
within the clinical context of each patient and one should not rely solely on cut off values based on so called normal values.
* Circulatory concentrations of 25 (OH) Vitamin D are increased by exposure to sunlight and may show seasonal variation with the highest
concentrations in summer and lowest concentrations in winter and spring.
* Concentrations of Vitamin D are influenced by latitude, sunscreen use and skin pigmentation. Concentrations = 100 ng/ml may be detected in
individuals with extensive sun exposure.
* Concentrations vary depending on ethnic background, age,pregnancy and increasing supplementation with Vitamin D.
Note: The Accuracy of measurement varies widely between individual laboratories and between different assay methods.
Laboratory Test Results should always be considered in the context of clinical observations in making a final diagnosis and Patient management
decisions.
Interpretation:
* HbA1c test is the estimated average blood glucose levels during the previous 2-3 months.
* The HbA1c test is used to aid in the possible diagnosis of Diabetes mellitus, in screening for Pre diabetes and to identify patients who may
be at risk of developing diabetes, as an index of diabetic control and monitoring compliance and long term blood glucose level control in
patients with diabetes. Also useful in predicting development and progression of diabetic microvascular complications.
* HbA1c levels < 7% has been shown to reduce microvascular and neuropathic complications of Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes.
As Per the ADA (American Diabetes Association) criteria, diagnosis of Diabetes Mellitus is based on any one/more of the following:
*Fasting Plasma Glucose (FPG) = 126 mg/dl on more than one occasion.
*Symptoms of Diabetes Mellitus (Polydipsia,Polyuria,Unexplained weightloss,Polyphagia etc) and a Random Plasma Glucose >=200 mg/dl.
*Two Hour Plasma Glucose >= 200 mg/dl.
*Glycosylated Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) = 6.5 %
Limitations:
*When using HbA1c to diagnose Diabetes, it is important to recognize that A1c is an indirect measure of average blood Glucose levels and other
factors that may impact hemoglobin glycation independently of glycemia should be taken into consideration, including age, race / ethnicity and
anemia (iron deficiency anemia, hemolytic anemia) / hemoglobinopathies.
*Hemoglobin variants or HbA2 > 5% and HbF > 20 % can interfere with the measurement of A1c, and needs to be correlated with Abnormal Hb
studies and further workup.
*Marked discrepancies between measured A1C and plasma glucose levels should prompt consideration that the A1c assay is not reliable for that
individual.
*The HbA1c assay should not be used to diagnose or monitor diabetes in conditions associated with increased red blood cell turnover (e.g sickle
cell disease), pregnancy, hemodialysis, recent blood loss or transfusion or erythropoietin therapy, and only plasma blood glucose criteria to
diagnose diabetes should be used.
*Unless there is a clear clinical diagnosis, (e.g patient in a hyperglycemic crisis or with classic symptoms of hyperglycemia and a random
blood glucose =200mg/dl), a second test is required, for confirmation of a test result which is above the diagnostic threshold.
*Certain medications, such as Glucocorticoids, Thiazide diuretics, and Atypical antipsychotics are known to increase the risk of diabetes and
should be considered when deciding whether to screen.
*This method is certified by the National Glycohemoglobin Standardization Program (NGSP), Standardized to International Federation of clinical
Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine (IFCC), and traceable to DCCT.
*HbA1c values may vary with different methodologies or even between different laboratories using the same methodology.
Note: Test Results should always be considered in the context of clinical observations in making a final diagnosis and Patient management
decisions.