1.

Preamble: Terms and Interpretations

INTRODUCTION

The Preamble introduces the Constitution’s goals: Sovereign, Socialist,

Secular, Democratic Republic. Though not legally enforceable, it guides
interpretation, especially post Kesavananda Bharati (1973).

MAIN BODY

• Sovereign : Full authority in domestic and foreign affairs

• Socialist : Economic justice — reflected in schemes like PM Garib Kalyan

Yojana (2020)

• Secular : Equal respect to all religions — upheld in S.R. Bommai Case

(1994)

• Democratic : Elected government, universal adult franchise

• Republic : Elected head, not monarch — ensures accountability

• 42nd Amendment (1976) : Inserted 'Socialist', 'Secular', 'Integrity'

• Judicial Use : Maneka Gandhi (1978), Berubari Union (1960) interpret it

as part of Constitution

• Exam Tip : Link with SDGs, schemes like Ayushman Bharat, Digital India

CHALLENGES

• Misuse in political rhetoric

• Public ignorance of its value

• Loose interpretations of terms

• No legal enforceability
WAY FORWARD

• School-level civic education

• Annual Preamble readings (Samvidhan Diwas)

• Promote public discourse

• Train public servants on constitutional values

CONCLUSION

The Preamble reflects India’s aspirations. It is the soul of the Constitution

and must guide all governance efforts toward inclusive development.

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2. Fundamental Rights (Articles 14–32)

INTRODUCTION

Fundamental Rights ensure liberty, equality, and dignity. Mentioned in Part

III (Articles 12–35), they are justiciable under Article 32.

MAIN BODY

• Right to Equality (Articles 14–18) : Non-discrimination, equality before

law — Indra Sawhney (1992) on reservations

• Right to Freedom (Articles 19–22) : Speech, movement, liberty —

Maneka Gandhi (1978) widened scope of Article 21

• Right against Exploitation (Articles 23–24) : Ban on child labor,

trafficking — reinforced through PENCIL Portal

• Right to Constitutional Remedies (Article 32) : "Heart and Soul" — basis

of PILs, activism

• Exam Tip : Use Shreya Singhal (2015) for Article 19, Kesavananda for
rights vs DPSPs

CHALLENGES
• Abuse of sedition laws

• Rural and poor unaware of rights

• Delay in enforcement

• Overlap with DPSPs creating friction

WAY FORWARD

• Expand legal aid access (eCourts, Nyaya Bandhu app)

• Civic education in schools

• Rights-based approach in welfare schemes

• Police reforms for enforcement

CONCLUSION

Fundamental Rights are the spine of our democracy. Their protection

ensures true Swaraj and constitutional governance.

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3. Directive Principles and Uniform Civil Code

INTRODUCTION

DPSPs (Articles 36–51) are ideals for state policy. Article 44 directs state to
secure Uniform Civil Code (UCC).

MAIN BODY

• Article 38–39 : Ensure welfare state — reflected in Food Security Act,

POSHAN Abhiyan

• Article 41–43 : Work, education, living wage — led to MGNREGA, RTE Act

• Article 44 : Common civil code for all religions — sparked debate post
Shah Bano (1985)

• Goa’s UCC model : Example of uniformity

• Minerva Mills (1980) : Balanced FRs and DPSPs

• Exam Tip : Cite Law Commission 2018 paper on UCC

CHALLENGES

• Religious opposition, lack of consensus

• Varying personal laws

• Politicization of UCC

• Limited public discourse

WAY FORWARD

• Law Commission-led consultations

• Start with gender-neutral reforms

• Model laws for voluntary adoption

• Educate communities and faith leaders

CONCLUSION

DPSPs are the conscience of the Constitution. UCC must evolve through
dialogue, not coercion.

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4. Constitutional Amendments – 42nd, 44th, 103rd

INTRODUCTION

Article 368 empowers Parliament to amend the Constitution, with limits

via Basic Structure Doctrine.

MAIN BODY

• 42nd Amendment (1976) : Added ‘Socialist’, ‘Secular’, centralised power

• 44th Amendment (1978) : Undid Emergency excesses — restored
liberties under Article 21

• 103rd Amendment (2019) : 10% EWS quota — challenged in court vs

50% ceiling

• Key Cases : Kesavananda Bharati (1973), I.R. Coelho (2007) on 9th

Schedule

• Exam Tip : Mention Golaknath (1967), NJAC Case (2015) for limits to
amendment

CHALLENGES

• Lack of public debate before changes

• Political misuse

• Uncertainty on EWS criteria

• States' lack of consensus

WAY FORWARD

• Pre-legislative consultation

• Engage academia and civil society

• Set up Constitutional Review Body

• Regular review of past amendments

CONCLUSION

Amendments should reflect change but protect values. Transparency and

inclusiveness must guide reforms.

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5. Basic Structure Doctrine

INTRODUCTION
The doctrine limits Parliament’s power to alter foundational constitutional
principles.

MAIN BODY

• Defined in Kesavananda Bharati (1973) : Parliament can amend, not

destroy Constitution’s core

• Elements : Rule of law, secularism, separation of powers, judicial review

• SR Bommai (1994) : Upheld secularism

• NJAC Case (2015) : Judicial independence is basic

• Exam Tip : Always connect doctrine with Parliament, judiciary, and

federal debates

CHALLENGES

• No exhaustive list of core features

• Occasional judicial overreach

• Lack of public understanding

WAY FORWARD

• Consensus through case law

• Legal education campaigns

• Avoid frequent constitutional tinkering

• Harmonious balance between institutions

CONCLUSION

Basic Structure ensures stability with change. It defends constitutional

morality and democratic integrity.

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6. Federal Structure: Cooperative and Fiscal Federalism

INTRODUCTION

India’s federalism is ‘quasi-federal’ — strong Centre but states also

autonomous. Post-NITI Aayog and GST, cooperation over competition is
promoted.

MAIN BODY

• Inter-State Council : Article 263 — consultative mechanism, reactivated

post-2016

• NITI Aayog : Replaced Planning Commission, fosters cooperative

federalism — Aspirational Districts Programme

• GST Council : Constitutional body under Article 279A — Centre–State

synergy on tax sharing

• Finance Commission : Article 280 — recommends vertical and horizontal

devolution

• 15th Finance Commission (2020–25) : 41% devolution; flagged tax

buoyancy, demographic gaps

• Vertical vs Horizontal imbalance : States lack resource autonomy

• Exam Tip : Cite Punchhi Commission (2010) for federal suggestions

CHALLENGES

• Centre’s dominance in devolution

• Delays in GST compensation

• Political divergence affecting councils

• Limited fiscal space for states

WAY FORWARD

• Strengthen Inter-State Council

• Regular GST Council meetings

• Broader tax base for states

• Capacity building for fiscal management

CONCLUSION

Cooperative and fiscal federalism must mature with trust, equity, and
institutional respect.

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7. Inter-State Water Disputes and Article 262

INTRODUCTION

Water disputes test India’s federalism. Article 262 allows Parliament to

adjudicate water conflicts.

MAIN BODY

• Key Disputes : Cauvery (Karnataka-TN), Krishna (Maharashtra-Karnataka-

AP), Ravi-Beas (Punjab-Haryana)

• Article 262 : Excludes Supreme Court jurisdiction when tribunal created

• Interstate Water Disputes Act, 1956 : Tribunal formation

• Cauvery Water Tribunal : Formed in 1990, SC gave final verdict in 2018

• River Boards Act (1956) : Never effectively implemented

• Exam Tip : Quote Mihir Shah Committee (2016) on river basin

governance

CHALLENGES

• Delayed tribunal decisions

• Non-enforcement of awards

• Political rhetoric aggravates disputes

• Lack of integrated water management

WAY FORWARD

• Permanent Tribunal (2019 Bill proposal)

• Inter-state MoUs with river basin approach

• Promote consensus via NITI Aayog forums

• Improve hydrological data transparency

CONCLUSION

Water sharing must balance federalism and equity. Consensus and legal
finality are crucial.

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8. Role of Governor and Recent Controversies

INTRODUCTION

Governor is a constitutional link between Centre and State (Articles 153–

162). Recent political issues raised debates.

MAIN BODY

• Article 163 : Governor acts on CM’s aid but can use discretion

• Discretionary Powers : Reserving bills (Article 200), dismissing

government, reporting breakdown

• Controversies : Maharashtra (2019), Punjab-Bengal (2023), Tamil Nadu

delay in bill assent

• Sarkaria Commission (1988) : Suggested neutrality, fixed tenures

• Nabam Rebia Case (2016) : Governor can’t interfere in legislative

business

• Exam Tip : Link with federalism, basic structure, President’s Rule

CHALLENGES

• Political appointments dilute neutrality

• Misuse of discretionary powers

• No judicial timelines on bill assent

• Role in hung assemblies creates tension

WAY FORWARD

• Review Governor appointment process

• Amend Articles 155–156 for criteria

• Establish judicial timelines on bills

• Promote transparency through reports

CONCLUSION

Governor’s post must serve as a constitutional guardian, not political

agent. Reforms needed to depoliticize the role.

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9. Parliament and State Legislature: Structure and Functioning

INTRODUCTION

Parliament (Article 79–122) and State Legislatures (Article 168–212) are

law-making bodies ensuring democracy.

MAIN BODY

• Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha : Bicameral — 543 and 245 members

• State Assemblies : Unicameral or bicameral

• Sessions : Budget, Monsoon, Winter — declining sittings noted by PRS

India

• Committee System : Standing and ad hoc — improves scrutiny

• Speaker’s Role : Conducts House, ensures discipline — cite Kihoto

Hollohan (1992)
• Exam Tip : Mention Productivity Report (2023) on disruptions and delays

CHALLENGES

• Frequent disruptions and walkouts

• Lack of discussion on bills

• Ordinance overuse bypasses legislature

• Weak role of Opposition

WAY FORWARD

• Mandatory minimum sittings

• Strengthen committee referrals

• Curb ordinance route

• Empower Opposition through structured debates

CONCLUSION

Legislatures must reclaim their deliberative role. Functioning institutions

are the pillars of democracy.

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10. Anti-Defection Law and Speaker’s Role

INTRODUCTION

Tenth Schedule (added by 52nd Amendment, 1985) aims to prevent

defections and political instability.

MAIN BODY

• Disqualification : If voluntarily resigns or votes against party —

exceptions for mergers

• Speaker decides on disqualification

• Kihoto Hollohan (1992) : Speaker’s decision subject to judicial review

• Nabam Rebia (2016) : Speaker can’t initiate disqualification while facing

removal motion

• Issues : Delays in decision, biased actions, conflict of interest

• Exam Tip : Cite ongoing cases in Maharashtra and Manipur (2023)

CHALLENGES

• Lack of time limit for decisions

• Speaker's partisanship

• Rise of mass defections with loopholes

• Undermines electoral mandate

WAY FORWARD

• Time-bound decision (as per SC)

• Transfer power to independent tribunal

• Clarify merger provisions

• Strengthen internal party democracy

CONCLUSION

Anti-defection must ensure accountability while respecting representation.

Reforms are urgent to stop misuse.

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11. Structure of Indian Judiciary and Recent Reforms

INTRODUCTION

Judiciary under Articles 124–147 (Union) and 214–237 (States) ensures

rule of law, constitutional supremacy.

MAIN BODY

• Supreme Court : Apex court, final interpreter, Article 124 — 34 judges

(2023)

• High Courts : Article 214 — 25 High Courts, some with multiple

jurisdiction

• Subordinate Courts : Article 233 onwards — district and lower courts

• All India Judicial Services : Proposed for uniform recruitment — not

implemented

• Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023 : Replacing IPC to simplify criminal law

• Mediation Act, 2023 : Promotes alternative dispute resolution

• Exam Tip : Mention pendency data — over 4.5 crore cases pending
(NCRB 2023)

CHALLENGES

• Case backlog and delays

• Infrastructure and manpower issues

• Uneven access to justice

• Slow adoption of technology

WAY FORWARD

• Judicial infrastructure scheme (2021–26)

• Regional benches of SC

• Promote e-courts and AI-based filing

• Implement AIJS for quality judges

CONCLUSION

Judicial reforms must ensure access, speed, and independence.

Technology and accountability are key.

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12. Judicial Appointments: Collegium, NJAC, and Reforms

INTRODUCTION

Appointments under Article 124 and 217 — Collegium system evolved by

judicial interpretation.

MAIN BODY

• Collegium : Judges appoint judges — based on Second Judges Case

(1993)

• National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC) Act, 2014 : Struck

down in 2015 (4th Judges Case)

• Issues : Opaqueness, lack of diversity, executive-judiciary tension

• Law Commission Report 230 (2012) : Recommended more transparency

• 2023 Developments : SC vs Centre on appointment delays

• Exam Tip : Cite IR Coelho (2007) — independence of judiciary is basic

structure

CHALLENGES

• No formal criteria for selection

• Delays in clearing names

• Collegium not accountable to public

• Increasing executive pressure

WAY FORWARD
• Memorandum of Procedure with clarity

• Mixed model: Judicial + Executive + Civil Society

• Publish reasons for appointments

• Promote regional and gender diversity

CONCLUSION

Appointments need transparency, trust, and constitutionality. Judicial

independence must be safeguarded.

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13. Judicial Activism vs Judicial Restraint

INTRODUCTION

Balance between intervention and self-restraint defines judiciary’s role in

governance.

MAIN BODY

• Judicial Activism : PIL, expanding rights — e.g., Vishaka vs State of

Rajasthan (1997), Environmental cases

• Judicial Restraint : Deference to legislature, separation of powers

• Key Cases : Kesavananda Bharati (1973), Olga Tellis (1985), Navtej Johar
(2018), Sabarimala (2018)

• Mediation Act 2023 : Reflects shift towards alternative remedies

• Exam Tip : Use comparative view — activism vital when

executive/legislature fails

CHALLENGES

• Overreach criticism — bypassing democratic process

• Vague PILs for publicity

• Judiciary lacks enforcement power

• Delay in core adjudication due to activism

WAY FORWARD

• Filter frivolous PILs

• Balanced activism within constitutional limits

• Encourage institutional accountability

• Build jurisprudence for restraint

CONCLUSION

Judicial activism must not substitute governance. Balanced intervention

safeguards democracy.

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14. Electoral Reforms and Recent Laws

INTRODUCTION

India’s electoral system faces issues of funding opacity, criminalization,

and lack of transparency.

MAIN BODY

• Representation of the People Act, 1951 : Regulates elections and

conduct

• Chief Election Commissioner and Other ECs Act, 2023 : Alters

appointment method — raised concerns on independence

• Electoral Bonds : Declared unconstitutional in 2024 — SC cited violation

of transparency and voter rights

• Model Code of Conduct : ECI enforces during elections — lacks statutory

backing

• Exam Tip : Mention ADR data — 40% MPs with criminal charges (2024)
CHALLENGES

• Money power and corporate influence

• Criminalization unchecked

• ECI autonomy under question

• Low voter awareness on funding

WAY FORWARD

• State funding of elections

• Real-time disclosure of funds

• Make MCC legally enforceable

• Strengthen Election Commission independence

CONCLUSION

Democracy demands clean, fair, and free elections. Reforming the

electoral process is central to public trust.

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15. Simultaneous Elections: One Nation One Election

INTRODUCTION

Proposal to hold Lok Sabha and State Assembly elections together to save
cost and governance disruption.

MAIN BODY

• Law Commission Report (2018) : Proposed constitutional amendments

for synchronized terms

• NITI Aayog (2020) : Cited benefits — reduced costs, continuous

governance

• Recent Push : High-level committee formed in 2023 to study feasibility

• Constitutional Provisions : Article 83 and 172 for terms; changes needed

• Exam Tip : Mention past synchrony — 1951–1967 elections were held

together

CHALLENGES

• Constitutional hurdles

• Regional diversity and federalism

• Mid-term dissolutions

• Opposition concerns on centralization

WAY FORWARD

• All-party consensus

• Pilot project with local bodies

• Amend RPA and Constitution carefully

• Use technology for electoral readiness

CONCLUSION

Simultaneous elections are ideal but need structural, legal, and political
groundwork.

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16. Civil Services and Governance: Mission Karmayogi and Reforms

INTRODUCTION

Civil services are the backbone of Indian administration under Article 312
— ensuring policy implementation and continuity.

MAIN BODY

• Mission Karmayogi (2020) : National Programme for Civil Services

Capacity Building — shift from rule-based to role-based training

• Civil Services Boards : Ensures tenure security, yet limited effectiveness

• Lateral Entry : Introduced for domain expertise — raises concerns on

merit and neutrality

• Performance Management : SPARROW platform, APAR reforms

• Exam Tip : Cite ARC II Report — called for HR reform, performance

orientation, ethical training

CHALLENGES

• Resistance to change

• Politicization and transfers

• Lack of specialization

• Gaps in ethics and empathy

WAY FORWARD

• Institutionalize merit and ethics

• Expand lateral entry with safeguards

• Strengthen training at all levels

• Promote digital tools for transparency

CONCLUSION

Mission Karmayogi marks a modern shift in governance. Empowered,

ethical, and efficient services are essential.

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17. Digital Governance and Data Laws

INTRODUCTION

Digital governance enhances service delivery, citizen empowerment, and

transparency.

MAIN BODY

• Digital India (2015) : E-governance, broadband, digital literacy — 100%

villages covered (2023)

• Aadhaar : Identity integration for services — backed by Aadhaar Act,

2016

• DPDP Act, 2023 : Digital Personal Data Protection — defines data

fiduciaries and user rights

• JAM Trinity : Jan Dhan, Aadhaar, Mobile — promoted inclusion and

subsidy delivery

• Exam Tip : Mention World Bank praise — Direct Benefit Transfer saved
₹1.7 lakh crore (2022)

CHALLENGES

• Data privacy and security gaps

• Digital divide in rural/tribal areas

• Low digital literacy

• Cybercrime rise and surveillance fears

WAY FORWARD

• Implement DPDP with oversight

• Strengthen CERT-In and cyber audits

• Digital literacy campaigns

• Promote open data with safeguards

CONCLUSION

Data governance must protect rights while enabling innovation. Trust is

key to digital state success.

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18. Key Legislations: GNCTD Act, CAA, Nari Shakti Vandan

INTRODUCTION

Recent laws reflect federal dynamics, inclusivity goals, and citizenship

debates.

MAIN BODY

• Government of NCT of Delhi (Amendment) Act, 2023 : Transfers control

to LG — raises federal concerns

• Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019 & Rules, 2024 : Fast-track citizenship

for persecuted minorities — excludes Muslims; protests across India

• Women Reservation Act (Nari Shakti Vandan), 2023 : 33% seats reserved
in Lok Sabha and State Assemblies — operational post-delimitation

• Exam Tip : Cite SR Bommai (1994) — federalism is basic structure; use

for GNCTD debate

CHALLENGES

• GNCTD weakens elected govt

• CAA lacks neutrality and transparency

• Reservation law delayed by census/delimitation

WAY FORWARD

• Strengthen cooperative federalism

• Transparent NRC-CAA mechanisms

• Early implementation of reservation

CONCLUSION

Laws must balance governance, inclusion, and constitutional principles.

Dialogue and clarity build legitimacy.

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19. Panchayati Raj and Rural Governance

INTRODUCTION

73rd Constitutional Amendment, 1992 institutionalized Panchayati Raj —

decentralizing democracy to the grassroots.

MAIN BODY

• Article 243 : Three-tier system, Gram Sabha, 5-year term

• State Finance Commissions : Meant for fiscal devolution — poor

implementation

• eGramSwaraj : Digital dashboard for transparency

• Women Representation : 46% in Bihar Panchayats (2023), SC/ST quota

as per population

• Exam Tip : Cite 2nd ARC — Panchayats lack funds, functionaries, and
functions (3Fs)

CHALLENGES

• Capacity gaps
• Irregular elections and weak audits

• Low fund autonomy

• Elite capture and gender barriers

WAY FORWARD

• Strengthen SFCs and audits

• Promote training and e-governance

• Ensure timely elections and social audits

• Reserve leadership training for women

CONCLUSION

Panchayati Raj is key to inclusive rural governance. Empowered

institutions enhance democracy at the base.

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20. Urban Local Bodies and 74th Amendment

INTRODUCTION

74th Constitutional Amendment, 1992 empowered urban local governance

via municipalities and wards.

MAIN BODY

• Article 243P–243ZG : Created Nagar Panchayats, Municipal Councils,

Corporations

• Smart Cities Mission (2015) : 100 cities, integrated infrastructure and IT

— ₹2 lakh crore sanctioned

• AMRUT Scheme : Water supply, sewerage, non-motorized transport

• Property Tax and User Fees : Low collection affecting revenue autonomy

• Exam Tip : Cite HPEC Report (2011) — Indian cities need $600 billion
over 20 years
CHALLENGES

• Funds, Functions, Functionaries gap

• Poor citizen participation

• Weak mayoral leadership

• Urban sprawl and informal growth

WAY FORWARD

• Empower mayors with real authority

• Integrate GIS, digital tools in planning

• Promote municipal bonds and public-private partnerships

• Use SDG-11 metrics for planning

CONCLUSION

Urban governance needs democratic depth and financial strength to

ensure livable, resilient cities.

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21. Landmark Judgments: Article 370, Hate Speech, Amish Devgan Case

INTRODUCTION

Judiciary plays a vital role in interpreting the Constitution and balancing

rights and unity.

MAIN BODY

• Abrogation of Article 370 (2019) : Ended special status of Jammu and

Kashmir — upheld by Supreme Court in 2023; stated it's a temporary
provision
• Amish Devgan Case (2021) : Hate speech against Sufi saint — Court
upheld FIRs; stressed speech must not harm communal peace

• Shreya Singhal Case (2015) : Struck down Section 66A of IT Act —

upheld freedom of speech

• Tehseen Poonawalla Case (2018) : SC directed states to curb mob

lynching and hate crimes

• Exam Tip : Mention Court's role in balancing unity with civil liberties

CHALLENGES

• Hate speech not clearly defined

• Political misuse of sedition and UAPA

• Need for constitutional morality and restraint

WAY FORWARD

• Define hate speech legislatively

• Train police and judiciary for sensitivity

• Promote civic education on pluralism

CONCLUSION

Judiciary remains the guardian of fundamental values. Clear doctrines and

timely judgments reinforce the republic.

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22. Caste Census and Demand for Ladakh Autonomy

INTRODUCTION

Recent protests and data demands reflect a deeper quest for justice,
representation, and regional identity.

MAIN BODY
• Bihar Caste Census (2023) : First state-driven socio-economic caste
survey in post-independence India

• Findings : 63% OBC-EBC population — renewed demand for proportional

reservations

• Ladakh Protest : Demand for 6th Schedule under Article 244 — for tribal
autonomy and cultural preservation

• Exam Tip : Cite Indra Sawhney Case (1992) — reservation cap, creamy
layer concept; used to interpret current demands

CHALLENGES

• Risk of political polarization

• Lack of updated SECC data at national level

• Administrative hurdles in granting autonomy

WAY FORWARD

• National SECC with transparency

• Parliamentary debate on reservation structure

• Consultative framework for tribal aspirations

CONCLUSION

Demands reflect democratic participation. Policy must balance equity with

national unity.

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23. OTT Regulation, One Nation One Language, IT Rules Debate

INTRODUCTION

Information and technology have grown fast — raising concerns on

content control, cultural identity, and free speech.
MAIN BODY

• OTT/IT Rules, 2021 : Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics

Code — 3-tier grievance redressal system

• One Nation One Language Proposal : Advocates Hindi as link language —

opposed by non-Hindi states

• Freedom of Speech vs Regulation : Key tension in OTT content, hate

speech, misinformation

• Exam Tip : Mention Supreme Court in Puttaswamy Case (2017) —

privacy is fundamental right; use to critique overreach

CHALLENGES

• Regulatory overreach and chilling effect

• Linguistic diversity vs unification

• Lack of self-regulation in digital content

WAY FORWARD

• Strengthen independent regulators

• Promote multilingual federalism

• Ensure transparent content codes

CONCLUSION

Policy must preserve creativity, unity, and liberty — regulation should not
become censorship.

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24. Women and Child Rights: PENCIL, Nari Shakti, Child Welfare

INTRODUCTION

Constitutional rights and schemes seek to empower women and safeguard

children from exploitation.
MAIN BODY

• PENCIL Portal : Platform for Effective Enforcement for No Child Labour —

tracks and rescues children

• Nari Shakti Vandan Act, 2023 : 33% women reservation in legislatures —

marks political empowerment

• Beti Bachao Beti Padhao : Promotes girl child education — improvement

in sex ratio in Haryana (SRB 933 in 2014 to 952 in 2022)

• Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act : Stringent

safeguards and special courts

• Exam Tip : Cite National Family Health Survey-5 — 88.6% girls enrolled
in secondary education (Bihar)

CHALLENGES

• Gender violence, malnutrition

• High dropout rate among girls in rural areas

• Child labour in informal sectors

WAY FORWARD

• Strengthen tracking systems like Baal Swaraj

• Gender budgeting and education incentives

• Strict implementation of child labour laws

CONCLUSION

Empowerment needs legal support, economic access, and societal change

for lasting outcomes.

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25. Health and Education: Ayushman Bharat and NEP 2020

INTRODUCTION

Social sector reforms aim to build human capital — essential for inclusive
development.

MAIN BODY

• Ayushman Bharat : Launched 2018 — world’s largest health coverage

scheme; covers ₹5 lakh per family/year; 55 crore beneficiaries (2023)

• Health and Wellness Centres : 1.5 lakh targeted — focus on preventive

care

• National Education Policy 2020 : Replaced 1986 policy — focuses on

early childhood care, multidisciplinary education, mother tongue
instruction till Class 5

• PM SHRI Schools : 14,500 schools to be developed as NEP-model

institutions

• Exam Tip : Cite Economic Survey 2022–23 — education spending still

below 6% GDP target

CHALLENGES

• Health infrastructure and rural access

• Learning outcomes and teacher training gaps

• Low public expenditure and dropout rate

WAY FORWARD

• Increase health and education budget

• Universalize quality primary care

• Monitor NEP rollout via real-time dashboards

CONCLUSION

Health and education build demographic strength. Timely reform

implementation determines success.

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26. Rights of Transgender Persons, PVTGs, and Forest Rights

INTRODUCTION

Inclusive governance ensures dignity and representation of all social

groups.

MAIN BODY

• NALSA v. Union of India (2014) : Recognized transgender persons as

third gender — right to self-identification

• Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019 : Prohibits

discrimination — provides for ID certificates, rehabilitation

• Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) : 75 groups notified — face

socio-economic backwardness, poor health and education indicators

• Forest Rights Act, 2006 : Recognizes land and forest rights of Scheduled
Tribes and traditional forest dwellers — democratic decentralization

• Exam Tip : Mention Bhuria Committee (1995) — key recommendation for

tribal self-rule and land rights

CHALLENGES

• Poor implementation of welfare schemes

• Land alienation and forced displacement

• Transgender persons still face stigma, lack access to healthcare

WAY FORWARD

• Dedicated fund allocation for PVTGs

• Sensitization campaigns for inclusivity

• Digital tracking of rights delivery for vulnerable groups

CONCLUSION

Equity in rights and representation is key for an inclusive and just

democracy.

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27. Disability Rights and Digital Inclusion

INTRODUCTION

Differently abled persons must be mainstreamed through rights-based and

tech-enabled governance.

MAIN BODY

• Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 : Defines 21 disabilities —

ensures education, reservation, accessibility

• Sugamya Bharat Abhiyan : Launched 2015 — aims at universal

accessibility in built environment, ICT

• Digital India Initiatives : Screen readers, e-sign, telemedicine — critical

for digital inclusion

• UDID (Unique Disability ID) Project : Centralized database — streamlines

benefits

• Exam Tip : Cite Census 2011 — 2.21% of India’s population disabled;

actual numbers may be underreported

CHALLENGES

• Infrastructural barriers and lack of accessible content

• Skill gaps and low literacy among disabled persons

• Delayed certification and social stigma

WAY FORWARD

• Ensure website and service compliance with WCAG 2.1

• Promote inclusive education with ICT

• Community-based rehabilitation and digital skilling

CONCLUSION

A digitally inclusive nation reflects constitutional values of equality and

dignity.

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28. India’s Constitutional Comparison with UK and US

INTRODUCTION

India’s Constitution draws from global experiences but creates its own
synthesis for democratic governance.

MAIN BODY

• UK Model : Parliamentary system, rule of law, unwritten conventions

• US Model : Written Constitution, separation of powers, judicial review,

Bill of Rights

• Indian Approach : Fusion of parliamentary executive with judicial review

— detailed written Constitution

• Fundamental Rights (India vs US) : Both justiciable — US has absolute

rights, India allows reasonable restrictions

• Exam Tip : Mention A.K. Gopalan Case (1950) vs Maneka Gandhi Case
(1978) — shift from procedure to due process

CHALLENGES

• Balancing federalism with strong Centre

• Over-dependence on executive in UK vs checks in US

• Indian model suits diverse, populous democracy but faces stress from
centralizing tendencies
WAY FORWARD

• Continue judicial innovation within Indian framework

• Study global best practices — ensure democratic decentralization

• Promote legal awareness and comparative jurisprudence

CONCLUSION

India’s constitutionalism blends global ideas into a functional system

rooted in pluralism and unity.

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29. Rule of Law and Democracy Index: Global Reflection

INTRODUCTION

International indices reflect governance quality and constitutional

adherence.

MAIN BODY

• Rule of Law Index (World Justice Project) 2023 : India ranked 79 out of
142 countries — concerns on fundamental rights and executive
accountability

• Democracy Index (Economist Intelligence Unit) 2023 : India labeled as

‘Flawed Democracy’ — score 6.41/10

• Areas of concern : Press freedom, judicial pendency, political polarization

• Strengths : Electoral participation, digital governance, civil society

activism

• Exam Tip : Use these indices to support answers on constitutional

performance or democratic backsliding

CHALLENGES
• Delay in justice delivery

• Political interference and misinformation

• Rising incidents of censorship and sedition misuse

WAY FORWARD

• Institutional reforms in judiciary and police

• Strengthen RTI, press freedom, electoral reforms

• Promote data transparency and rights audits

CONCLUSION

Global indices provide accountability mirror — governance must align with

constitutional promises.

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30. Parliamentary vs Presidential System: Indian Debate

INTRODUCTION

Debate around India's system focuses on effectiveness, stability, and

accountability.

MAIN BODY

• Indian System : Borrowed Westminster model — collective responsibility,

head of state is nominal

• Presidential System (e.g., US) : Separation of powers, fixed tenure, direct

mandate

• Arguments for Indian Model : Better suited to diversity — coalition

politics allows representation

• Criticisms : Frequent disruptions, horse-trading, unstable state

governments
• Exam Tip : Refer to 2nd Administrative Reforms Commission —
highlighted need to improve quality of legislators and institutional support

CHALLENGES

• Personality-driven politics undermining collective cabinet responsibility

• Fragmented mandates causing political instability

• Delay in policy decisions

WAY FORWARD

• Electoral reforms to reduce fragmentation

• Encourage inner-party democracy and debates

• Strengthen committees, increase legislative sittings

CONCLUSION

Parliamentary democracy remains viable — but reforms needed to

enhance performance and accountability.

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31. Simultaneous Elections in India

INTRODUCTION
Simultaneous elections aim to streamline governance and reduce election
fatigue.

MAIN BODY

• Concept : Hold Lok Sabha and State Assembly elections together —

proposed since 1983 Election Commission report

• Law Commission (2018) : Suggested legal amendments and phased

implementation

• Benefits : Cost saving, continuous governance, reduced model code of

conduct disruptions

• Concerns : Federal spirit dilution, local issues sidelined, logistical

complexity

• Supreme Court View : Not unconstitutional but needs consensus and

major legal overhaul

• Exam Tip : Cite NITI Aayog (2017) paper on "One Nation, One Election"
— emphasizes national efficiency

CHALLENGES

• Synchronizing tenures without dissolutions

• Need for constitutional amendments to Articles 83, 172, 85, 174

• Consensus among political parties lacking

WAY FORWARD

• Pilot in selected states first

• Constitutional review committee

• Voter awareness and administrative readiness

CONCLUSION

Concept is reformative but must balance practicality with federal

principles.

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32. Electoral Reforms: Model Code of Conduct, AI, and Transparency

INTRODUCTION

Free and fair elections require robust legal, ethical, and technological
frameworks.

MAIN BODY

• Model Code of Conduct (MCC) : A moral guideline enforced by Election

Commission — lacks statutory backing

• Representation of the People Act, 1951 : Governs qualifications,

disqualifications, offences

• Technological Integration : Voter helpline app, cVigil, remote voting pilots

— AI used in prediction and data analysis

• Electoral Bonds Scheme : 2024 SC verdict struck it down for violating

voter’s right to information

• Exam Tip : Cite Dinesh Trivedi Committee (1998) on political funding

reforms and Vohra Committee (1993) on criminal-politician nexus

CHALLENGES

• Money power and paid news

• Lack of transparency in candidate funding

• Weak enforcement of MCC

WAY FORWARD

• Legislate MCC into law

• Cap election expenditure and mandate public disclosure

• Promote voter literacy on AI-generated content

CONCLUSION
Electoral reform is essential to deepen democracy and preserve electoral
integrity.

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33. Role of Civil Services in Modern Governance

INTRODUCTION

Civil services are the permanent administrative machinery enabling policy

continuity and execution.

MAIN BODY

• Constitutional Basis : Article 311 safeguards, All India Services under

Article 312

• Challenges : Politicization, rigidity, skill gaps, low innovation culture

• Reforms : Mission Karmayogi (2020) — capacity building through iGOT

Karmayogi platform

• Lateral Entry : Recommended by NITI Aayog — infusion of domain

expertise

• Exam Tip : Cite Hota Committee (2004) and ARC Reports on civil service
accountability and reform

CHALLENGES

• Resistance to change within bureaucracy

• Lack of performance-linked evaluation

• Public service motivation decline

WAY FORWARD

• Modern HRM practices and performance audits

• Institutionalize ethics and conduct code

• Tech-based service delivery and continuous training

CONCLUSION

A motivated, skilled and ethical civil service is key to responsive and

inclusive governance.

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34. Digital Governance and Data Protection

INTRODUCTION

Digital transformation is redefining governance, but requires data

safeguards and transparency.

MAIN BODY

• Digital India Mission (2015) : Infrastructure, digital literacy, digital

delivery of services

• Aadhaar and JAM Trinity : Improved DBT efficiency, reduced leakage

• Data Protection : Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 —

recognizes rights and obligations

• e-Governance Tools : DigiLocker, UMANG, MyGov — promote

transparency and citizen engagement

• Exam Tip : Mention Justice B.N. Srikrishna Committee (2018) report on

data protection framework

CHALLENGES

• Data breaches and surveillance fears

• Digital divide — rural and gender gaps

• Limited grievance redressal systems

WAY FORWARD

• Data localization safeguards

• Citizen-centric service design

• Strengthen privacy regulators and audits

CONCLUSION

Digital governance must uphold citizen trust, rights, and ethical

governance practices.

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35. Key Legislative Developments: GNCTD Act, CAA, and Nari Shakti
Vandan

INTRODUCTION

Legislative changes reflect the dynamic balance between governance

needs and constitutional ethos.

MAIN BODY

• Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi (Amendment) Act,

2023 : Clarified role of LG vs elected government — criticized for curbing
autonomy

• Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019 and Rules, 2024 : Fast-tracks

citizenship to religious minorities from 3 neighboring countries —
controversial for exclusion of Muslims

• Nari Shakti Vandan Act, 2023 : 33% reservation for women in Lok Sabha
and State Assemblies — implementation dependent on delimitation

• Exam Tip : Link each law with constitutional debates — Article 239AA
(Delhi), Article 14 and secularism (CAA), Article 243D and 243T (Women
Reservation)

CHALLENGES

• Judicial scrutiny and federalism concerns (GNCTD)

• Polarization and protest (CAA)

• Delay in implementation (Women’s Bill)

WAY FORWARD

• Judicial review to clarify scope of powers

• Inclusive citizenship laws respecting constitutional morality

• Political will for timely operationalization of reservation

CONCLUSION

Law-making must align with constitutional values and democratic

principles.

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36. Urban Governance: 74th Amendment and Smart Cities

INTRODUCTION

Urban governance is central to sustainable development and citizen-

centric planning.

MAIN BODY

• 74th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 : Gave constitutional status to

Urban Local Bodies — provided for elected mayors, ward committees,
State Finance Commissions

• Smart Cities Mission, 2015 : Focused on core infrastructure, technology,

e-governance — 100 cities covered

• AMRUT (Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation) : Basic

civic amenities in 500+ towns

• Governance Challenges : Lack of autonomy, weak revenue base,

administrative overlap

• Exam Tip : Cite JNNURM (2005) and HPEC Report (2011) — importance
of empowered mayors and decentralization
CHALLENGES

• Limited devolution of functions and funds

• Poor citizen participation and service delivery

• Urban poverty and informal housing

WAY FORWARD

• Direct election and empowerment of mayors

• Urban finance reform and own revenue generation

• Integrate sustainability and participatory planning

CONCLUSION

Empowered urban governance can lead India’s transition to resilient,

inclusive cities.

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37. Panchayati Raj and Rural Governance

INTRODUCTION

Decentralized rural governance is crucial for bottom-up development and

inclusive democracy.

MAIN BODY

• 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 : Provided three-tier structure,

Gram Sabha, reservation for women and marginalized groups

• Article 243 : Institutionalized Panchayats as units of self-government

• Financial Devolution : 14th and 15th Finance Commission increased

untied funds to PRIs

• State of PRIs : Variance in powers, lack of professional staff, capacity

issues
• Exam Tip : Cite Balwantrai Mehta Committee (1957), Ashok Mehta
Committee (1978), and BPSC PYQ (2020) on Panchayati Raj in Bihar

CHALLENGES

• Interference by bureaucracy and state governments

• Weak Gram Sabha and public participation

• Gender-based barriers in leadership roles

WAY FORWARD

• Institutionalize social audit and training

• Devolve 3Fs — funds, functions, functionaries

• Leverage e-Gram Swaraj and digital platforms

CONCLUSION

Strengthened Panchayati Raj Institutions are essential for rural

development and democratic deepening.

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38. Article 370 Abrogation and Its Implications

INTRODUCTION

Article 370 granted special status to Jammu and Kashmir — abrogated in

2019 for integration.

MAIN BODY

• Article 370 (1949) : Temporary provision, limited Parliament's legislative

powers over J&K

• August 2019 : Presidential order used Article 370(3) to declare the

Article inoperative — bifurcated state into Union Territories of J&K and
Ladakh
• Legal Debate : Use of President’s Rule and Parliament acting as state
legislature challenged

• Exam Tip : Cite Prem Nath Kaul vs J&K (1959) and current 5-judge
constitutional bench hearings (as of 2024)

IMPACT

• Administrative integration and extension of central laws

• End of separate Constitution and flag

• Concerns over federalism, trust deficit, and statehood delay

WAY FORWARD

• Restore statehood as promised

• Build local capacity and confidence

• Promote development and rights protection

CONCLUSION

While legally upheld, integration must ensure justice, dignity, and

democratic restoration.

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39. Hate Speech, Free Speech, and Judicial Intervention

INTRODUCTION

Balancing free speech and societal harmony is central to constitutional

morality.

MAIN BODY

• Constitutional Protection : Article 19(1)(a) ensures freedom of speech;

Article 19(2) allows reasonable restrictions
• Notable Judgments : Amish Devgan v Union of India (2020) — speech
inciting hatred not protected

• Laws Applicable : Sections 153A, 295A, 505 IPC — punish promotion of

enmity, religious insult, misinformation

• Exam Tip : Cite Pravasi Bhalai Sangathan vs Union of India (2014) —

urged legislature to frame hate speech law

CHALLENGES

• Vague definitions and arbitrary application

• Online hate speech unregulated

• Politically sensitive enforcement

WAY FORWARD

• Codify clear hate speech law

• Use AI tools to monitor digital content

• Promote civic education and inter-faith dialogue

CONCLUSION

Protecting dignity while preserving free expression is essential in a diverse

democracy.

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40. Ladakh’s Sixth Schedule Demand

INTRODUCTION

Post Article 370 abrogation, Ladakh seeks constitutional safeguards to

preserve tribal identity and autonomy.

MAIN BODY
• Sixth Schedule : Provides for Autonomous District Councils in tribal areas
— applicable to NE states

• Demand Justification : 95% tribal population in Ladakh, fears over land,

culture, demography

• Government Response : High Powered Committee constituted in 2023 —

no consensus reached

• Constitutional Debate : Ladakh being UT without legislature creates legal

roadblocks

• Exam Tip : Mention BPSC CSE 2023 question on “Autonomy vs

Integration” and cite examples from Bodoland, Garo Hills

CHALLENGES

• Structural limitations due to UT status

• Internal divisions among local groups

• Center-state coordination gaps

WAY FORWARD

• Explore Fifth Schedule-type arrangement

• Empower LAHDCs with financial and legislative powers

• Constitutional amendment or legislative creativity

CONCLUSION

Culturally sensitive autonomy is vital for inclusive governance in Ladakh.

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41. Bihar Caste Census: Implications and Constitutional Validity

INTRODUCTION
Bihar’s 2022–2023 caste-based survey reignited debates on social justice,
data governance, and federal powers.

MAIN BODY

• Objective : Identify socio-economic conditions of various castes for

better-targeted policies

• Constitutional Basis : State List Entry 45 (Census) — Center’s domain;

but socio-economic survey allowed

• Legal Status : Patna High Court upheld state’s right to conduct such
surveys — Supreme Court refused stay in 2023

• Policy Relevance : Supports 27% OBC reservation, schemes for

Extremely Backward Classes

• Exam Tip : Cite Indra Sawhney case (1992) — social backwardness

needs empirical proof

CHALLENGES

• Overlapping caste categories and inconsistencies

• Politicization and vote-bank concerns

• Lack of linkage to income and education data

WAY FORWARD

• Transparent, objective database and digital enumeration

• Synchronize with SECC and decadal census

• Use data for inclusive, evidence-based policymaking

CONCLUSION

Caste-based data, if handled responsibly, can empower policymaking for

equity and dignity.

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42. One Nation One Language: Federalism and Identity Politics

INTRODUCTION

The proposal to make Hindi the national language has drawn criticism for
undermining linguistic diversity and federal ethos.

MAIN BODY

• Constitutional Position : Article 343 — Hindi as official language, but

English to continue

• 8th Schedule : Recognizes 22 languages; all equal in status — no

mention of "national language"

• Political Debate : Southern states, especially Tamil Nadu, resist

imposition; cites cultural identity and historical protests

• Exam Tip : Cite BPSC questions on linguistic federalism (e.g., 2018) and
references to Official Language Rules (1976)

CHALLENGES

• Threat to multilingualism and plural identity

• Lack of universal access to Hindi education

• Polarization and alienation in non-Hindi speaking regions

WAY FORWARD

• Promote multilingualism and choice-based language policies

• Strengthen three-language formula with regional language emphasis

• Respect constitutional spirit of unity in diversity

CONCLUSION

India's strength lies in its linguistic diversity — uniformity should not

replace inclusivity.

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43. OTT Platforms and Information Technology Rules, 2021

INTRODUCTION

Rise of digital media content has triggered regulatory reforms — balancing

creative freedom with accountability.

MAIN BODY

• IT Rules, 2021 : Mandated self-regulation by OTTs, grievance redressal,

classification (U/A/18+)

• OTT Growth : 500 million+ users (as of 2024), 40+ major platforms —
disrupts traditional media

• Free Speech Debate : Content curbs seen as censorship, lacks legislative

backing

• Key Judgments : Justice for Rights Foundation vs Union (2019) — PIL for
OTT regulation

• Exam Tip : Refer to Ministry of I&B guidelines and cite BPSC question
(2023) on digital governance

CHALLENGES

• Vague content standards, government overreach

• Lack of third-party review or appellate body

• Jurisdictional gaps in transnational platforms

WAY FORWARD

• Enact comprehensive digital content law

• Strengthen self-regulation with legal clarity

• Encourage audience rating literacy

CONCLUSION
OTT content regulation must balance innovation, freedom, and citizen
sensitivities.

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44. Women and Children: Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam and PENCIL Portal

INTRODUCTION

Empowering women and protecting children are foundational to inclusive

and participatory democracy.

MAIN BODY

• Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam, 2023 : Reserved 33% seats for women in
Lok Sabha and state legislatures — implementation post-delimitation
(2029)

• PENCIL Portal : Platform for Effective Enforcement for No Child Labour —

integrates complaints, tracking, rescue

• Related Schemes : Beti Bachao Beti Padhao, Poshan Abhiyan, Mission

Shakti

• Impact : Boosts gender parity in political participation, strengthens child

labour monitoring

• Exam Tip : Cite BPSC question (2021) on child rights and 108th CAA
(women reservation)

CHALLENGES

• Delay in implementation of reservation

• Poor digital access in rural areas

• Deep-rooted socio-cultural barriers

WAY FORWARD

• Build gender-sensitive institutions and leadership

• Integrate digital tools in local language for child protection

• Public awareness and inclusive governance models

CONCLUSION

Women's representation and child safety must be sustained through legal,

institutional, and social efforts.

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45. New Education Policy, 2020: Vision and Implementation

INTRODUCTION

National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 aims to transform Indian education

with flexibility, equity, and digital readiness.

MAIN BODY

• Structural Change : 5+3+3+4 model — integrates ECCE, foundational

literacy

• Curriculum Reform : Multidisciplinary, skill-based learning, mother

tongue in early years

• Higher Education : Holistic education, National Research Foundation,

credit bank system

• Digital Push : DIKSHA, PM eVidya, National Digital University (2023)

• Exam Tip : Cite Kasturirangan Committee, and link to BPSC PYQ (2022)
on education policy goals

CHALLENGES

• Uneven digital infrastructure and teacher readiness

• Implementation gap at state and local levels

• Budget constraints — education expenditure still ~2.9% of GDP (2023)

WAY FORWARD
• Capacity building of teachers and school leaders

• Inclusive access for marginalized communities

• States must tailor NEP to local realities

CONCLUSION

NEP 2020, if effectively implemented, can revolutionize education and

social mobility in India.

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46. Transgender Rights in India: Legal Milestones and Policy Gaps

INTRODUCTION

Recognition of transgender rights represents a constitutional shift towards

dignity, equality, and inclusion.

MAIN BODY

• Key Case : NALSA v. Union of India (2014) — affirmed right to self-

identify gender under Articles 14, 15, 21

• Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019 — prohibits

discrimination, mandates ID cards, welfare boards

• Schemes : SMILE 2021 (Support for Marginalized Individuals for

Livelihood and Enterprise), Garima Greh for shelter

• BPSC Relevance : 2022 PYQ on marginalized rights — link constitutional

provisions and governance failures

• Socio-Economic Data : National Human Rights Commission study (2018)

— 92% of transgender persons deprived of basic jobs

CHALLENGES

• Delay in ID issuance and medical board complexities

• Social stigma and lack of public sensitization

• Poor implementation of inclusive education and employment

WAY FORWARD

• Simplify ID processes with self-identification

• Mainstream trans persons in education and public service

• Focused awareness drives and trans-inclusion audits

CONCLUSION

Legal recognition must be matched with administrative empathy and

institutional support.

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47. Governance and Civil Services Reform: Mission Karmayogi

INTRODUCTION

India’s administrative machinery needs transformation from rule-based to

role-based performance systems.

MAIN BODY

• Mission Karmayogi (2020) : National Programme for Civil Services

Capacity Building (NPCSCB) — focuses on competency, behavioral
training, e-learning

• SPV Created : Karmayogi Bharat Ltd. — platform iGOT Karmayogi

enables customized learning paths

• Linked to : Lateral entry reforms, outcome budgeting, PM Gati Shakti for

integrated governance

• BPSC Exam Tip : Link with governance theme — 2021 PYQ on

administrative reform

CHALLENGES
• Resistance to change and departmental silos

• Digital illiteracy in lower bureaucracy

• Uniform assessment framework lacking

WAY FORWARD

• Mandatory digital onboarding for all officers

• Create accountability linkages with PRAGATI dashboard

• Capacity-building at Panchayati Raj level

CONCLUSION

Karmayogi can become a keystone reform in building agile, citizen-centric

governance.

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48. Forest Rights Act, 2006: Tribal Justice and Implementation Gaps

INTRODUCTION

Scheduled Tribes and forest dwellers depend on forests for livelihood,

culture, and identity.

MAIN BODY

• Key Provisions : Individual and community forest rights, decision-making

through Gram Sabhas

• Constitutional Backing : Article 244 (Fifth and Sixth Schedule), PESA Act
1996

• Case : Odisha’s Similipal Tiger Reserve — conflicts over relocation and

FRA rights

• Data : MoTA (2023) — Only 49% of eligible claims fully settled nationally

• Exam Link : BPSC 2019 PYQ — Forest rights and constitutional

safeguards
CHALLENGES

• Rejection of claims without hearings

• Conflict with wildlife and mining laws

• Limited awareness among tribal communities

WAY FORWARD

• Empower Gram Sabhas through training

• Map forest lands digitally with community participation

• Integrate FRA with livelihood schemes like MGNREGA, NRLM

CONCLUSION

FRA is a tool of restorative justice — must not be undermined by

bureaucratic apathy.

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49. Role of Finance Commission in Fiscal Federalism

INTRODUCTION

The Finance Commission ensures equitable financial distribution between

Union and States, essential for cooperative federalism.

MAIN BODY

• Constitutional Mandate : Article 280 — periodic review of sharing

formula, grants

• 15th Finance Commission (2021–26) — recommended 41% devolution,

performance-linked grants (health, SDGs)

• Horizontal Sharing Formula : Based on income distance, population

(2011 census), forest cover, demographic performance
• Vertical Imbalance : Center retains ~60% resources, but states bear
expenditure responsibilities

• Exam Tip : Use Bihar-specific example — grants for disaster

management and agriculture

CHALLENGES

• Political influence in grant distribution

• Lack of autonomy in state borrowing

• Delay in fund transfers

WAY FORWARD

• Strengthen Finance Commission as an autonomous fiscal body

• Institutionalize GST Council-Finance Commission dialogue

• Encourage state fiscal discipline via incentives

CONCLUSION

A robust Finance Commission framework sustains financial federalism and

cooperative governance.

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50. Representation of the People Act, 1951: Electoral Integrity and Reform
Needs

INTRODUCTION

The RPA, 1951 governs qualifications, disqualifications, and conduct of

elections, ensuring democratic legitimacy.

MAIN BODY

• Key Provisions : Disqualification for corrupt practices, false affidavit,

conviction > 2 years (Section 8)
• VVPAT and EVM Rule : Introduced via Election Commission directions and
Supreme Court approval

• Case Reference : Lily Thomas v. Union of India (2013) — struck down

Section 8(4), immediate disqualification upon conviction

• Electoral Bonds Case (2024) : SC ruled bonds unconstitutional for

violating right to information

• BPSC Link : Repeated PYQs on electoral reforms and criminalization in

politics

CHALLENGES

• Lack of transparency in party funding

• Criminal background of MPs/MLAs — over 43% (ADR report 2024)

• Delayed trials and political influence

WAY FORWARD

• Fast-track courts for electoral offences

• Public disclosure of candidate expenses and social audit

• Strengthen Election Commission’s autonomy and manpower

CONCLUSION

RPA must evolve to meet transparency, accountability, and voter trust

demands in modern elections.

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Would you like the next batch (51–55) covering any final themes like
comparative constitutions, Lokpal reforms, GNCTD Act, or others?