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 Polity & Governance

Part 1 Index
HISTORICAL UNDERPINNINGS AND EVOLUTION ....... 3 4.6 Overseas Citizenship of India ........................... 30
1.1 Introduction ....................................................... 3 Fundamental rights ............................................... 33
1.2 Why do we need a constitution? ....................... 3 5.1 Introduction ..................................................... 33
1.3 Historical Evolution of The Indian Constitution . 3 5.2 Definition of State ............................................ 33
1.4 Salient Features of The Indian Constitution ....... 9 5.3 Magna Carta and Bill of Rights ......................... 33
1.5 Sources of The Indian Constitution .................. 11 5.4 Importance of Fundamental Rights ................. 33
1.6 National Symbols.............................................. 11 5.5 Features of Fundamental Rights ...................... 34
1.7 Criticisms of The Indian Constitution ............... 12 5.6 Part III (Article 12 To 35) .................................. 34
1.8 Constitution as a Living Document .................. 13 5.7 Amenability of Fundamental Rights................. 43
1.9 Landmark Amendments of The Indian 5.8 Rights Outside of Part-3 ................................... 43
Constitution............................................................ 13 5.9 Conclusion........................................................ 43
Preamble and It’s Interpretation............................ 16 DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY &
2.1 Introduction ..................................................... 16 FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES ......................................... 45
2.2 Objective Resolution ........................................ 16 6.1 Introduction ..................................................... 45
2.3 Significance of Preamble .................................. 17 6.2 Part-4 (Article 36 To 51a) ................................. 45
2.4 Amendment in Preamble ................................. 17 6.3 Directive Principles of State Policy from Article
2.5 Ideals and Aspirations ...................................... 17 36 To 51. ................................................................. 45

2.6 Preamble as Part of The Constitution .............. 19 6.4 Fundamental Duties (Article 51A) .................... 47

2.7 Conclusion ........................................................ 19 6.5 Conscience of Constitution .............................. 48

AMENDMENT TO THE CONSTITUTION.................... 20 6.6 Fundamental Rights V/S Directive Principles of

State Policy (Supreme Court Cases) ....................... 48
3.1 Introduction ..................................................... 20
6.7 How are DPSPs Being Implemented in India
3.2 Article 368 Provides for The Procedure of Under the Concept of New Welfarism? ................. 49
Amendment of Constitution .................................. 20
6.8 Criticism of DPSPs And Fundamental Duties ... 49
3.3 Procedure of Amending Constitution .............. 20
6.9 Directives Outside Part-4 ................................. 50
3.4 Types of Amendments ..................................... 21
6.10 Various Committee recommendations .......... 50
3.5 Landmark Amendments of The Indian
Constitution............................................................ 22 6.11 Conclusion...................................................... 51

3.6 Basic Structure of Constitution Doctrine ......... 23 Parliament ............................................................ 52

3.7 Elements of Basic Features of Constitution ..... 24 7.1 Introduction ..................................................... 52

Citizenship ............................................................ 25 7.2 Types of Executives .......................................... 52

4.1 Introduction ..................................................... 25 7.3 President .......................................................... 54

4.2 Special Rights granted to citizens by Constitution 7.4 Vice President .................................................. 57
of India (Art. 15,16,19,29,30) ................................. 25 7.5 Prime Minister ................................................. 59
4.3 Single Citizenship.............................................. 26 7.6 Council of Minister ........................................... 61
4.3 Constitution of India Provisions Related to 7.7 Promulgation of Ordinances ............................ 64
Citizenship .............................................................. 26 7.8 Attorney General.............................................. 65
4.4 Citizenship Act 1955 ......................................... 28 7.9 Parliament ........................................................ 67
4.5 Citizenship Amendment Act 2019 .................... 29 7.9.10 Budget ......................................................... 75

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 Polity & Governance

7.10 COMPTROLLER AND AUDITOR 9.5 Jurisdiction Of Supreme Court and High Courts
GENERAL OF INDIA ...................... 82 ............................................................................. 108
7.10.3 CAG and Public Account Committee ........... 83 9.6 Supreme Court Has Some Additional Powers 112
STATE POWERS AND RESPONSIBILITIES .................. 85 9.7 High Court has some additional powers ........ 112
8.1 Introduction ..................................................... 85 9.8 PIL (Public Interest Litigation) ........................ 112
8.2 Part 6- Article 152 To 237 ................................. 85 9.9 Activism V/S Restraint .................................... 113
8.3 State Executive ................................................. 85 9.10 Tribunals and Alternate Dispute Resolution 113
8.4 Governor .......................................................... 86 9.11 Subordinate Courts ...................................... 115
8.5 Chief Minister ................................................... 89 9.12 National Legal Services Authority ................ 115
8.6 State Council of Ministers ................................ 91 9.13 Alternative Dispute Resolution System ........ 115
8.7 Advocate General ............................................. 93 9.14 Judgements Including Constitutional
8.8 State Legislature ............................................... 94 Interpretations and Activism ............................... 117

8.8 Position of Legislative Council ........................ 100 9.15 Amendability of Fundamental Rights and
Doctrine of Basic Structure .................................. 117
8.9 Part-6 Articles 152-237................................... 101
9.16 Recognition of Transgender Persons as A Third
JUDICIARY AS THIRD ORGAN ............................... 105 Gender ................................................................. 118
9.1 Introduction ................................................... 105 9.17 Right to Privacy a Fundamental Right Under
9.2 Integrated Judiciary (Hierarchy) ..................... 105 Article 21 .............................................................. 118
9.3 Qualification, Appointment & Removal of Judges 9.18 Decriminalising Homosexuality.................... 118
............................................................................. 105 9.19 Gender Justice.............................................. 118
9.4 Acting and Ad-Hoc Judges .............................. 107 9.20 Conclusion.................................................... 118

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 Polity & Governance

01 HISTORICAL UNDERPINNINGS
AND EVOLUTION

1.1 Introduction
The Constitution of a country is a set of written rules accepted by all people living together in that country. It is the
supreme law that determines the relationship between people living in a territory and the also relationship between
people and the government.

Making of constitution for a diverse country like India has not been an easy process. It has a long history starting from
1934 when the Indian National Congress made the demand for a constituent assembly. Apart from this, post-
independence, country had to face partition based on religious differences. Merger of princely states with India or
Pakistan was also a difficult task. Writing a constitution amidst such challenges was not an easy task.

1.2 Why do we need a constitution?

Constitution is required as
▪ It provides a set of basic rules that allow for minimal coordination NOTE In both 1928 and
amongst members of a society. 1931 session, there was
▪ It specifies as to who has the power to make decisions in a society and it a consensus on
also decides how the government will be constituted. inclusion of Universal
▪ It sets some limits on what a government can imposed on its citizens. adult franchise, right to
Such limits are fundamental in the sense that the government can never freedom and equality
trespass on them. and to protect the
▪ It enables the government to fulfil the aspirations of a society and create rights of minorities.
conditions for a just society.
▪ The Constitution expresses the fundamental identity of a people. It gives NOTE Indians gained a
political and moral identity to the people. lot of experience in the
working of legislative
institutions setup by
1.3 Historical Evolution of The Indian Constitution British by participation
in elections held in
Evolution of the Constitution can be studied under three major headings
provincial legislatures
I. During East Indian Company rule (1773-1858) and Ministries all over
II. During British rule (1858-1947) British India. Therefore,
III. Post-independence, by constituent assembly. a lot of institutional
details and procedures
were adopted from
1.3.1 During East Indian Company rule (1773-1858) colonial Government of
India Act 1935.

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 Polity & Governance

YEAR NAME FEATURES

1773 Regulating Act of ▪ First step by the British government to control and regulate the affairs of East India
1773 Company in India.
▪ Designated the governor of Bengal as governor- general of Bengal and created an
executive Council of 4 members to assist him.
▪ Made the Governors of Bombay and Madras Presidency subordinate to governor-
general of Bengal.
▪ Provided for establishment of Supreme Court at Calcutta comprising one chief justice
and three other judges.
▪ Prohibited servants of company from engaging in any private trade
▪ Strengthen the control of British government over the company by requiring the
court of directors to report on Revenue, civil and military affairs in India.
1781 Amending act of ▪ Exempted the governor general and his Council, servants of the company and revenue
1781 matters and matters arising in collection of revenue from jurisdiction of Supreme
Court.
▪ Supreme Court was to have jurisdiction over all the inhabitants of Calcutta-
➢ Hindus were to be tried according to Hindu law, and
➢ Muslims were to be tried according to the Mohammedan law.
▪ Appeals from provincial courts could be taken to Governor General-in-Council and not
the Supreme Court.
▪ Empowered the Governor General-in-Council to frame regulation for provincial courts
and Council.
1784 Pitt's India Act of ▪ Distinguished between the commercial and political functions of the company.
1784 ▪ Established Board of Control to manage the political affairs of company and court of
directors to manage the commercial affairs of company, thus, establishing a system of
double government.
▪ Also empowered the Board of Control to supervise and direct all operations of Civil
and military government or revenue of British possessions in India.
▪ This act is important because it is the very first time that company territories in India
were called as the British possessions.
1786 Act of 1786 ▪ 1786 was a time when Lord Cornwallis was appointed as the governor general of
Bengal. He places two demands to accept the post
➢ Special power to override the decision of council in special cases.
➢ To make him the Commander-in-Chief.
1793 Charter Act of 1793 ▪ Extended the overriding power to all the feature Governor General and governors of
presidencies. Also gave the governor general more power and control over the
Government of subordinate presidencies of Bombay and Madras.
▪ Extended the trade Monopoly of company in India for 20 years.
▪ Provided that Commander-in-Chief would be a member of governor-general's Council
unless he was the one so appointed.
▪ Laid down that members of Board of Control and their staff would be paid out of
Indian revenues.
1813 Charter Act of 1813 ▪ Abolished the trade Monopoly of company in India but only continued the Monopoly
of company over trade in tea and trade with China.
▪ Asserted the sovereignty of British Crown over the company's territories in India.
▪ Allowed Christian missionaries to come to India and also provided for the spread of
Western education among the inhabitants of British territories in India.
▪ Authorised the local government in India to impose taxes on persons and also punish
the persons for not being taxes.
1833 Charter Act of 1833 ▪ It made governor general of Bengal as a Governor General of India. Lord William
Bentick was the first governor general of India.
▪ It was the height of centralisation as it deprived the governor of Bombay and Madras
of their legislative powers.

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 Polity & Governance

▪ Governor General of India was given the Exclusive legislative powers for the entire
British India.
▪ Laws in the previous acts were called regulations but under this act were called acts.
▪ It ended the activities of East India Company as a commercial body and made it a
purely administrative body.
▪ Attempted to introduce a system of open competition for selection of civil service
stating that Indian should not be debarred from holding any place, office and
Employment under the company.
1853 Charter Act of 1853 ▪ It separated for the first time Legislative and executive functions of the Governor
generals Council.
▪ There was addition of 6 new members called legislative councillors to the legislative
Council of governor general. This functioned as a mini parliament.
▪ It introduced an open competition system for selection and recruitment of civil
servants.
▪ A clear indication that the companies' rule could be terminated at any time the British
Parliament liked was given.
▪ For the first time, local representation in Indian Legislative Council was allowed. Of the
6 new legislative members of the Governor General Council, four members were
appointed by local governments of Madras, Bombay, Bengal and Agra.

1.3.2 During British rule (1858-1947)

YEAR NAME FEATURES
1858 Government Of India ▪ This act is also known as the act for good government of India as it abolished the
Act 1858 East Indian Company and transfer the powers of government, territories and
revenues to the British crown.
▪ Viceroy was a direct representative of the British Crown in India. Lord Canning
became the first viceroy of India.
▪ It abolished the Board of Control and court of directors does ending the system of
double government.
▪ It created a new office of secretary of state of India which was a member of British
cabinet and responsible ultimately to the British Parliament.
▪ 15-member Council of India was established to assist the secretary of state for India.
▪ Secretary of state in Council was a body corporate capable of suing and being sued
in India and in England.
1861 Indian Councils Act Of ▪ Indians were associated with the law-making process.
1861 ➢ In 1862, lord Canning the then Viceroy nominated 3 Indians to his
legislative council-
➢ Raja of Banaras, Maharaja of Patiala and Sir Dinkar Rao.
▪ It initiated the process of decentralization by restoring the legislative powers to the
Bombay and Madras Presidency.
➢ Policy of Legislative devolution resulted in Grant of almost complete internal
autonomy to provinces in 1937.
▪ Provided for establishment of new legislative councils for Bengal, Northwestern
provinces and Punjab.
▪ Empowered the viceroy to make rules and orders for more convenient transaction of
business in the Council.
➢ It also gave recognition to the portfolio system.
▪ It empowers the viceroy to issue ordinances during emergency, life of which would
be 6 months.

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 Polity & Governance

Part 2 Index
CENTER AND STATE RELATIONS ............................... 3 13.3 Provisions with Respect to
10.1 Introduction ..................................................... 3 Civil Services in The Constitution ........................... 40

10.2 Legislative......................................................... 3 13.4 The Importance of The Civil Service to

Governance Stems from The Following ................. 40
10.3 Administrative .................................................. 5
13.5 Civil Service Reforms...................................... 41
10.4 Financial ........................................................... 9
13.6 Constitutional Provisions Related to UPSC,
10.5 Important Amendments Regarding SPSC And Joint PSC ................................................ 42
Distribution of Tax Revenue................................... 10
13.7 Union Public Service Commission .................. 42
10.8 Mechanisms for Cooperative Federation ...... 14
13.8 State Public Service Commission ................... 43
10.9 Conclusion ...................................................... 14
13.9 Functions of UPSC And SPSC .......................... 44
EMERGENCY ......................................................... 16
13.10 Joint Public Service Commission .................. 44
11.1 Introduction ................................................... 16
LANGUAGES ......................................................... 45
11.2 National Emergency ....................................... 16
14.1 Introduction ................................................... 45
11.3 President’s Rule ............................................. 18
14.2 Constitutional Provisions Related to Languages
11.4 Financial Emergency ...................................... 21 ............................................................................... 45
11.5 Conclusion ...................................................... 21 14.3 Official Language of Union ............................. 48
GOVERNANCE ....................................................... 23 14.4 Constitutional Provisions Related To 8th
12.1 Introduction ................................................... 23 Schedule................................................................. 48
12.2 Good Governance Background and Aspects .. 24 14.5 CLASSICAL LANGUAGE ................................... 49
12.3 Benefits of Good Governance ........................ 24 14.6 Language of Judiciary ..................................... 50
12.4 Challenges to Good Governance.................... 24 14.7 Official Languages Act 1963 ........................... 50
12.5 Governance in India ....................................... 24 14.8 Language of Subordinate Courts ................... 50
12.6 Governance Initiative Taken in India ............. 25 14.9 Special Officer for Linguistic Minorities ......... 50
12.7 Need for Reforms ........................................... 25 14.10 Powers, Functions, and Responsibilities ...... 51
12.8 E-Governance ................................................. 25 SOCIAL JUSTICE ..................................................... 52
12.9 E-Governance in India .................................... 26 15.1 Introduction ................................................... 52
12.11 Challenges to E-Governance ........................ 28 15.2 Article 14 And Social Justice .......................... 52
12.10 Citizen Charter ............................................. 28 15.3 Special Provision for Women ......................... 52
12.12 Servottam Model ......................................... 30 15.4 National Commission for Women ................. 53
12.13 Social Audit .................................................. 31 15.5 National Commission for Protection of
12.14 Civil Society Organisation............................. 34 Children Rights ....................................................... 54

12.15 Pressure Groups ........................................... 36 15.6 Special Provisions for Schedule Caste, Schedule
Tribes and Other Backward Classes ....................... 55
ROLE OF CIVIL SERVICE IN DEMOCRACY ................. 39
15.7 Poverty and Hunger Issues ............................ 59
13.1 Introduction ................................................... 39
15.8 Human Development Index ........................... 61
13.2 Current Status ................................................ 39
15.9 Sustainable Development Goals .................... 62

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 Polity & Governance

LOCAL GOVERNANCE ................ 64 17.7 System of Elections in India ........................... 83

16.1 Introduction ........................ 64 17.8 Delimitation Commission............................... 85
16.2 Evolution of Panchayati Raj ........................... 64 17.9 POLITICAL PARTIES RECOGNISED AND
16.3 Salient Features Of 73rd Amendment Act ...... 65 REGISTERED ........................................................... 86

16.4 Three-Tier Structure of Panchayati Raj .......... 66 17.10 Casteisation of Politics ................................. 87

16.5 List of Items Included In 11th Schedule .......... 68 17.11 Criminalisation of Politics ............................ 88

16.6 The Panchayat (Extension to Scheduled Areas) 17.12 Electoral Reforms in India ............................ 89
............................................................................... 69 SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR SOME STATES AND
16.7 Salient Features of 74th Amendment Act ....... 70 REGIONAL ASPIRATIONS ....................................... 93

16.8 Twelfth Schedule............................................ 73 18.1 Introduction ................................................... 93

16.9 Types of Urban Government.......................... 73 18.2 Asymmetrical Federalism (Article 371) .......... 93

16.10 Cooperatives in India ................................... 74 18.3 Fifth and Sixth Schedule States ...................... 95

16.11 Draft Multistate Cooperative Act................. 77 18.4 Union Territories Part 8 (Article 239 To 241) 97

16.12 Issues with the Local Government ............... 78 18.5 Article 239 To 241 In PART VIII of The
Constitution Deals with The Union Territories. ..... 98
16.13 15th Finance Commission Grants ................. 79
18.6 Changes to the Administrative Set Up of J&Ks
ELECTIONS AND ELECTORAL POLITICS IN INDIA ...... 80 ............................................................................... 99
17.1 Introduction ................................................... 80 18.7 Conclusion.................................................... 100
17.2 Conditions to Make Elections Democratic ..... 80 WORKING OF CONSTITUTIONAL AND NON-
17.3 Constitutional Provisions Related to Elections CONSTITUTIONAL BODIES ................................... 101
in India.................................................................... 80 19.1 Introduction ................................................. 101
17.4 Electoral System in India ................................ 81 19.2 Constitutional Bodies ................................... 101
17.5 Election Commission of India ......................... 81 19.3 Non-Constitutional Bodies ........................... 109
17.6 Representation of People Act 1950 And 1951 19.4 Conclusion.................................................... 120
............................................................................... 82

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 Polity & Governance

10 CENTER AND STATE RELATIONS

10.1 Introduction
India is a land of Continental proportions and immense diversity. There are more than 20 major languages and
several hundred minor one. It is the home of several major religions.

Despite all these diversities, we share a common landmass. When the decision to partition was taken, the
constituent assembly decided to frame a government that would be based on the principles of unity and
cooperation between the centre and the states.

Therefore, while recognising diversity, constitution emphasized Unity.

We are going to be dealing with various relations between centre and state in terms of sharing of power between
the three organs of government.

▪ Legislative,
▪ Administrative
▪ Financial.

10.2 Legislative
10.2.1 Distribution of Legislative Power
▪ The constitutional provisions in India about distribution of legislative powers between the Union and the
States are spread out over several articles (articles 245-254).
▪ However, the most important of those provisions – i.e. the basic one – is that contained in articles 245-246.

Article 245 sets out the limits of the legislative powers of the Union and the States from the geographical (or
territorial) angle providing that.

▪ Parliament may make laws for the whole or any part of the territory of India and
▪ The legislature of a State may make laws for the whole or any part of the State.
▪ Parliament can make law for extra-territorial operation also.

From the point of view of the subject matter of legislation, it is article 246 which is important, which
reads as under
▪ Parliament has exclusive power to make laws with respect to any of the matters enumerated in List 1 of the
Seventh Schedule (referred to as the “Union List”).
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 Polity & Governance

▪ Parliament shall have power to make laws with respect to any of the matters enumerated in
List III in the Seventh Schedule (referred to as the “Concurrent List”).
▪ The Legislature of any State has exclusive power to make laws for such State or any part thereof with respect
to any of the matters enumerated in List II in the Seventh Schedule (referred to as the “State List”).
▪ Parliament has power to make laws with respect to any matter for any part of the territory of India not
included in a State, notwithstanding that such matter is a matter enumerated in the State List.
▪ Article 248 provides for residuary powers of legislation as per this Parliament has exclusive power to make
any law with respect to any matter not enumerated in the Concurrent List or State List. Such power shall
include the power of making any law imposing a tax not mentioned in either of those Lists.

10.2.2 Power of Parliament to Legislate on State Subjects

AS PER ARTICLE 249
If the Council of States has declared by resolution supported by not less than two-thirds of the members present
and voting that it is necessary in the national interest that Parliament should make laws with respect to any matter
enumerated in the State List specified in the resolution, it shall be lawful for Parliament to make laws for the whole
or any part of the territory of India with respect to that matter while the resolution remains in force. Such a
resolution passed shall remain in force for such period not exceeding one year. However, it can be renewed any
number of time but not exceeding one year at a time.

AS PER ARTICLE 250

Parliament shall, while a Proclamation of Emergency is in operation, have power to make laws for the whole or any
part of the territory of India with respect to any of the matters enumerated in the State List. Such a law made by
Parliament shall cease to have effect on the expiration of a period of six months after the Proclamation has ceased
to operate.

AS PER ARTICLE 252

Power of Parliament to legislate for two or more States by consent if resolutions to that effect are passed by all the
Houses of the Legislatures of those States, it shall be lawful for Parliament to pass an Act for regulating that matter
accordingly, and any Act so passed shall apply to such States and to any other State by which it is adopted
afterwards by resolution passed in that behalf by the House.

AS PER ARTICLE 253

Parliament has power to make any law for the whole or any part of the territory of India for implementing any
treaty, agreement or convention with any other country or countries or any decision made at any international
conference, association, or other body.

If President's rule is imposed in a state, then Parliament is empowered to make laws with respect to any matter in a
state list and such a law continues to be operative even after President's rule.

10.2.3 Repugnancy Between Centre and State with Regard to Laws Made by Them
To deal with inconsistency between laws made by Parliament and laws made by the Legislatures of States,

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 Polity & Governance

ARTICLE 254 states that If any provision of a law made by the Legislature of a State is repugnant
to any provision of a law made by Parliament which Parliament is competent to enact with
respect to one of the matters enumerated in the Concurrent List, then the law made by Parliament shall prevail and
the law by the Legislature of the State shall, to the extent of the repugnancy, be void.

Exceptions where laws of Parliament are not applicable.

1. President can make regulations for peace, progress, and good government of the five union territories
which are - Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep. Dadar and Nagar Haveli, Daman, and Diu and
Ladakh.
2. Governor is empowered to direct that an act of Parliament does not apply to a scheduled area in a state
or if it applies then it applies with specific modification.
3. Governor of Assam may direct that an act of parliament does not apply to a tribal area or if it applies it
applies with specific modifications or exceptions.
4. President enjoy the same power to Tribal areas in Meghalaya. Tripura and. Mizoram.

42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976 transfer file subjects to a concurrent list from state list
Education, forest, weights and measures, protection of wild animals and birds as well as administration of
Justice.

However, where a law made by the Legislature of a State with respect to one of the matters enumerated in the
Concurrent List contains any provision repugnant to the provisions of an earlier law made by Parliament, but been
reserved for the consideration of the President and has received his assent, prevail in that State. At the same time, it
is to be provided that the law by state has nothing that shall prevent Parliament from enacting at any time any law
with respect to the same matter including a law adding to, amending, varying or repealing the law so made by the
Legislature of the State.

Therefore, there is dominance of union list over state list and that of concurrent list over state list.

10.3 Administrative
10.3.1 Extent of Executive Power of Union and State
AS PER ARTICLE 256,
▪ the executive power of every State shall be exercised so as to ensure compliance with the laws made by
Parliament and any existing laws which apply in that State.
▪ Also, the executive power of the Union shall extend to the giving of such directions to a State as may appear
to the Government of India to be necessary for that purpose.

Control of the Union over States in certain cases

AS PER ARTICLE 257

▪ The executive power of every State shall be so exercised as not to impede or prejudice the exercise of the
executive power of the Union.

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World & Physical geography

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 Geography

3.6 General Circulation of

CONTENTS Atmosphere ....................... 33
Origin and Evolution of Earth............................ 3 3.6 AIR MASSES AND FRONTS ......................... 36
1.1 Introduction ............................................... 3 3.7 Extra Tropical Cyclones ............................. 37
1.2 Theories of Origin of The Earth ..................... 3 3.8 Tropical Cyclones: .................................... 38
1.3 Formation of Stars and Planets ................... 4 3.9 Thunderstorms ......................................... 39
1.3 Our Solar System........................................ 5 3.10 Tornadoes ............................................... 39
1.4 Moon ......................................................... 5 3.11 Water in Atmosphere: .............................. 39
1.5 Evolution of Earth's Lithosphere .................. 6 Hydrology..................................................... 43
1.6 Evolution of Earth's Atmosphere ................. 6 4.1 Hydrological Cycle .................................... 43
1.7 Geological Time Scale ................................ 6 4.2 Divisions of Ocean Floor ........................... 44
1.8 Understanding More About the Earth ........... 6 4.3 Temperature distribution in ocean waters and
1.9 Conclusion ................................................ 8 the horizontal and vertical temperature profiles
...................................................................... 47
Geomorphology .............................................. 9
4.4 Salinity ..................................................... 47
2.1 Introduction ............................................... 9
4.5 Waves ...................................................... 48
2.2 Understanding the Interior of The Earth ....... 9
4.6 TIDES ....................................................... 50
2.3 Structure of The Earth - Crust, Mantle, Core
(As Well As Lithosphere and Asthenosphere) .. 10 4.7 Ocean Currents ........................................ 51

2.4 Distribution of Oceans and Continents ...... 11 Population.................................................... 55

2.5 Convergence and Divergence of Oceanic and 5.1 Population ................................................ 55

Continental Plate, Oceanic and Oceanic Plate as 5.2 Ecosystem ................................................ 57
well as Continental and Continental Plate: ...... 13
5.3 Function of Ecosystems ............................ 57
2.6 Earthquake............................................... 14
5.4 Productivity .............................................. 57
2.7 Volcano.................................................... 16
5.5 Decomposition ......................................... 58
2.7 Minerals ................................................... 18
5.7 Energy Flow in Ecosystems ........................ 58
2.8 Rocks....................................................... 18
5.8 Ecological Pyramids .................................. 59
2.8.1 Rock Cycle ............................................ 19
5.9 Ecological Succession .............................. 60
2.9 EARTH MOVEMENTS THAT LEAD TO
5.10 Nutrient Cycling ...................................... 61
LANDFORM EVOLUTION ................................ 19
5.11. Ecosystem Services ............................... 62
2.10 Landform Evolution ................................ 20
5.12 BIODIVERSITY ......................................... 63
2.11 Conclusion............................................. 27
5.13 Decline in Biodiversity ............................. 64
Climatology .................................................. 28
5.14 Biodiversity Conservation ........................ 64
3.1 Atmosphere ............................................. 28
Environmental Issues.................................... 68
3.2 Solar Radiation: ........................................ 29
6.1 Pollution ................................................... 68
3.3 Atmospheric Pressure .............................. 32
6.2 Air Pollution .............................................. 68
3.4 Factors affecting the velocity and direction of
wind .............................................................. 33 6.3 Water Pollution and Its Control .................. 70

3.5 Pressure and wind .................................... 33 6.4 Solid Wastes ............................................. 71

6.5 Agro Chemicals and Their Effects .............. 71

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 Physical and world Geography

6.6 Organic Farming .......... 71

6.7 Radioactive Wastes .................................. 72
6.8 The Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming
..................................................................... 72
6.9 Degradation by improper resource utilization
and maintenance ........................................... 73
6.10 Deforestation ......................................... 73
6.11 Bodies and Organizations ....................... 73
6.12 Biosphere Reserves ................................ 78
6.13 National Parks of India ............................ 79
Climatic Classification Of The World .............. 80
7.1 Köppen's Classification ............................ 80

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 Geography

1 ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF

EARTH

1.1 Introduction
The term geography was first coined by ERATOSTHENESE, a Greek scholar. The word Geography has
been derived from two words- GEO (meaning Earth) and GRAPHOS (meaning description). It is,
therefore, a study of description of the earth as the abode of human beings.
1.2 Theories of Origin of The Earth
Regarding the theories explaining the origin of earth, listed below is a table that explains all the early
and modern theories.
Theory by Name of Explanation of Theory
Theory

Immanuel Nebular It proposed that the solar system formed from a rotating cloud of gas and
Kant Hypothesis dust, known as a nebula. The nebula collapsed due to gravity, and the
material in the center became dense and hot enough to form the Sun. The
remaining material in the nebula flattened into a disk and cooled, forming
the planets and other objects in the solar system.

Chamberlain Planetesimal A wondering star approached the sun and as a result, cigar shaped
& Moulton Hypothesis extension of material was separated from the Solar surface. As the
star moved away, cigar shaped extension of material separated
from the Solar surface and started revolving around the sun. It later
slowly condensed into planets.

Sir James Binary They supported cigar shaped extension theory of Chamberlain and
Jeans & Sir Theories Moulton and later considered of a companion to the sun to have been
Harold coexisting.
Jeffrey

Otto Schmidt Revised They considered that the sun was surrounded by solar Nebula (Nebula is a
& Carl Nebular giant cloud of dust and gas in space). It consisted of hydrogen and Helium
Weizascar Hypothesis mostly along with dust. The friction and pollution of particles lead to the
formation of disc shaped cloud and planets were formed through the
process of accretion.

Initiated By: Big Bang The expanding universe hypothesis is the theory that the universe is
Edwin Theory/ expanding, and that the distance between any two points in the universe is
Hubble Expanding increasing over time. This hypothesis is supported by a wide range of

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 Physical and world Geography

Universe evidence, including Hubble's law, the cosmic microwave background

Hypothesis radiation, and the large-scale structure of the universe.

1.3 Formation of Stars and Planets

More about Big Bang Theory

As per Big Bang Theory, development of universe takes place in the following stages:

▪ In the beginning, all the matter which forms the universe today existed in one place in the
form of a tiny ball which has a very small volume, infinite temperature, and infinite density.
▪ At the big bang (13.7 billion years ago), the same tiny ball exploded leading to a huge
expansion, which continuous even to the presence day.
▪ During expansion, some energy converted to matter (as Einstein's E=mc^2 equation
explains). The first atom began to form within the first three minutes from the Big Bang
event.
▪ Within 300,000 years after the big bang, temperature dropped to 4500K and gave rise to
atomic matter. This is the time when Universe became transparent.

An alternative to expanding Universe hypothesis is HOYLE'S CONCEPT OF STEADY STATE.

It considers the universe to be roughly the same at any point of time. However, now the greater
evidence available favours the expanding universe hypothesis.

Formation Details

Formation of ▪ Distribution of matter and energy was uneven in the early universe. This gave rise
Stars to initial density differences. Initial density differences for the give rise to
differences in gravitational forces, causing the matter to be drawn together.
▪ This formed the bases for development of Galaxies. (Galaxy contains large number
of stars and is spread over was distances measuring in thousands of light years.
Diameter of individual Galaxy range from 80,000-150,000 light years.)
▪ Therefore, by accumulation of hydrogen gas in the form of a very large cloud
(known as NEBULA), a Galaxy is formed.
▪ Growing Nebula develops localised clumps of gases. These clumps continue to
grow into denser gaseous bodies which gives rise to formation of star.
▪ Formation of star is believed to have taken place 5-6 billion years ago.

Formation of ▪ Within a nebula, stars are localized lumps of gases.

Planets ▪ The gravitational force present within these lumps leads to the formation of a core.
A huge rotating disc of gas and dust develops around this core.
▪ Then, the gas cloud start getting condensed and matter around the coal develops
into small, rounded objects. These are called - PLANETESIMALS.
▪ Due to collision and gravitational attraction, smaller bodies i.e. PLANETESIMALS
stick together and form fewer larger bodies called planets.

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 Geography

1.3 Our Solar System

▪ Our solar system consists of the sun, 63 moons, millions of smaller bodies like asteroids, comets, huge
quantities of dust grains and gases as well as 8 planets- MERCURY, VENUS, EARTH, MARS, JUPITER,
SATURN, URANUS, NEPTUNE.
▪ The Nebula which formed our solar system, started to collapse, and led to its core formation around 5-5.6
billion years ago. Planets in solar system were formed about 4.6 billion years ago.
▪ The inner four planets i.e. Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars are referred to as Terrestrial planets, as they are
formed from Rock and metals and have high density.
▪ The outer four planets i.e. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune are referred to as Jovian or Gas Giant
planets. These are mostly larger planets than Terrestrial planets and have thick atmosphere of helium and
hydrogen.

1.3.1 Difference between the two planets is because of the following reason:

Terrestrial Planets Jovian Planets

▪ Terrestrial planets were formed in the ▪ Jovian planets were formed at a larger distance to
closed vicinity of the Sun. It was too warm the sun where it was cold enough for gases to
for gases to condense into solid particles. condense into solid particles.
▪ Solar wind was very intense near ▪ Solar winds were weak near Jovian planets and so,
Terrestrial planets which blew off lots of could not cause removal of gases from them.
gases and Dust from Terrestrial planets. ▪ Jovian planets were comparatively bigger and so
▪ Terrestrial planets were smaller and so their Gravity could hold the gases around them.
their lower gravity could not hold the
escaping gases.

1.4 Moon
▪ It is the only natural satellite of Earth.

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 Geography

IN THIS BOOK
India - Location ............................................... 2 4.7 Characteristics of Southwest Monsoon
1.1 Introduction ............................................... 2 Season........................................................... 27

1.2 About India................................................. 2 4.8 Characteristic of The Monsoon Rainfall ...... 28

Physiography of India ...................................... 6 4.9 Season of Retreating Monsoon .................. 28

2.1 Introduction ............................................... 6 4.10 Distribution of Rainfall ............................. 29

2.2 The Peninsular Block .................................. 6 4.11 Climate Regions of India .......................... 29

2.3 The Himalayas and Other Peninsular 4.12 Monsoons and the Economic Life in India 30
Mountains ....................................................... 6 4.13 Global Warming ...................................... 30
2.4 Indo-Ganga Brahmaputra Plain ................... 7 SOILS OF INDIA............................................. 31
2.5 Physiography .............................................. 7 5.1 Introduction .............................................. 31
2.6 The Northern and North-Eastern Mountains 7 5.2 Process of Soil Formation .......................... 32
2.7 Northern Plains .......................................... 9 5.3 Soil Composition ...................................... 32
2.8 The Peninsular Plateau ............................... 9 5.4 Properties of Soil ....................................... 33
2.9 The Deccan Plateau.................................. 10 5.5 Soil Profile and Horizon ............................. 33
2.10 The Central Highlands ............................ 10 5.6 Some Important Process In Soil Formation 34
2.11 The Northeastern Plateau ....................... 10 5.7 Soils of India ............................................. 34
2.12 The Indian Desert ................................... 11 5.8 Soil Ddegradation ..................................... 37
2.13 The Coastal Plains .................................. 11 5.9 United Nations Convention To Combat
2.14 The Islands ............................................. 12 Climate Change (UNCCD) .............................. 38

DRAINAGE SYSTEM IN INDIA .......................... 13 5.10 Soil Conservation .................................... 38

3.1 Introduction ............................................. 13 NATURAL VEGETATION .................................. 39

3.2 Drainage System ...................................... 13 6.1 Introduction .............................................. 39

3.3 Drainage Pattern ....................................... 13 6.2 Types of Forests ........................................ 39

3.4 Drainage System in India ........................... 15 6.3 Forest Cover in India ................................. 41

3.5 Utility and Conservation of River Water ...... 22 6.5 Forest Conservation .................................. 42

CLIMATE OF INDIA......................................... 23 NATURAL HAZARDS AND DISASTERS .............. 43

4.1 Introduction ............................................. 23 7.1 Introduction .............................................. 43

4.2 Factors Determining the Climate of India ... 23 7.2 Natural Hazards and Disasters .................. 43

4.3 Winter Season .......................................... 24 7.3 Classification of Natural Disaster .............. 43

4.4 Summer Season ....................................... 25 7.3 Natural Disasters and Hazards in India ...... 44

4.5 Indian Monsoon........................................ 26 7.4 Disaster Management ............................... 52

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 Indian Geography

1 INDIA - LOCATION

1.1 Introduction
Our country India with its diverse culture, languages and populations also enjoys the blessings of having
diverse geographical features. Not only features, but India’s location also has strategic importance of it as it lies
in India ocean which is significant for trade, commercial and security purposes.

1.2 About India

The mainland of India extends from Kashmir in North to Kanyakumari in South and Arunachal Pradesh in East to
Gujrat in the west. Its territorial extent further extent towards sea up to 12 nautical miles. India has an
enormous land boundary, its land boundary extends to about 15,200km. the total length of Indian Mainland,
along with islands of Andaman and Nicobar
as well as Lakshadweep is 7516 km.

1.2.1 Longitudinal and Latitudinal

extent
▪ India’s Latitudinal extent extend from
8°4′N to 37°6′N.
▪ India’s Longitudinal extent extend from
68`7E to 97`25E.
▪ Tropic of Cancer (23.5 N latitude)
passes through India from Gujrat,
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, west Bengal,
Tripura, Mizoram.

From above we can clearly see that

Longitudinal and latitudinal extent of India is
roughly 30 degree but actual distance
between north and south is 3214 km
whereas East-West extent is 2933 km. This
difference is on the fact that distance
between two longitude decreases towards
poles whereas the distance between two
latitudes remains same everywhere.

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 Geography

1.2.2 Size of India

▪ India with its area of 3.28 million sq. km accounts for 2.4% of world’s landmass and stands seventh largest
country in world.
▪ The size of India has been endowed with physical diversity. It includes Himalayas in north, Western Ghats in
West, Eastern Ghats in East. It has a large river such as Ganga, Brahmaputra, Mahanadi, Krishna
Godavari etc.

1.2.3 Political Division of India

India has been divided into 28 states and 8 Union territories as

28 states
State Capital State Capital
Andhra Pradesh Amravati Manipur Imphal
Arunachal Pradesh Itanagar Meghalaya Shillong
Assam Dispur Mizoram Aizwal
Bihar Patna Nagaland Kohima
Chhattisgarh Raipur Odisha Bhubaneshwar
Goa Panaji Punjab Chandigarh
Gujrat Gandhinagar Rajasthan Jaipur
Haryana Chandigarh Sikkim Gangtok
Himachal Pradesh Shimla Tamil Nadu Chennai
Jharkhand Ranchi Telangana Hyderabad
Karnataka Bengaluru Tripura Agartala
Kerala Thiruvanthapuram Uttar Pradesh Lucknow
Madhya Pradesh Bhopal Uttarakhand Dehradun
Maharashtra Mumbai West Bengal Kolkata
Eight Union Territories
Union Territory Capital
Delhi Delhi
Jammu and Kashmir Srinagar-Summer, Jammu-Winter
Ladakh Leh
Chandigarh Chandigarh
Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu Daman
Puducherry Puducherry
Andaman and Nicobar Island Port Blair
Lakshadweep Kavaratti

Some observations-
▪ States as per Area wise (descending order): Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujrat, Karnataka, Uttar
Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Tamil Nadu
▪ States as per population wise (in descending order): Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal,
Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, Karnataka, Gujrat

1.2.4 Coastline of India

India has a diverse and extensive coastline that stretches for about 7,517 kilometers (4,670 miles), making it
one of the longest coastlines in the world. The coastline is bordered by the Arabian Sea to the west, the Bay of
Bengal to the east, and the Indian Ocean to the south. Here are some key features and characteristics of the
coastline of India:

Geographical Diversity:
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 Indian Geography
▪ The coastline of India exhibits significant geographical diversity, ranging from
sandy beaches to rocky shores and cliffs.
▪ There are several estuaries, deltas, and lagoons along the coast, formed by rivers like the Ganges,
Brahmaputra, Godavari, Krishna, and others.

Western Coast:
▪ The western coast of India is along the Arabian Sea. It is known for its picturesque beaches, rocky cliffs, and
backwater regions. Some notable features include the Konkan Coast, Malabar Coast, and the sandy
beaches of Goa.

Eastern Coast:
▪ The eastern coast of India faces the Bay of Bengal and is generally characterized by broader and less rugged
coastlines compared to the west.
▪ The delta regions of the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Godavari rivers contribute to the formation of extensive
mangrove forests and deltas along the eastern coast.

Islands:
▪ India has several islands along its coastline, the most prominent being the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in
the Bay of Bengal and the Lakshadweep Islands in the Arabian Sea.

1.2.5 India and its neighbors

Countries that has land border with India are Afghanistan, Pakistan, China, Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar.

Country Boundary in km
Afghanistan 106km
Pakistan 3323
China 3440
Nepal 1770
Bangladesh 4096
Myanmar 1643

▪ India is surrounded by Arabian sea in the West, Indian Ocean in the south and Bay of Bengal in the East.
▪ Countries that share sea boundary are Sri Lanka, Maldives. Sri Lanka is separated from India by Palk strait
and Gulf of Munnar.

1.2.6 Standard Meridian of India

▪ Standard Meridian is the longitude that determines the standard time for whole country. It is 82’30E and
passes through Mirzapur to bring uniformity in time.
▪ It is because of this reason that clock shows same time in Jaisalmer and Arunachal Pradesh even
though sun rises 2 hours earlier in Arunachal Pradesh than in Jaisalmer.

Note: State where Tropic of Cancer and standard Meridian meets is Chhattisgarh.

1.2.7 Strategic Importance of India

▪ India as a country in the Indian Ocean holds importance as it emerged as a critical conduit for trade,
commerce, and energy. The waters of the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) have become a home for economic
developments, disputes, conflicts, and competition for regional influence by regional and extra-regional
powers. All major powers, such as the United States, Australia, Japan, United Kingdom, India, and China
have sought stakes in the security of the IOR. The India Ocean remains a pivot, being the world’s busiest
trade route. Around 80 percent of the world’s maritime oil trade passes through the IOR.

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 Geography
▪ India’s location helps in connecting West Asia with East Asia through its mainland and
acts as binding force in integration of Asia.
▪ Its vast diverse geographical features from mountains to plateaus to plains to islands endows it with rich
diversity in food, clothing and culture making it one of the cultural tourist spots.
▪ In the Present World Order of Rising China’s power, India sharing long border with China also add to its
strategic location.
▪ Centrality of India is also corroborated by its presence in Indo-Pacific which is becoming a new point of
Geopolitics.

=== ===

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 Ancient History

5.3 Political organisation during Later Vedic Age ... 32

CONTENTS 5.4 Military Organization ....................................... 33
Pre-historic India ............................................ 4
5.5 Administration ................................................. 33
1.1 Pre-Historic India ........................................ 4
5.6 Economic Condition ......................................... 33
1.2 Paleolithic or Old Stone Age............................... 4
5.6.1 Agriculture .................................................... 33
1.3 Mesolithic Age.................................................... 6
5.6.2 Skilled craftsmanship .................................... 33
1.4 Late Stone Age ................................................... 7
5.7 Social Life .................................................. 34
1.5 The Neolithic Age ............................................... 7
Earliest References to the 4 Ashrama .......................... 35
Indus Valley Civilization .................................. 9
5.8 Religion ............................................................ 36
2.1 Harappan Civilization- the 1st civilization ........... 9
Rituals and Sacrifices ................................................. 36
2.2 Map of Harapan civilization ............................... 9
Emergence of Brahmanas and Aranyakas.................... 36
2.3 Features of Indus Valley Civilization ................. 10
Upanishads and Philosophical Speculation................... 36
2.4 Harappan art and culture ................................. 12
Social and Moral Duties ............................................. 36
Chalcolithic Age (Stone Copper Age) .............. 18
5.9 Literature.......................................................... 37
3.1 Introduction ..................................................... 18
The Samaveda .......................................................... 37
3.2 Earliest settlements belonging to this phase are
The Yajurveda........................................................... 37
found in the following places ................................. 19
The Atharvaveda....................................................... 37
3.3 Features of Chalcolithic Culture ....................... 19
Buddhism..................................................... 39
3.1.3 Types of Pottery ............................................ 19
6.1 About Gautam Buddha .................................... 39
3.4 Domestication of animals and cultivation of
foodgrains .............................................................. 20 6.2 Three Jewels of Buddhism ............................... 40

3.5 Crops Cultivated during the chalcolithic period 6.3 Concepts and Philosophy under Buddhism ..... 40
............................................................................... 20 Nirodha (Cessation of Suffering .................................. 40
3.6 Settlements ...................................................... 20 6.4 Literature in Buddhism..................................... 41
3.7 Art and Culture ................................................. 21 6.5 Various sects of Buddhism ............................... 41
3.8 Social Inequalities............................................. 22 6.5.1 Sthavira Nikaya.............................................. 42
3.9 Period of the Culture ........................................ 23 6.6 Prominent Boddhisattava ................................ 44
3.10 Importance of Chalcolithic Phase................... 23 6.7 Theravada Buddhism ....................................... 45
3.11 Neolithic-chalcolithic cultures........................ 23 6.8 Vajrayana Buddhism......................................... 45
3.12 Copper Age in India ........................................ 24 6.9 Places which Buddha Visited ........................... 46
Advent of Aryans ........................................... 25 6.10 Four Buddhist Council .................................... 46
4.1 Advent of Aryans .............................................. 25 6.10.4 Fourth Buddhist Council (1st century BCE or
4.2 Sources of study of Vedic Age .......................... 26 1st century CE) ....................................................... 47

4.3 Various aspects of life during Vedic Age .......... 26 6.11 Prominent personalities in Buddhism ............ 47

Later Vedic Period ......................................... 31 6.12 Navayana Buddhism....................................... 48

5.1 Later Vedic Age................................................. 31 6.13 Buddhist Literature ........................................ 48

5.2 Geographical area ............................................ 31 6.14 BUDDHISM ARCHITECTURE ........................... 49

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 Ancient History

Jainism......................................................... 55 11.4 Tamil Language and Sangam Literature ......... 88

7.1 Founder of Jainism ........................................... 55 Satavahana Dynasty ..................................... 90
7.2 About Jainism ................................................... 55 12.1 Sources of Satavahana period........................ 90
7.3 Jain Teaching and Philosophy ........................... 56 12.2 Literary Sources.............................................. 90
7.4 Prominent schools of thought.......................... 57 12.3 Factors that favoured formation of state by
7.5 Practices Under Jainism .................................. 58 Satavahanas are ..................................................... 90

7.5.1 Sallekhana ..................................................... 58 12.4 Geographical Background of Satavahanas ..... 91

7.6 Jainism Architecture ......................................... 58 12.5 Antecedent History of Satavahanas ............... 92

7.7 Jain Paintings .................................................... 61 12.6 Important rulers of dynasty and their major
achievement .......................................................... 92
7.8 Jain Literature................................................... 61
12.7 Administration of Satavahanas ...................... 93
Pre - Mauryan Empire .................................... 64
12.7.1 Central Administration ................................ 93
The Magadha Empire ............................................. 64
Gupta Empire ............................................... 95
8.1 Haryanka dynasty ............................................. 64
13.1 Gupta Empire Origin ...................................... 95
8.2 Saisunaga Dynasty ............................................ 64
13.2 Area under control ......................................... 95
8.3 Nandas ............................................................. 65
13.3 Rulers of the Gupta Empire............................ 96
8.4 Persian and Greek Invasions ............................ 65
13.4 Gupta Society ................................................. 97
Mauryan Empire............................................ 68
13.5 Caste system .................................................. 98
9.1 Sources of Mauryan Empire ............................. 68
13.6 Family Unit ..................................................... 98
Other literary Sources ................................................ 68
13.7 Religion .......................................................... 98
9.2 Political Structure of Mauryans ........................ 69
13.8 Economic Activities ........................................ 98
Practice of Dhamma .................................................. 70
13.8.1 Agriculture .................................................. 98
9.3 Mauryan Polity and Administration ................. 72
13.8.2 Trade ........................................................... 98
9.3.2 City Administration ....................................... 73
13.8.3 Urban centers ............................................. 99
9.3.3 Revenue Administration ................................ 73
13.8.4 Coinage ....................................................... 99
9.4 Society During Mauryan Empire ...................... 74
13.9 Judicial system during the Gupta Period........ 99
9.5 Economic Conditions During Mauryan Age ..... 75
Specific laws and regulations ...................................... 99
9.6 Art and Architecture......................................... 76
Laws and legal proceedings........................................ 99
Central Asian contacts .................................. 79
13.10 Administration ............................................. 99
10.1 Indo Greeks .................................................... 79
13.11 Decline of Gupta Empire ............................ 100
10.2 Shakas ............................................................ 81
13.12 Gupta Art and Architecture........................ 101
10.3 Parthians ........................................................ 81
13.13 Paintings ..................................................... 103
10.4 Kushanas ........................................................ 81
13.14 Gupta Literature ......................................... 103
10.5 Literature ........................................................ 84
13.15 Drama and Theatre .................................... 104
10.6 Science and Technology ................................. 84
13.16 Science and technology ............................. 104
Sangam Period.............................................. 85
Harsha Period ..............................................106
11.1 The Megalithic background ............................ 85
14.1 Harsha Empire/Kingdom .............................. 106
11.2 State Formation and Rise of civilization ......... 85
14.2 The earlier ideas of Harsha’s reign ............... 106
11.3 Three early Kingdoms..................................... 86
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 Ancient History

14.3 Opposition He faced..................................... 106 15.3 Ikshvakus ...................... 108

14.4 Administration.............................................. 106 15.4 The Pallavas....................... 109
14.5 Husan Tsang Account ................................... 107 15.5 Chalukya Dynasty ......................................... 112
14.6 Buddhism and Nalanda ................................ 107 Development of Philosophy ..........................115
14.6.1 Religious policy of Harsha ......................... 107 16.1 Development of Philosophy ................... 115
Development in Peninsula ........................... 108 16.2 Schools of Philosophy .................................. 115
15.1 Formation of New States And Rural Expansion 16.2.4 Vaisheshika (by Kanaad Kashyap) ............. 116
In The Peninsula ................................................... 108 16.2.5 Mimamsa (by Rishi Jaimini) ...................... 116
15.2 The Vakatakas............................................... 108

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 Ancient History

01 PRE-HISTORIC INDIA

1.1 Pre-Historic India

▪ Human settlements in India have a prehistoric origin, with a history dating back to ancient times.
▪ No written records exist for the prehistoric era, but abundant archaeological remains are scattered across
various regions of India.
▪ These archaeological remnants encompass stone tools, pottery, artifacts, and metal implements utilized by
prehistoric communities.
▪ The study of archaeology significantly contributes to reconstructing the history of this period.
▪ Archaeological findings provide insights into the life and culture of the people who inhabited India during
prehistoric times.

The prehistoric period is categorized into the Paleolithic, commonly known as the Old Stone Age
1. Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age)
2. Neolithic (New Stone Age)
3. The Metal Age.

Nevertheless, the durations of these periods varied across the Indian subcontinent. Scientific dating methods are
employed to determine the timeline of the prehistoric era. Radio-carbon dating, a commonly used technique, relies
on measuring the decay of carbon in organic materials over time. Another dating method, Dendro-Chronology, involves
determining the age of wood by counting the number of tree rings present in it.

1.2 Paleolithic or Old Stone Age

The Paleolithic Period, also known as the Old Stone Age, is a prehistoric era that spanned from about 2.5 million
years ago to around 10,000 B.C. During this time, early human societies were characterized by a nomadic, hunter-
gatherer lifestyle.

1.2.1 Key aspects of this period

Hunter-Gatherer Lifestyle
▪ People during the Old Stone Age were primarily hunter-gatherers, meaning they relied on hunting animals
and gathering plants for their sustenance.
▪ Hunting tools were typically made from stone, and large stone axes were likely used for hunting large
animals. The collaboration of groups was essential for successful hunting.
Stone Tools
▪ Stone tools were a crucial aspect of Paleolithic technology. These tools were fashioned from materials like
quartzite and were used for various purposes, including hunting and processing food.
▪ The tools were often hand-sized and flaked-off large pebbles, showcasing the ingenuity of early humans in
adapting natural materials for their needs.
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 Ancient History

Domestication and Agriculture

Over time, some groups of people in the Old Stone Age began experimenting with the
domestication of animals and the cultivation of plants. This marked a significant shift toward a more settled lifestyle.

Crude Pottery
Evidence suggests that early humans in the later stages of the Paleolithic Period started making crude pottery. This
development was a precursor to more advanced forms of pottery in later periods.

Rock Art
Notable examples of rock art, such as those found at Bhimbetka and other locations, provide insights into the
creative and symbolic expressions of early humans. These paintings often depicted scenes from daily life, animals,
and rituals.

Limited Knowledge of Language and Communication

Unfortunately, there is limited direct evidence regarding the language and communication of Paleolithic people.
However, their collaborative efforts in hunting and evidence of symbolic expression through art suggest some level of
social organization and communication.

Chronology
▪ The Old Stone Age is generally divided into the Lower Paleolithic, Middle Paleolithic, and Upper
Paleolithic. The period before 10,000 B.C. falls within the Upper Paleolithic, characterized by more advanced
stone tools and the emergence of symbolic art.
▪ Understanding the lifestyle and advancements of Paleolithic people provides valuable insights into the early
stages of human development and the gradual transition from a nomadic, hunter-gatherer existence to more
settled communities practicing agriculture.

Evidence
▪ Tools has been found in Kurnool district of Andhra pradesh.
▪ Tools used were axes, choppers and cleavers.
▪ Hunters and gatherers who lived in the Belan Valley of Mirzapur district, Uttar Pradesh, during the Stone
Age left behind animal remains. These remains indicate they hunted wild animals for subsistence. While
evidence suggests the presence of domesticated animals like goats, sheep, and cattle in later stages, the
primary focus in the Belan Valley was likely on wild game.
▪ Developed in Pleistocene period or ice age.
▪ Early Man in India (except in alluvial plains of Indus, Ganga and Yamuna) used chipped stone tools, pebbles
for hunting, cutting and other purpose.
▪ No knowledge on cultivation and horse.

1.2.2 Phases of Paleolithic period in India: Classification is based on

▪ Stone tools used
▪ Climate Change

Early /Lower Paleolithic age

▪ It Covers the greater part of Ice age.
▪ It is characteristic feature is the use of Hand-axes, cleavers, and choppers.
▪ Axes found in India is similar to west Asia, Europe and Africa.
▪ Stone tools used mainly for chopping, digging, and skinning.

Following are the sites

▪ The Soan Valley and Potwar Plateau are situated in Northwestern India.
▪ The Siwalik hills on the North India.
▪ Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh.

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 Medieval history

In this Book
Disintegration of The Gupta Empire (6th Century) ........... 3 8.2 Chronological Sequence of battles by Ghaznavids in India 26

1.1 Factors contributing to the decline and ultimate 8.3 After Mahmud Ghazni ........................................................... 27
disintegration of Gupta Empire ..................................................... 3 8.4 The Ghorid Dynasty ............................................................... 28
1.2 Chronological List of Events and Emergence Of Regional
Delhi Sultanate .......................................................... 29
Kingdoms and Dynasties after The Decline Of Gupta Empire ..... 5
9.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 29
Harsha Empire ............................................................. 7
9.2 Qutubuddin Aibak's reign began in 1206 CE after the death
2.1 Introduction.............................................................................. 7 of Muhammad Ghori ................................................................... 29
2.2 Founder of the Harsha Empire ................................................ 7 9.3 Iltutmish ................................................................................. 30
2.3 Conflicts and Military Campaigns ........................................... 8 9.4 Balban..................................................................................... 32
2.4 Decline and Aftermath ............................................................ 8 9.5 After Balban ........................................................................... 33
2.5 Harsha Empire's Contribution to Buddhism........................... 8 9.6 The Khilji Dynasty .................................................................. 33
2.6 Art and Architecture during Harsha Period............................ 9
Tughlaq Dynasty ........................................................ 38
2.7 Harsha Empire's Contribution to Literature ........................... 9
10.1 Introduction ......................................................................... 38
Rise Of Rajput Kingdoms............................................. 10 10.2 Mongol Threats during Tughlaq Dynasty ........................... 39
3.1 Introduction............................................................................ 10 10.3 Delhi Sultanate .................................................................... 40
3.2 Origin of Rajput Kingdoms .................................................... 10 10.4 Local Administration ........................................................... 41
Rise Of Regional Kingdoms and Dynasties ..................... 12 Timur’s Invasions, Sayyid and Lodhi Dynasty ................. 42
4.1 Introduction............................................................................ 12 11.1 Introduction ......................................................................... 42
4.2 Pratiharas................................................................................ 12 11.2 Objectives of Timur's Invasion............................................ 42
4.3 Palas ........................................................................................ 13 11.3 Sayyid Dynasty (1414–1451 CE) ......................................... 43
4.4 Rashtrakutas........................................................................... 14 11.4 Lodhi Dynasty ...................................................................... 44
4.5 Tripartite Struggle Between Palas, Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas
Vijaynagar and Bahamani Kingdom .............................. 46
....................................................................................................... 15
12.1 Introduction ......................................................................... 46
The Chola Empire (900-1200)....................................... 17
12.2 Dynasties Under Vijayanagara ............................................ 46
5.1 Introduction............................................................................ 17
12.3 Krishna Deva Raya(1509-1530)........................................... 46
5.2 Geographical Boundaries ...................................................... 17
12.4 Aravidu Dynasty (1570–1646 CE) ....................................... 47
5.3 Political Structure................................................................... 17
12.5 State of the Economy under Vijaynagar Kingdom............. 47
5.4 Administration ....................................................................... 17
12.6 Battle of Talikota (1565 CE) ................................................. 48
5.5 Rulers ...................................................................................... 18
12.7 Bahamani Kingdom ............................................................. 48
5.6 Architecture and Art under Chola Empire............................ 18
................................................................................ 50
5.7 Cholas Water Management System ..................................... 19
Struggle For Empire in North India : (1400-1525) .......... 50
Economic And Social Life in Early Medieval India ........... 20
13.1 Introduction ......................................................................... 50
6.1 Introduction............................................................................ 20
13.2 East Bengal ........................................................................... 50
6.2 Economic life under Early Medieval Period ......................... 20
13.3 Western India- Gujrat, Malwa and Mewar ........................ 51
6.3 Religious Movements and Beliefs ......................................... 21
13.4 Malwa................................................................................... 52
6.4 Cultural Achievements in the Early Medieval Period of India
....................................................................................................... 22 13.5 Mewar .................................................................................. 53

Arab Invasions and Advent of Islam ............................. 24 13.6 Kashmir ................................................................................ 53

7.1 Introduction............................................................................ 24 Bhakti and Sufi Movements ........................................ 55

7.2 Broad Timeline of Arab Invasions in India............................ 25 (1300-1500) ............................................................... 55
Ghaznavid and Ghurid Invasions .................................. 26 14.1 Introduction ......................................................................... 55

8.1 Introduction............................................................................ 26 14.2 Architecture ......................................................................... 55

14.3 Religious Ideas and Belief ................................................... 55
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 Medieval history

14.4 Sufi Movement..................................................................... 56 19.1 Introduction ......................................................................... 75

14.5 Bhakti Movement ................................................................ 56 19.2 Nur Jahan ............................................................................. 75
14.6 Vaishnavite Movement........................................................ 57 19.3 Shah Jahan’s Rebellion ........................................................ 75
14.7 Sanskrit Literature................................................................ 57 19.4 Mahabat Khan ..................................................................... 76
14.8 Persian and Arabic Literature .............................................. 58 19.5 Foreign Policy of Mughals ................................................... 76
14.9 Regional Language ............................................................... 58 19.6 Akbar and Uzbeks ................................................................ 76
14.10 Fine Arts ............................................................................. 59 19.7 Relations with Iran and Qandahar...................................... 77

Mughal Empire of India .............................................. 60 19.8 Shah Jahan’ S Balk Campaign ............................................. 77
th th
(16 To 19 Century) .................................................. 60 19.9 Mughals Persian Relations the Last Phase......................... 78

15.1 Introduction ......................................................................... 60 19.10 Growth of Administration: Mansabdari System and The
Army ............................................................................................. 78
15.2 Conquest of India................................................................. 60
Economic and Social Life Under Mughal Period ............. 80
15.3 The Afghans.......................................................................... 61
20.1 Standard of Living, Pattern of Village Life: The Masses .... 80
Humayun’s conquest of Gujrat & his tussle with Shershah
................................................................................ 63 20.2 The Ruling Class and Nobility ............................................. 80

16.1 Introduction ......................................................................... 63 20.3 Zamindars and Rural Gentry ............................................... 81

16.2 Humayun’s Gujrat Conquest ............................................... 63 20.4 The Middle Strata ................................................................ 81

16.3 Sher Khan ............................................................................. 63 20.5 Organization of Trade and Commerce ............................... 82

16.4 Sher Shah and Sur Empire (1540-1555) ............................. 64 20.6 Foreign Trade and European Traders ................................. 83

Consolidation of the Mughal Empire age of Akbar ......... 66 Cultural And Religious Development ............................ 84

17.1 Introduction ......................................................................... 66 21.1 Introduction ......................................................................... 84

17.2 Second Battle of Panipat (1556) ......................................... 66 21.2 Architecture ......................................................................... 84

17.3 Early Phase of Conquest with Nobility (1556-1567).......... 66 21.3 Paintings............................................................................... 85

17.4 Early Expansion of The Empire ........................................... 67 21.4 Language Literature and Art ............................................... 85

17.5 Administration ..................................................................... 68 21.5 Music .................................................................................... 86

17.6 Organisation of Government .............................................. 69 21.6 Religious Ideas and Problems of Integration ..................... 86

17.7 Relations with Rajputs ......................................................... 70 Climax and disintegration of Mughal Empire: Part - I...... 87
17.8 Rebellions and Further Expansion of Mughal Empire ....... 70 22.1 Introduction ......................................................................... 87

17.9 Towards Integration: State, Religion and Social Reforms .. 71 22.2 Aurangzeb reign and his religious policy ........................... 87

The Deccan and South India ........................................ 72 22.3 Political Developments........................................................ 88

18.1 Introduction ......................................................................... 72 22.4 Popular Revolts and movements for Regional
Independence .............................................................................. 88
18.2 Conquest of Berar, Ahmadnagar and Khandesh ................ 72
Climax and disintegration of Mughal Empire: Part - II ..... 91
18.3 Rise of Malik Ambar and Frustration of Mughal
Consolidation Attempts ............................................................... 73 23.1 Rise of Marathas.................................................................. 91

18.4 The extinction of the Ahmadnagar Sultanate and the 22.2 Early career of Shivaji .......................................................... 91
acceptance of Mughal suzerainty by Bijapur and Golconda ..... 73 22.3 Treaty of Purandar and Shivaji’s Visit to Agra .................... 91
18.5 Cultural Contribution of Deccan States .............................. 73 22.4 Final breach with Shivaji-Shivaji’s administration and
Political And Administrative Development in India ........ 75 achievements ............................................................................... 92
22.5 Aurangzeb and Deccan States(1658-87) ............................ 93

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 Medieval history

01 Disintegration of The Gupta

Empire (6th Century)

1.1 Factors contributing to the decline and ultimate disintegration of

Gupta Empire
1.1.1 Weak Succession and Internal Strife
▪ Multiple Succession Claims, for example- The death of Kumaragupta I (415–455 CE) saw competition among
his sons for the throne. Skandagupta ultimately succeeded, but the succession dispute may have weakened
the authority and unity of the ruling elite.
▪ Weak Heirs, for example- The reign of weak or inexperienced rulers like Purugupta (467–473 CE) and
Kumaragupta II (473–476 CE) showcased instances where the designated successors lacked the strength and
leadership qualities needed to rule a vast empire.
▪ Power Struggles Among Family Members, for example- Skandagupta's reign (455–467 CE) was marked by
power struggles and internal conflicts, including conflicts with his brother Purugupta. This internal strife
could have weakened the Gupta Empire's ability to respond effectively to external threats.

1.1.2 Weak leadership

▪ Purugupta (c. 467–473 CE, Kumaragupta II (c. 473–476 CE) and Budhagupta (c. 476–495 CE) are cited as
ineffective rulers who faced challenges in maintaining effective governance and had difficulties in handling
both internal and external pressures.
▪ Vishnugupta (c. 540–550 CE): Vishnugupta faced challenges in defending the Gupta Empire against the
invasion of the Huna ruler Mihirakula. The empire's inability to repel the invader revealed weaknesses in
military leadership and strategic planning.
▪ Kumaragupta III (c. 530–540 CE): Kumaragupta III is associated with administrative inefficiencies,
contributing to a decline in central authority.

1.1.3 Dynastic struggles

▪ Chandragupta II and Kacha: Chandragupta II (c. 375–415 CE) had a son named Kacha. After Chandragupta II,
there might have been a dynastic struggle between Kacha and his brother or other contenders for the throne.
▪ Purugupta and Kumaragupta II: The transition from Purugupta to Kumaragupta II might have involved dynastic
conflicts or disputes within the ruling family. This period of succession could have been marked by internal
strife and challenges to the legitimacy of the chosen heir.
▪ Budhagupta and His Rivals: Budhagupta's reign is associated with internal conflicts and power struggles. Rival
factions within the Gupta dynasty may have vied for power, contributing to a sense of instability during this
period.
▪ Narasimha Gupta Baladitya and Kumaragupta III:The transition between Narasimhagupta Baladitya and
Kumaragupta III could have involved dynastic challenges. The struggles for succession might have impacted the
stability of the Gupta Empire during this phase.

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 Medieval history

1.1.4 External Invasions

▪ Invasions by the Huna (White Huns): Toramana, a Huna ruler, invaded northern India during the early 6th
century. His invasion posed a serious threat to the Gupta Empire. He captured territories in the Northwest,
including Punjab and the region around Mathura, and established his rule. Mihirakula (c. 510–540 CE), son
of Toramana, continued the Huna invasion after his father's death. His invasion further intensified the
challenges faced by the Gupta Empire. He extended Huna control to parts of northern India, including
Kashmir and Gandhara, and is often associated with acts of destruction and cruelty.
▪ Persian Sassanian Empire: Invasions from the West- The Gupta Empire faced incursions from the Persian
Sassanian Empire in the western regions. The pressure from the Sassanians, combined with the Huna
invasions from the northwest, created a challenging geopolitical environment for the Gupta rulers.
▪ Central Asian Tribes: Invasions from Central Asia- Central Asian tribes, possibly Turkic or Mongolic groups,
might have contributed to the external pressures faced by the Gupta Empire.

1.1.5 Economic Strain

The Gupta Empire faced economic strain during certain periods which impacted the empire's financial stability and
overall economic health.

▪ Costs of Military Campaigns: The Gupta rulers, particularly those engaged in conflicts with external invaders
like the Huna, incurred significant expenses in maintaining and mobilizing military forces. It strained the
state's finances.
▪ Maintaining a Vast Empire: The Gupta Empire covered a vast geographical expanse, from the Himalayas to
the Deccan. The administrative and logistical challenges of managing such a large territory, including the
costs of governance and infrastructure maintenance, contributed to economic strain.
▪ Huna Invasions: The invasions by the Huna, especially under the leadership of Toramana and Mihirakula,
resulted in economic devastation. The Huna incursions led to looting, destruction of cities, and disruption of
trade routes, causing a negative impact on the economic prosperity of the affected regions.
▪ Economic Drain: The Gupta rulers, in an attempt to finance military endeavors and maintain the opulence of
their courts, might have imposed heavy taxes and levies on the populace, which could have led to discontent
and economic hardship.
▪ Decline in Agricultural Productivity: Environmental factors, such as climate changes or natural disasters, may
have contributed to a decline in agricultural productivity. Crop failures or suboptimal yields could have
adversely affected the agrarian economy and food supply.
▪ Trade Disruptions: The disruption of trade routes due to invasions and political instability, especially in the
northwest regions affected by the Huna invasions, hindered commercial activities. This, in turn, impacted the
economic prosperity of the Gupta Empire.
▪ Economic Competition among Regional Powers: As regional powers and local rulers gained more autonomy,
economic competition for resources and trade routes among these entities could have strained the overall
economic structure of the Gupta Empire.

1.1. 6 Deccan and Regional Powers

During the decline of the Gupta Empire, several regional powers, especially in the Deccan and other parts of India,
asserted their independence and contributed to the fragmentation of central authority. Here are those Deccan and
regional powers

▪ Vakataka Dynasty: Central and Deccan regions. This dynasty rose to prominence during the declining phase
of the Gupta Empire.
▪ Chalukya Dynasty: Primarily the Deccan plateau. The Western Chalukyas, in particular, established
themselves as a significant power in the Deccan during the post-Gupta period. Their territorial expansion and
growing influence in the Deccan contributed to the diminishing control of the Gupta rulers in these regions.
▪ Pallava Dynasty: Southern India, particularly Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. This dynasty continued to
thrive during and after the Gupta period.

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 Medieval history

▪ Gurjara-Pratihara Dynasty: Western India, primarily present-day Rajasthan. This

dynasty emerged as a powerful regional force in western India. Their increasing authority and control over
territories in Rajasthan contributed to the regionalization of power and the weakening of Gupta influence in
these areas.
▪ Pushyabhuti Dynasty (Later Guptas): Northern India, including regions around Malwa. The Pushyabhuti or
Later Gupta dynasty attempted to revive the Gupta glory but operated on a more limited scale. While they
sought to assert control in the north, their efforts were part of the larger trend of regional powers rising as
the Gupta Empire declined.
▪ Emergence of Local Dynasties: Several local dynasties in different regions of India, such as the Maitrakas in
Gujarat and the Kalachuris in central India, gained prominence during the post-Gupta period. Their rise
reflected the trend of regionalization and the decline of centralized imperial authority.

1.1.7 Final Disintegration

The last rulers of the Gupta Empire faced significant challenges from internal conflicts, external invasions, and the rise
of regional powers.

▪ Vishnugupta: Vishnugupta is often mentioned as one of the last known rulers of the Gupta Empire. His reign
faced challenges from both internal and external factors, contributing to the decline of Gupta authority.
▪ Kumaragupta III: Kumaragupta III is mentioned as a ruler during the later Gupta period. Like Vishnugupta,
Kumaragupta III faced challenges, and his reign is associated with administrative inefficiencies and the
weakening of central authority.

The vacuum left by the diminishing Gupta authority allowed various regional powers to rise, leading to the
fragmentation of political control in the Indian subcontinent.

1.2 Chronological List of Events and Emergence Of Regional Kingdoms

and Dynasties after The Decline Of Gupta Empire
▪ Vakataka Dynasty (5th to 7th centuries): The Vakataka dynasty rose to prominence in central and southern
India following the decline of the Gupta Empire.
▪ Kadambas (4th to 6th centuries): The Kadambas were contemporaneous with the later Gupta period, but
they continued to assert their influence in the Deccan during the post-Gupta era.
▪ Western Chalukya Dynasty (6th to 12th centuries): The Western Chalukyas emerged as a significant power
in the Deccan, particularly during the 6th to 8th centuries.
▪ Eastern Chalukya Dynasty (7th to 12th centuries): The Eastern Chalukyas, contemporaries of the Western
Chalukyas, held sway in the eastern Deccan during the 7th to 12th centuries.
▪ Ganga Dynasty (5th to 11th centuries): The Ganga dynasty, based in present-day Karnataka, had a significant
presence during the post-Gupta period.
▪ Pushyabhuti Dynasty (Later Guptas) (6th to 7th centuries): The Pushyabhuti dynasty, also known as the
Later Guptas, operated in northern India during the 6th to 7th centuries.
▪ Maitraka Dynasty (6th to 8th centuries): The Maitrakas gained prominence in western India, particularly
Gujarat, contributing to regional autonomy.
▪ Harsha's Empire (7th century): Harsha Vardhana established a large empire in northern India, extending into
parts of present-day Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, and Punjab.
▪ Pallava Dynasty (6th to 9th centuries): The Pallava dynasty continued its influence in southern India,
particularly in Tamil Nadu, during the 6th to 9th centuries.
▪ Chahamanas (Chauhans) (6th to 12th centuries): The Chahamanas, also known as the Chauhans, became a
notable Rajput dynasty in northwestern India during the 6th to 12th centuries.
▪ Gurjara Pratiharas (6th to 11th centuries): The Gurjara Pratiharas emerged as a powerful Rajput dynasty in
northwestern India during the 6th to 11th centuries.
▪ Gauda Dynasty (6th to 12th centuries): The Gauda dynasty, associated with Bengal, played a role in the post-
Gupta political landscape during the 6th to 12th centuries.

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 Modern History

3.16 Doctrine of Good Governance Or

CONTENTS Misgovernance ............................................... 30
Mughal Empire's Decline and India on the Brink Strategies of The East India Company from 1757
of European Arrival ......................................... 3 To 1857 ......................................................... 32
1.1 Decline of Mughal Empire ........................... 3 4.1 Administrative structure of government
1.2 Weak Rulers After Aurangzeb ...................... 3 during 1757-1857............................................ 32

1.3 Socio-economic circumstances in India on 4.2 Constitutional development between 1773-

the brink of British conquest ............................. 5 1858 .............................................................. 37

ARRIVAL OF EUROPEANS IN INDIA ................... 7 4.3 Governor-Generals Till 1858 And the
Significant Events at The Same Time................ 40
2.1 Introduction ............................................... 7
People’s Resistance and Tension Build Up Pre -
2.2 Portuguese (Late 15th Century - 17th 1857 ............................................................. 43
Century) .......................................................... 7
5.1 Introduction .............................................. 43
2.3 Dutch (17th Century - 18th Century) .......... 10
5.2 Factors Responsible for People’s Uprisings 43
2.4. British (17th Century - 20th Century) ........ 11
5.3 Civil uprisings ........................................... 43
2.5 French (17th Century - 18th Century)......... 12
5.4 Peasant Movements .................................. 47
2.6 Danes (17th Century - 19th Century) ......... 14
5.5 Tribal Uprisings ......................................... 47
2.7 Why British Succeeded as Compared to
Other European Counterparts? ....................... 14 5.6 Tribal Movements Post 1857 ...................... 49

The Extension and Solidification of British Socio-Cultural Reform Movements ................ 51

Authority in India........................................... 16 6.1 Introduction .............................................. 51
3.1 Accidental Elements................................. 16 6.2 Social Reform Movements for The Same Are
3.2 Intentional Elements ................................ 16 Discussed as Follows ..................................... 51

3.3 British conquest of Bengal (Battle of Plassey, Revolt Of 1857 .............................................. 57

Battle of Buxar and Treaty of Allahabad) .......... 16 7.1 Several Factors Contributed to The Outbreak
3.4 British Conquest of Mysore (4 Mysore Wars of The Revolt .................................................. 57
and Their Respective Treaty) ........................... 17 7.2 Immediate cause of the Indian Rebellion of
3.5 British Conquest of Marathas (3 Maratha 1857 .............................................................. 58
Wars And Their Respective Treaty) .................. 20 7.3 Beginning and Spread of The Revolt ........... 58
3.6 British conquest of Sindh .......................... 22 Administrative Changes Post 1857 ................. 61
3.7 British Conquest of Punjab........................ 24 8.1 Significant changes introduced by the British
3.8 British conquest of Bhutan ........................ 26 after the suppression of the Indian Rebellion of
1857 .............................................................. 61
3.9 British conquest of Nepal.......................... 26
8.2 Contemporary To 1857, The Following Event
3.10 British conquest of Burma ....................... 26 Occurred in China .......................................... 61
3.11 British conquest of Tibet ......................... 27 8.3 After-Effects Of 1857 Revolt from British
3.12 British conquest of Afghan ...................... 27 Perspective .................................................... 62
3.13 British conquest of Northwest frontier Mahatma Gandhi's Role in The Nationalist
province ........................................................ 29 Movement from Civil Disobedience to Further
3.14 Policies Used by British Policy of Ring Fence, Endeavours .................................................. 63
Subsidiary Alliance, Doctrine Of Lapse ........... 29 9.1 Introduction .............................................. 63
3.15 Doctrine of Lapse ................................... 30 Gandhi's Return from South Africa .................. 63
9.2 Political Landscape in India ....................... 63
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 Modern History

India had undergone changes since Gandhi's

departure in 1893. .......................................... 63
9.3 Gandhi's Early Public Appearance ............. 65
9.5 The Establishment and Dissolution of Non-
Cooperation .................................................. 66
9.6 Return to Politics (1928) ............................ 68
9.7 Lahore Session (December 1929) .............. 68
9.8 Dandi March (Salt Satyagraha - March 1930)
..................................................................... 69
9.9 Tripartite Struggle ..................................... 70
9.9 World War II and Quit India Movement (1942)
..................................................................... 70

2|Pa ge
 Modern History

01 MUGHAL EMPIRE'S DECLINE AND INDIA

ON THE BRINK OF EUROPEAN ARRIVAL

1.1 Decline of Mughal Empire

▪ The fall of the Mughal Empire unfolded gradually over several decades, stretching from the late 17th century
to the mid-19th century. A multitude of interconnected factors played a role in the weakening and eventual
collapse of this once formidable empire.
▪ The decline was expedited by a succession of weak rulers, with disputes and conflicts among heirs causing
political instability and a loss of central authority.
▪ Administrative machinery weakened due to corruption, inefficiency, and the decline of the Mansabdari
system.
▪ Economic difficulties, such as heavy taxation and the imposition of the jizya tax on non-Muslims by
Aurangzeb, adversely impacted the agrarian economy.
▪ The rise of the Marathas as a formidable regional force, particularly under leaders like Shivaji, posed a
significant challenge to Mughal authority.
▪ Invasions by external forces, notably Nadir Shah in 1739, resulted in the loss of wealth and a blow to the
prestige of Mughal rulers.
▪ The decentralization of power and the emergence of regional powers led to increased autonomy among
provincial governors and local rulers, contributing to the empire's fragmentation.
▪ Arrival and expansion of the British East India Company, marked by significant victories in battles like
Plassey (1757) and Buxar (1764), played a decisive role in the decline of the Mughal Empire.
▪ A decline in patronage for art and culture, contributed to a loss of cultural vibrancy.

1.2 Weak Rulers After Aurangzeb

Following the reign of Aurangzeb, the Mughal Empire experienced a period of decline, marked by weak rulers
and internal strife.

Here are some of the notable rulers who succeeded Aurangzeb.

Bahadur Shah I (1707-1712)

He was the seventh emperor of the Mughal Empire in India, reigning from 1707 to 1712 and son of Aurangzeb.
One significant event during his rule was the Siege of Jodhpur in 1707, where he faced rebellion from his
half-brother, Azam Shah. Bahadur Shah, I emerged victorious in this conflict, consolidating his position as the
emperor. Bahadur Shah I's death in 1712 led to a power struggle among his sons, further contributing to the
fragmentation of Mughal authority.

Jahandar Shah (1712-1713)

Jahandar Shah was the tenth emperor of the Mughal Empire, reigning from 1712 to 1713 and grandson of
Bahadur Shah I and the son of Azim-ush-Shan. Jahandar Shah's reign was characterized by political instability
and a lack of effective governance. During his rule, the influence of the Sayyid brothers, Abdullah Khan, and
Hussain Ali Khan, increased significantly. They manipulated Jahandar Shah, exacerbating the problems faced

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 Modern History

by the empire. One of the significant events during Jahandar Shah's reign was the invasion of the Sikh Guru
Banda Singh Bahadur, who captured Sirhind in 1710. This marked one of the early challenges from the
Sikh community to Mughal authority.

Farrukhsiyar (1713-1719)
Farrukhsiyar was the eleventh emperor of the Mughal Empire, ruling from 1713 to 1719. He was a nephew of
Jahandar Shah, the preceding emperor. Farrukhsiyar's ascent to the throne was marked by the overthrow of his
predecessor in the Battle of Agra in 1713. One of the notable events during his rule was the Battle of
Samugarh in 1719, where he faced off against the combined forces of the Sayyid brothers, Abdullah Khan,
and Hussain Ali Khan. Farrukhsiyar emerged victorious, but his reliance on the Sayyid brothers for support led
to their growing influence and control over Mughal affairs.

Rafi ul-Darajat (1719)

Rafi-ul-Darajat was the twelfth emperor of the Mughal Empire, reigning for a very short period in 1719. He was
the youngest son of Rafi-ul-Daulah, the brother of Jahandar Shah.

Shah Jahan II (1719)

Shah Jahan II, another short-reigning Mughal ruler, succeeded Rafi ul-Darajat but died of illness within a few
weeks.

Muhammad Shah (1719-1748)

Muhammad Shah, full name Muhammad Shah Rangeela, was the eighteenth emperor of the Mughal Empire,
reigning from 1719 to 1748. The empire faced external threats, with Nadir Shah of Persia invading India in
1739 and sacking Delhi. This event, known as the Battle of Karnal, resulted in significant losses for the
Mughal Empire, including the looting of immense wealth and the capture of the emperor.

Ahmad Shah Bahadur (1748-1754)

Ahmad Shah Bahadur, the son of Muhammad Shah, ascended the throne but was ineffective in dealing with the
internal and external challenges faced by the empire.

Alamgir II (1760-1806)
Alamgir II, whose full name was Aziz-ud-din Alamgir II, was the fifteenth emperor of the Mughal Empire. Alamgir
II was a puppet emperor, and his ascension to the throne was facilitated by the influential vizier, Ghazi-ud-
Din Imad-ul-Mulk. One significant event during Alamgir II's reign was the invasion of Delhi by Ahmed Shah
Durrani (also known as Ahmad Shah Abdali) in 1761. The Third Battle of Panipat, fought between the
Marathas and Ahmad Shah Durrani, resulted in a decisive victory for the latter. Delhi was plundered, and
Alamgir II was briefly imprisoned by Ahmad Shah Durrani. After a period of turmoil, Alamgir II was restored to
the throne with the support of the Rohillas and Ghazi-ud-Din Imad-ul-Mulk.

Shah Jahan III (1806-1837)

Shah Jahan III, whose full name was Muhi-ul-millat. During this time, the Mughal Empire was already in a state
of decline, with the British East India Company and various regional powers exerting significant influence over
Indian affairs. Shah Jahan III's rule was largely ceremonial, and he had little real power.

Shah Alam II (1760-1806)

Also known as Ali Gauhar, Shah Alam II was the son of Alamgir II. He signed the Treaty of Allahabad in 1765
with the British East India Company, recognizing them as the effective rulers of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. Third
battle of Panipat as well as Battle of Buxar were witnessed by his reign. He was the first Mughal emperor
to receive pension.

Akbar Shah II (1806-1837)

4|Pa ge
 Modern History

Akbar Shah II ascended to the throne in 1806 after the death of his father, Shah Alam II. His reign marked the
declining phase of the Mughal Empire. Akbar Shah II ascended the Peacock Throne, a famous jeweled
throne that was once the symbol of Mughal grandeur. However, by this time, the Mughal emperors had
largely become figureheads with little real political power.

Bahadur Shah II (1837-1857)

Bahadur Shah II, also known as Bahadur Shah Zafar, was the last Mughal emperor and the titular leader of the
Indian Rebellion of 1857. During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, also known as the Sepoy Mutiny or the First War
of Indian Independence, Bahadur Shah II was reluctantly thrust into a leadership role by the sepoys (Indian
soldiers in the British East India Company's army) and other rebels.

The rebellion, however, was suppressed by the British, and Bahadur Shah II was captured in September 1857. He
was tried for treason, found guilty, and exiled to Rangoon (present-day Yangon) in British-controlled Burma (now
Myanmar).

1.3 Socio-economic circumstances in India on the brink of British conquest

On the eve of British conquest in India, the socio-economic conditions were diverse and complex, reflecting the
rich tapestry of the Indian subcontinent. Here is an overview of the socio-economic conditions in India around
the time of the British conquest.

▪ Agrarian Economy: Agriculture was the backbone of the Indian economy. Most of the population was
engaged in agricultural activities, cultivating crops such as rice, wheat, cotton, and sugarcane. It was
organized based on traditional systems, with zamindars (landowners) collecting revenue from peasants.
▪ Social Hierarchy: Indian society was structured along the lines of the caste system, a hierarchical social
order with Brahmins at the top, followed by Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras. Below the caste system
were various marginalized groups, often referred to as "Dalits" or "Untouchables."
▪ The core elements of Indian society encompassed both patriarchy and caste, with religious aspects also
prevalent among Muslims. The status of women was notably subpar, marked by practices such as Sati, the
Purdah system, child marriage, polygamy, and the prevalence of dowry. Concerning slavery, individuals in
servitude were primarily engaged in domestic work, serving as menials. It is worth noting that the status of
slaves in India was comparatively more favourable than their counterparts in Europe.
▪ Trade and Commerce: Trade and commerce were significant economic activities. Coastal areas,
especially in Gujarat and the Coromandel Coast, were hubs of trade with other parts of Asia and the Middle
East.
➢ Exports from India: Textiles (including cotton and silk fabrics. Indian textiles, such as muslin and chintz),
Spices (including pepper, cardamom, cinnamon, and cloves), Indigo, Opium, Precious Stones (including
diamonds, emeralds, and rubies)
➢ Imports to India: Bullion, Textiles and Finished Goods-The British aimed to establish a market for their
manufactured products in India, Iron and Steel-Britain exported iron and steel products to India, Salt,
Woolens
▪ Regional Variations: Different regions of India had varying economic structures. Here are examples.
➢ Bengal Agriculture (Major producer of rice, jute, and sugarcane), Textiles (muslin and silk fabrics)
➢ Deccan Plateau Agriculture (millet, pulses, and oilseeds), Trade Routes the Deccan was a crossroads
for trade routes connecting northern and southern India, leading to a flourishing trade economy.
➢ South India (Tamil Nadu and Kerala) Spices (Major exporter of spices such as pepper, cardamom, and
cinnamon), Agriculture Rice, spices, and tropical fruits.
➢ Gujarat Trade and Commerce Due to its strategic location on the Arabian Sea. Ports like Surat were
bustling hubs for international trade, Textiles Gujarat was famous for its textile industry, producing
fabrics like chintz and calico that were in demand in various parts of the world.
➢ Punjab Agriculture Wheat and rice cultivation, Livestock
➢ Rajasthan Trade and Caravan Routes, Handicrafts

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 Indian Economy

In This Book
Indian Economy on the Eve of Independence........................... 3 4.2 Sources of Human Capital........... 23
1.1 Introduction ..................................................... 3 4.3 Human Capital and Economic Growth........... 24
1.2 Low Level of Economic Development Under the India as a Knowledge Economy............................. 25
Colonial Rule .......................................................... 3
4.4 Human Capital and Human Development ....... 25
1.3 Agricultural Sector ............................................ 3
4.5 State of Human Capital Formation in India...... 26
1.4 Industrial Sector ............................................... 4
4.6 Education Sector in India ................................ 26
1.5 Foreign Trade ................................................... 4
4.7 Future Prospects in the Education Sector in India
1.6 Demographic Condition .................................... 5 ............................................................................ 27
1.7 Occupational Structure ..................................... 5 4.8 Conclusion...................................................... 27
1.8 Infrastructure ................................................... 5 Rural Development ............................................................... 28
1.9 Conclusion........................................................ 6 5.1 Introduction ................................................... 28
Indian Economy 1950–1990...................................................... 7 5.2 What is Rural Development? .......................... 28
2.1 Introduction ..................................................... 7 5.3 Credit and Rural Economy............................... 28
2.2 Choice of Economic System .............................. 7 Case Study: 'Kudumbashree' ................................ 29
2.3 Types of Economic Systems .............................. 7 5.4 Agricultural Market System............................. 29
2.4 Economic Planning ........................................... 8 5.5 Diversification into Productive Activities ......... 30
2.5 Agriculture ....................................................... 9 5.6 Animal Husbandry in India.............................. 31
2.6 Land Ceiling for Equity in Agriculture .............. 10 5.7 Fisheries in India............................................. 31
2.7 Green Revolution............................................ 10 5.8 Horticulture and Livelihood ............................ 32
2.8 The Debate Over Subsidies ............................. 11 5.9 Sustainable Development and Organic Farming
2.9 Industry and Trade.......................................... 11 ............................................................................ 33

2.10 Trade Policy: Import Substitution .................. 12 5.10 Conclusion.................................................... 33

2.11 Conclusion.................................................... 14 Employment: Growth, Informalisation & Other Issues ........... 34

Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation .......................15 6.1 Introduction ................................................... 34

3.1 Introduction ................................................... 15 6.2 Workers and Employment .............................. 34

3.2 Background .................................................... 15 6.3 Participation of People in employment ........... 35

3.3 New Economic Policy (NEP) ............................ 16 6.4 Worker Status and Employment Types............ 36

3.4 Liberalisation .................................................. 16 6.5 Employment In Firms, Factories and Offices.... 37

3.5 Privatisation ................................................... 18 6.6 Growth and Changing Structure of Employment

............................................................................ 38
Navratnas and Public Enterprise Policies .............. 18
6.7 Informalisation of Indian Workforce ............... 39
3.6 Globalisation .................................................. 18
6.8 Unemployment .............................................. 41
3.7 Indian Economy During Reforms: An Assessment
............................................................................ 20 6.9 Conclusion...................................................... 42

Siricilla Tragedy .................................................... 22 Environment and Sustainable Development ..........................44

3.8 Conclusion...................................................... 22 7.1 Introduction ................................................... 44

Human Capital Formation in India ......................................... 23 7.2 Environment: Definition and Functions ........... 44

4.1 Introduction ................................................... 23 7.3 State of India’s Environment ........................... 46

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 Indian Economy

7.4 Sustainable 8.2 Developmental Path ....................................... 53

Development Overview... 49 8.3 Demographic Indicators.................................. 55
7.5 Strategies for Sustainable 8.4 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Sectors..... 55
Development...................................................... 50
8.5 Indicators of Human Development in India,
7.6 Conclusion...................................................... 52 China, and Pakistan .............................................. 58
Development Experiences of India A Comparison with 8.6 Development Strategies - An Appraisal ........... 58
Neighbours........................................................................... 53
8.7 Conclusion...................................................... 59
8.1 Introduction ................................................... 53

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 Indian Economy

01 Indian Economy on the Eve of

Independence

1.1 Introduction
India's present-day economy is not just a result of recent events but is deeply influenced by its historical past,
especially the period of British colonial rule. Lasting almost two centuries until India gained independence on August
15, 1947, this chapter in history left a lasting impact on the country's economic structure. During colonial rule, India
was primarily seen as a source of raw materials to fuel the industries of Great Britain. However, beyond the economic
exploitation, the colonial era profoundly affected the lives of ordinary Indians, leaving behind scars that continue to
shape the nation today. Understanding this historical context is essential to grasp the complexities of India's economy
in the present day.

1.2 Low Level of Economic Development Under the Colonial Rule

▪ Pre-British Economy: India had a self-sufficient economy before British rule, with a focus on agriculture and
diverse manufacturing activities, notably handicrafts such as textiles, metalwork, and precious stones.
▪ Colonial Economic Policies: British colonial rule, lasting almost two centuries, aimed to exploit India for raw
materials to fuel Britain's industrial growth, drastically altering the country's economic structure.
▪ Neglect of Indian Economy: The colonial government prioritized protecting Britain's economic interests over
developing India's economy. India became a supplier of raw materials and a consumer of British industrial
products.
▪ Lack of Economic Assessment: The colonial government did not sincerely assess India's national and per
capita income. Various estimators, including notable figures like Dadabhai Naoroji and V.K.R.V. Rao, provided
conflicting results.
▪ Economic Growth Under Colonial Rule: Studies indicate that India's real output growth during the first half
of the twentieth century was less than two per cent, with a meagre half per cent growth in per capita output
per year.

1.3 Agricultural Sector

▪ Dominance of Agriculture: During British colonial rule, India's economy was predominantly agrarian, with
around 85% of the population residing in villages and relying on agriculture for livelihood.
▪ Stagnation Despite Size: Despite the large population engaged in agriculture, the sector faced stagnation
and occasional deterioration in productivity.
▪ Land Settlement Issues: The introduction of various land settlement systems, especially the zamindari
system in the Bengal Presidency, diverted agricultural profits to zamindars rather than cultivators,
contributing to the sector's stagnation.
▪ Zamindar Practices: Many zamindars prioritized rent collection over improving agriculture, causing misery
and social tension among cultivators.
▪ Revenue Settlement Impact: Terms of revenue settlement, with fixed dates for revenue deposits,
influenced zamindars' neglectful attitude, leading to the dismal economic condition of cultivators.
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 Indian Economy

▪ Technological and Infrastructural Challenges: Low technology levels, lack of irrigation,

and minimal use of fertilizers exacerbated farmers' difficulties and contributed to low
agricultural productivity.
▪ Commercialization Challenges: While some regions saw higher yields of cash crops due to agricultural
commercialization, this shift did not significantly improve the economic condition of farmers.
▪ Limited Agricultural Investment: Despite some progress in irrigation, overall agricultural investment in
terracing, flood control, drainage, and soil desalinization remained insufficient.
▪ Divergent Farmer Responses: While a small group of farmers shifted to commercial crops, many tenants,
small farmers, and sharecroppers lacked the resources and incentives to invest in agriculture, perpetuating
challenges in the sector.

1.4 Industrial Sector

▪ Colonial Stifling of Industrial Growth: Under British colonial rule, India faced challenges in developing a robust
industrial base, like the setbacks witnessed in agriculture.
Despite the decline of renowned handicraft industries, no corresponding modern industrial base
emerged to replace them.

▪ Dual Motive of Colonial Government: The colonial government pursued a two-fold policy: firstly, reducing
India to a supplier of raw materials for British industries, and secondly, creating a vast market for finished
British products in India.

The decline of indigenous handicraft industries led to massive unemployment in India but fuelled
demand for imported cheap manufactured goods from Britain.

▪ Slow Progress of Modern Industry: During the late 19th century, modern industry, initially centered around
cotton and jute textile mills, began to emerge slowly in India.
Cotton mills, largely dominated by Indians, were situated in Maharashtra and Gujarat, while jute mills,
primarily owned by foreigners, concentrated in Bengal.

Iron and steel industries, like Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO), started in the early 20th century,
with other industries (sugar, cement, paper) emerging post-World War II.

▪ Limited Capital Goods Industry: Despite some industrial units, there was a lack of a capital goods industry
capable of producing machine tools for further industrialization.
The scattered establishment of manufacturing units did not compensate for the displacement of
traditional handicraft industries.

▪ Modest Growth and Contribution: The growth rate of the new industrial sector and its contribution to Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) or Gross Value Added remained small.
▪ Constraints of the Public Sector: The public sector's scope was limited to railways, power generation,
communications, ports, and select departmental undertakings, restricting its impact on industrial growth in
other areas.

1.5 Foreign Trade

▪ Historical Significance of Indian Trade: India has a rich history as a significant trading nation since ancient
times.

However, under colonial rule, restrictive policies on commodity production, trade, and tariffs had adverse
effects on the structure, composition, and volume of India's foreign trade.

• British Monopoly Control: Britain maintained a monopoly over India's exports and imports.

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 Indian Economy

Over half of India's foreign trade was restricted to Britain, with limited
exchanges with other nations like China, Ceylon, and Persia.

• Impact of Suez Canal Opening: The opening of the Suez Canal intensified British control over
India's foreign trade.
• Export Surplus Challenges: India generated a large export surplus, but this came at a significant cost.

Essential commodities like food grains, clothes, and kerosene were scarce in the domestic market.
The export surplus did not result in the inflow of gold or silver into India but was used for colonial
government expenses, war, and imports, leading to the drain of Indian wealth.

1.6 Demographic Condition

▪ Census Operations and Demographic Transition: The first census in 1881 provided initial details about the
population of British India, revealing uneven population growth.
Census operations were carried out every ten years. Before 1921, India was in the first stage of
demographic transition, shifting to the second stage afterward.

▪ Population and Growth Rates: Despite being in the second stage of demographic transition after 1921, India's
total population and growth rates were not very high.

▪ Social Development Indicators: Overall literacy level was less than 16%, with female literacy at a negligible 7%.

Public health facilities were either unavailable or inadequate, leading to rampant water and air-borne
diseases.

High mortality rates, particularly alarming infant mortality (218 per thousand compared to the present 33
per thousand), and a low life expectancy of 32 years (compared to the present 69 years) characterized the
demographic conditions.
▪ Poverty During Colonial Period: Reliable data on poverty are scarce, but extensive poverty prevailed during
the colonial period, contributing to the challenging profile of India's population at that time.

1.7 Occupational Structure

▪ Persistent Agrarian Dominance: During colonial rule, the occupational structure of India witnessed little
change, with the agricultural sector consistently employing 70-75% of the workforce.

Manufacturing and services sectors accounted for only 10% and 15-20%, respectively.

▪ Regional Variations: Regional disparities emerged, with parts of Madras Presidency, Bombay, and Bengal
seeing a decline in agricultural dependence, while Orissa, Rajasthan, and Punjab experienced an increase.

1.8 Infrastructure
▪ Colonial Infrastructure Development: Under colonial rule, basic infrastructure such as railways, ports, water
transport, posts, and telegraphs were developed, primarily serving colonial interests.

▪ Limited Road Development: Roads constructed before British rule were inadequate for modern transport,
often serving military purposes or transporting raw materials to ports for export.
All-weather roads were lacking, causing suffering in rural areas during natural calamities and famines.

▪ Impact of Railways: The introduction of railways in 1850 impacted the Indian economy by enabling long-
distance travel and fostering commercialization of agriculture.

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 Indian Economy

In This Book

Introduction to macroeconomics and its concepts .................. 3 4.3 Central Bank and Its Functions........................ 21
1.1 Introduction ..................................................... 3 4.4 Quantitative Instruments or General Tools of
1.2 Unveiling the Macro Economy .......................... 3 Monetary Policy ................................................... 22

1.3 Understanding the Circular Flow of Income ...... 3 4.5 Qualitative Instruments or Selective Tools of
Monetary Policy ................................................... 23
1.4 Some Fundamental Notions in
Macroeconomics.................................................... 5 4.6 Important Keywords ................................ 24

1.5 Important Keywords ......................................... 8 ............................................................................ 25

National Income and Related Aggregates ............................... 9 Aggregate Demand and Related Concepts............................. 25

2.1 Introduction ..................................................... 9 5.1 Introduction ................................................... 25

2.2 Gross and Net................................................... 9 5.2 Aggregate Demand ......................................... 25

2.3 National Income and Domestic Income............. 9 5.3 Aggregate Supply............................................ 27

2.4 Factor Cost and Market Price .......................... 10 5.4 Important Keywords ....................................... 31

2.5 Aggregate Of National Income ................. 10 ............................................................................ 33

2.6 Limitations of Using GDP as an Index of Welfare National Income Determination and Multiplier ...................... 33
of a Country ......................................................... 12 6.1 Introduction ................................................... 33
2.7 Methods of National Income .......................... 12 6.2 National Income Determination Under
2.8 National Income determination under income Aggregate Demand and Supply............................. 33
method ................................................................ 13 6.3 Marginal Efficiency of Investment and Market
2.9 Determine National Income by Expenditure Rate of Interest .................................................... 36
Method................................................................ 15 6.4 Important Keywords ....................................... 36
Money ................................................................................... 16 ............................................................................ 38
3.1 Introduction ................................................... 16 Excess Demand and Deficient Demand ................................. 38
3.2 Barter System and Its Difficulties, Money and 7.1 Introduction ................................................... 38
Functions of Money ............................................. 16 7.2 Excess Demand and Its Related Concepts ....... 38
3.3 Money............................................................ 17 7.3 Monetary Policies ........................................... 39
3.4 Characteristics or Features of Money.............. 17 7.4 Fiscal Policy .................................................... 40
3.5 Money Overcoming Barter System Drawbacks 18 7.5 Deficient Demand and Its Related Concepts.... 40
3.6 Legal Definition of Money............................... 18 7.6 Measures to Control Deficient Demand:
3.7 Money Supply and Measures of Money Supply Monetary and Fiscal Policies ................................ 41
............................................................................ 19 7.7 Full Employment, Voluntary Unemployment,
3.8 Important Keywords ....................................... 19 And Involuntary Unemployment .......................... 42
............................................................................ 20 7.8 Important Keywords ....................................... 42
Banking ................................................................................ 20 ............................................................................ 44
4.1 Introduction ................................................... 20 Government Budget and the Economy...................................44
4.2 Commercial Bank and Credit Creation by 8.1 Introduction ................................................... 44
Commercial Bank ................................................. 20 8.2 Government Budget and Its Related Concepts 44

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 Indian Economy

8.3 Importance of a Budget 9.5 Kinds of Foreign Exchange Rate: Spot and
....................................... 45 Forward Market ................................................... 52
8.4 Components of Government Budget: 9.6 Other Types of Exchange Rate Systems ........... 52
Revenue and Capital Budget ............................... 45 9.7 Important Keywords ....................................... 53
............................................................................ 48 Balance of Payment .............................................................. 55
Foreign Exchange Rate ......................................................... 48 10.1 Introduction ................................................. 55
9.1 Introduction ................................................... 48 10.2 Balance of Payment, Its Structure, and
9.2 Foreign Exchange and Its Related Concepts .... 48 Components ........................................................ 55
9.3 Determination of Foreign Exchange Rate: 10.3 Balance of Payments and Its Types ............... 56
Equilibrium in Market Forces ................................ 49 10.4 Words that Matter ........................................ 57
9.4 Types of Exchange Rate Regimes ............. 51

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 Indian Economy

01 Introduction to macroeconomics
and its concepts

1.1 Introduction
Macroeconomics, an integral part of economic theory, delves into the holistic examination of an economy. It
scrutinizes elements such as national income, aggregate employment, the overall price level, aggregate
consumption, and aggregate investment. Central to its analysis are the instruments of aggregate demand and
aggregate supply. Macroeconomics is alternatively known as the 'Income Theory' or the 'Employment Theory.'

1.2 Unveiling the Macro Economy

Macro-economics, concerned with economy-wide issues, entails a thorough exploration of distinct economic sectors.

▪ Producer Sector: This sector is actively involved in the creation of goods and services.
▪ Household Sector: Households, recognized as owners of factors of production, engage in the consumption of
goods and services.

Note: Households contribute as owners of factors of production.

▪ Government Sector: Engaged in activities such as taxation and subsidies.

▪ Rest of the World Sector: Involved in international trade through exports and imports.
▪ Financial Sector: Also known as the financial system, this sector engages in borrowing and lending activities.

1.3 Understanding the Circular Flow of Income

The circular flow of income illustrates the continuous movement of money, income, and goods and services across
various economic sectors in a circular pattern.

1.3.1 Two Types of Circular Flow

Real/Product/Physical Flow
▪ Real Flow: Signifies the movement of factor services from the household sector to the producing sector and
the reciprocal flow of goods and services from the producing sector to the household sector.
▪ Example: In a simplified economy with only two sectors (Producer and Household), producers supply goods
to households, while households, as owners of factors of production, provide factor services to producers.

Money/Monetary/Nominal Flow
▪ Money Flow: Encompasses the movement of factor income, including rent, interest, profit, and wages, from
the producing sector to the household sector as monetary rewards for their factor services.
▪ Household Expenditure

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 Indian Economy

▪ The households, in turn, spend their incomes on goods and services produced by the
producing sector, completing the cycle of money flow.

1.3.2 Circular Flow of Income in Two-

Sector Model

In the context of a simplified economy focusing on two

main sectors, namely households and firms, several key
assumptions shape the economic dynamics. It is
imperative to understand the basic premises for a
comprehensive grasp of the circular flow of income in
this model.

I. Two Sectors: The economy comprises only two

sectors—households and firms.
II. Service Exchange: Households provide factor
services to firms.
III. Factor Services: Firms hire factor services from
Figure 1.1 Circular flow of Income in a Simple Economy
households.
IV. Consumption Pattern: Households allocate their entire income to consumption.
V. Goods Exchange: Firms sell all produced goods and services to households.
VI. Exclusion of External Factors: In this simplified setup, there is no involvement of government or foreign
trade.

This economic configuration results in two distinct markets

I. Product Market: The market for goods and services.

II. Factor Market: The market for factors of production.

Consequently, the following relationships are established within this simple economy
I. Total production by firms equals total consumption by the household sector.
II. Factor payments made by firms correspond to factor incomes received by the household sector.
III. Consumption expenditure by the household sector is equivalent to the income of the firm.
IV. Real flows of production and consumption by firms and households align with money flows of income and
expenditure.

1.3.2 Phases of Circular Flow

The circular flow of income unfolds through three interconnected phases

Production Phase
▪ Encompasses the production of goods and services by the producer sector.
▪ Analyzing it in terms of the quantity of goods and services produced constitutes a real flow.
▪ However, when assessed based on the market value of the goods produced, it transforms into a money flow.

Distribution Phase
▪ Involves the flow of income in the form of rent, interest, profit, and wages from the producer sector to the
household sector.
▪ Characterized as a money flow.

Disposition Phase
▪ Focuses on expenditures made, with disposition referring to the act of spending.

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 Indian Economy

▪ Encompasses the money flow from other sectors to the producer sector as
households and other sectors make expenditures on the purchase of goods and
services.

These phases collectively illustrate the intricate dynamics of the circular flow of income in a two-sector model.

1.4 Some Fundamental Notions in Macroeconomics

1.4.1 Factor Income
▪ Income derived from the factors of production, provided by rendering productive services in the production
process, is termed Factor Income.
▪ This concept is bilateral or two-sided in nature.
▪ It is integral to National Income as it contributes to the flow of goods and services. Examples include rent,
interest, wages, and profit.

1.4.2 Transfer Income

▪ Income received without offering productive services is labelled transfer income.
▪ It is a unilateral or one-sided concept.
▪ Not included in National Income as it does not contribute to the flow of goods and services. Examples
encompass old age pensions, scholarships, and unemployment allowances.
Two types of transfers exist

▪ Current Transfers: - Involves transfers from the income of the payer to the income of the recipient for
consumption expenditure. - Recurring or regular in nature, e.g., scholarships, gifts, and old age pensions.
▪ Capital Transfers: - Defined as cash or in-kind transfers for investment purposes. - Non-recurring or irregular,
e.g., investment grants, capital gains tax, and war damages.

1.4.3 Stock
▪ Any economic variable calculated at a specific point in time is termed a stock.
▪ It is static and does not change.
▪ Stock variables lack a time dimension. Examples include distance, amount of money, money supply, and
water in a tank.

1.4.4 Flow
▪ Any economic variable calculated over a period of time is referred to as a flow.
▪ It is dynamic and subject to change.
▪ Flow variables possess a time dimension. Examples include speed, spending of money, water in a river,
exports, and imports.

1.4.5 Economic Territory or Domestic Territory:

▪ Economic territory, as per the United Nations, is the geographical territory administered by a government
where persons, goods, and capital circulate freely.
▪ This definition hinges on the criterion of the "freedom of circulation of persons, goods, and capital."
▪ Notable considerations for economic territory: (i) Embassies are excluded as areas where the government
does not enjoy freedom. (ii) International organizations within a country's boundaries. (iii) In national income
accounting, the term is broader, encompassing ships, aircraft, fishing vessels, embassies, consulates, and
military establishments abroad.

1.4.6 Citizenship
▪ Citizenship is a legal concept based on place of birth or legal provisions allowing citizenship.

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 Indian Society

In This Book

Demography, Population Dynamics, & Related 5.5 Introduction of Western Education and
Concerns .......................................................... 3 Unintended Consequences................................... 29
1.1 Understanding Demography and Population 5.6 Capitalism and Colonialism ............................. 30
Studies………………………………………………………………….3 5.7 Nation States and Nationalism........................ 31
1.2 Theories and Concepts in Demography............. 3 5.8 Industrialization and Urbanization in the
1.3 Population Growth in India ............................... 4 Colonial Experience.............................................. 31

Social Institutions ............................................. 7 5.9 Industrialization in Independent India............. 32

2.1 Caste ................................................................ 7 5.10 Sociological Account of Urbanization ............ 32

2.2 Tribal communities in India............................... 8 Westernization along with cultural changes in

India............................................................... 34
2.3 Family and Kinship.......................................... 11
6.1 Introduction ................................................... 34
2.4 Markets .......................................................... 12
6.2 Social Reform Movements in the 19th and Early
Patterns of Social Disparity and Marginalization
20th Century: ....................................................... 34
Poverty ........................................................... 15
6.3 Different Kinds of Social Change ..................... 35
3.1 Observations of Social Inequality .................... 15
6.4 Modernisation and Secularisation .................. 36
3.2 Social Stratification ......................................... 16
Constitutional Amendments and Societal
3.3 Prejudice, Stereotypes, and Discrimination ..... 16
Transformations in India ................................. 38
3.4 Social Exclusion .............................................. 17
7.1 Role of the Indian Constitution in promoting
3.5 Caste System as a Discriminatory System ........ 18 social justice, specifically through the evolution of
3.6 State Initiatives............................................... 18 the Panchayati Raj system .................................... 38
3.7 Scheduled Tribes ............................................ 19 7.2 Role of the Supreme Court in Enhancing
Fundamental Rights ............................................. 39
3.8 Struggle for Women’s Equality and Rights ....... 20
7.3 Introduction of Panchayati Raj ........................ 40
3.9 Struggles of the Disabled ................................ 21
7.4 Panchayati Raj in Tribal areas .......................... 43
Challenges Posed by Community Diversity ...... 23
7.5 Democratisation and Inequality ...................... 43
4.1 Understanding Cultural Diversity .................... 23
7.6 Political Parties, Pressure, and Interest Groups44
4.2 Communities, Nations, and Nation-States....... 24
7.7 Max Weber's Perspective on Parties ............... 45
4.3 Cultural Diversity and India as a Nation-State.. 24
Rural India: Land Reforms, Green Revolution,
4.4 The Indian Constitution on Minorities and
Cultural Diversity.................................................. 26
Globalization, and Liberalization ..................... 47

4.5 Communalism, Secularism, and the Nation-State 8.1 Transformation and Progress in Rural India: Land
............................................................................ 26 Reforms, Green Revolution, Globalization, and
Liberalization........................................................ 47
Urbanization and Industrialization .................. 28
8.2 Agrarian Structure: Caste and Class in Rural
5.1 Impact of colonialism on India ........................ 28 India..................................................................... 47
5.2 English Language as a Paradoxical Legacy ....... 29 8.3 The Impact of Land Reforms ........................... 48
5.3 Structural Changes Introduced by Colonialism 29 8.4 The Green Revolution and its Social
5.4 Impact on People and Movement ................... 29 Consequences ...................................................... 49

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 Indian Society

8.5 Transformations in Rural 10.2 Beginnings of modern mass media and the role
Society after Independence ... 49 of the printing press in initiating this transformation
8.6 Circulation of Labour in Rural Society.............. 50 ............................................................................ 58

8.7 Globalisation, Liberalisation, and Rural Society 10.3 Role of mass media in independent India ..... 59
............................................................................ 50 10.4 Print Media .................................................. 60
Transformations and Advancements in Industrial 10.5 Globalization and Media ............................... 60
Society ........................................................... 52 10.6 Television Evolution ...................................... 60
9.1 Impact of industrialization on society from the 10.7 Radio Evolution ............................................ 61
perspectives of influential sociologists like Karl
Social Movements in India .............................. 62
Marx, Max Weber, and Emile Durkheim ............... 52
11.1 Features of a Social Movement ..................... 62
9.2 Specificity of industrialization in India compared
to the western model: .......................................... 52 11.2 Sociology and Social Movements .................. 62
9.3 Impact of globalization and liberalization on the 11.3 Ecological Movements and the Chipko
Indian industry since the 1990s ............................ 53 Movement ........................................................... 63
9.4 Working conditions in India ............................ 54 11.4 Class-Based Movements: Peasant and Workers'
Movements:......................................................... 64
9.5 Globalization and liberalization ....................... 54
11.5 Caste-Based Movements .............................. 65
Globalization and Social Transformation in India
...................................................................... 58 11.6 Tribal movements ......................................... 65

10.1 Significance and impact of mass media in 11.7 Women's Movement in India ........................ 66
contemporary society........................................... 58

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 Indian Society

01 Demography,
Demography, Population
&
Population Dynamics,
Related Concerns
Dynamics, & Related Concerns

1.1 Understanding Demography and Population Studies

1.1.1 Key Terms

▪Population Size: The total number of individuals in a population at a given point in time.
▪Population Structure: The composition of a population in terms of age, sex, ethnicity, and other
demographic characteristics.
▪ Birth Rate (Crude Birth Rate): The number of births per 1,000 individuals in a population within a given
period.
▪ Death Rate (Crude Death Rate): The number of deaths per 1,000 individuals in a population within a given
period.
▪ Migration: The movement of people from one place to another, either within a country (internal migration)
or between countries (international migration).
▪ Population Growth: The change in population size over time, influenced by births, deaths, and migration.
▪ Fertility Rate: The average number of children born to a woman over her lifetime, often measured as the
total fertility rate (TFR) or the fertility rate at a specific point in time (e.g., the current fertility rate).
▪ Mortality Rate: The frequency of deaths in a population, often categorized by age, sex, or cause.
▪ Age Distribution: The proportion of individuals in different
age groups within a population, often depicted in age
pyramids or age-sex pyramids.
▪ Dependency Ratio: The ratio of dependent individuals Demography is the statistical study of
(usually children and elderly) to the working-age populations, including their size, structure,
population, indicating the level of economic support distribution, and dynamics.
needed for dependents.
It encompasses a wide range of factors
1.2 Theories and Concepts in such as birth rates, death rates, migration
patterns, age distribution, and population
Demography density.
1.2.1 Malthusian Theory of Population Growth

Proposed by Thomas Robert Malthus, it suggests that human

populations tend to grow faster than the means of subsistence.
Therefore, humanity is condemned to live in poverty forever because the growth of agricultural production will
always be overtaken by population growth. While population rises in geometric progression (i.e., like 2, 4, 8, 16, 32,
etc.), agricultural production can only grow in arithmetic progression (i.e., like 2, 4,6, 8, 10, etc.). Malthus argued
that controlling population growth was necessary for prosperity, foreseeing "positive checks" like famines and

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 Indian Society

diseases. Malthusian theory has been subject to criticism and debate over the years. Critics
argue that it overlooks technological advancements, changes in agricultural practices,
economic development, and other factors that can increase resource production and improve living
standards.

1.2.2 Theory of Demographic Transition

It is a conceptual framework that explains the relationship between population dynamics and economic
development. It proposes three distinct stages through which societies tend to pass as they undergo demographic
changes:

Stage 1: Pre-Industrial or Traditional Society: Both birth rates and death rates are high. The high birth rates are
balanced by equally high death rates, resulting in a relatively stable population. Societies are primarily agrarian, and
economic development is minimal.

Stage 2: Transitional Stage: Death rates decline significantly due to improvements in healthcare, sanitation, and
nutrition. Birth rates remain high, resulting in rapid population growth. Industrialization and urbanization begin,
leading to increased economic activities.

Stage 3: Industrial or Mature Industrial Society: Both birth and death rates decrease, leading to slow or zero
population growth. Birth rates decline, and the population stabilizes. Societies become more industrialized and
economically advanced.

1.2.3 Common Indicators

▪ Birth rate: Live births per 1000 population.

▪ Death rate: Deaths per 1000 population.
▪ Growth rate: Difference between birth and death rates.
▪ Fertility rate: Live births per 1000 women in the child-bearing age group.
▪ Infant mortality rate: Deaths of babies before one year per 1000 live births.
▪ Maternal mortality rate: Women who die in childbirth per 1,00,000 live births.
▪ Life expectancy: Estimated number of years an average person is expected to survive.
▪ Sex Ratio: Number of females per 1000 males.

1.3 Population Growth in India

The growth rate of India's population has witnessed fluctuations over the years, and various factors have influenced
this trend.

1.3.1 Historical Growth Rates

▪ 1901–1951: The average annual growth rate during this period did not exceed 1.33%, with some years
experiencing negative growth due to the 1918–19 influenza epidemic.
▪ Post-Independence (1961–1981): The growth rate surged to 2.2%, reflecting a period of increased
population expansion.
▪ Post-1981: Although the growth rate has decreased since 1981, it remains one of the highest among
developing nations.

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 Indian Society

1.3.2 Demographic Transition Impact

▪ Transition Phase (1921–1931): Before 1931, both birth and death rates were high. The death rate sharply
declined after 1921, primarily due to better control over famines and epidemic diseases. However, the birth
rate decreased only slightly during this transition.
▪ Epidemics: The influenza epidemic of 1918–19, known as the "Spanish Flu," significantly impacted India,
causing widespread mortality.

1.3.3 Contemporary Trends

▪ Improvements in Healthcare: Advances in medical cures, mass vaccination programs, and sanitation efforts
have helped control epidemics.
▪ Famines: Efforts to improve agricultural productivity, transportation, and relief measures have reduced
deaths from famines, although some regions still report starvation deaths.
▪ Birth Rate and Fertility: The birth rate, influenced by sociocultural factors, has not experienced a sharp
decline. Prosperity, education, and awareness contribute to falling family sizes.

1.3.4 Regional Variations

▪ Fertility Rates: Wide variations exist across Indian states. States like Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh,
Punjab, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal have achieved lower Total Fertility Rates (TFRs), indicating smaller
family sizes. In contrast, states like Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh still have high TFRs.
▪ Population Pyramid: India's population pyramid exhibits a demographic dividend, where a large working-age
population supports a smaller elderly population. However, harnessing this advantage requires conscious
policy efforts.

1.3.5 Changing Age Structure

▪ Young Population: India has a predominantly young population, with a significant proportion below 15 years
of age.
▪ Projected Changes The age structure is expected to change in the coming decades, with a reduction in the 0–
14 age group's share and an increase in the 60+ age group.
▪ Dependency Ratio: The demographic dividend is contingent on utilizing the growing working-age
population through education and employment. Challenges include unemployment and underemployment.

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 General Science

INDEX: BIOLOGY
5.1 Introduction ........................ 21
5.2 Structural Organization of Cell........ 22
5.3 Difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic
Physiological Functions in Humans .......................... 3
Cell ......................................................................... 24
1. 1 Introduction ...................................................... 3
Tissues ................................................................. 27
1.2 Nutrition ............................................................. 3
6.1 Introduction ..................................................... 27
1.3 Respiration and Gas Exchange in Humans ......... 6
6.2 Difference between Animal and Plant tissue: . 27
1.4 Transportation in Humans ................................. 7
Environment ......................................................... 88
1.5 Excretion in Living Organisms ............................ 8
8.1 Ecosystem — What Are Its Components? ....... 88
1.6 Organ Donation:................................................. 9
8.2 Food Chains and Webs..................................... 88
Regulation and Synchronization ............................ 10
8.3 Ozone Layer and How it is Getting Depleted ... 90
2.1 Introduction ..................................................... 10
8.4 Waste Management: ....................................... 91
2.2 Animals – Nervous System ............................... 10
Photosynthesis And Respiration In Plants .............. 30
2.3 Reflex Actions:.................................................. 11
7.1 Introduction ..................................................... 30
2.4 Human Brain: ................................................... 11
7.2 Importance of Photosynthesis: ........................ 30
2.5 Protection of Nervous Tissues: ........................ 11
7.3 Early Experiments and Discoveries in
2.6 Mechanism of Action in Nervous Tissues: ....... 12 Photosynthesis:...................................................... 30
2.7 Coordination in Plants...................................... 12 7.4 Photosynthesis Process and Structure: ........... 30
2.8 Immediate Response to Stimulus: ................... 12 7.5 Photosynthetic Pigments: ................................ 31
2.9 Movement Due to Growth:.............................. 12 7.6 Light Reactions and Electron Transport: .......... 31
2.10 Hormones in Animals ..................................... 12 7.7 Splitting of Water:............................................ 31
2.11 Endocrine System:.......................................... 13 7.8 Cyclic and Non-cyclic Photophosphorylation .. 31
2.12 Feedback Mechanisms: .................................. 13 7.9 Chemiosmotic Hypothesis ............................... 32
Reproduction In Animals ....................................... 14 7.10 Calvin Cycle and the C4 pathway ................... 33
3.1 Introduction ..................................................... 14 7.11 Photorespiration ............................................ 34
3.2 Modes of Reproduction Used by Single 7.12 Factors Affecting Photosynthesis .................. 34
Organisms .............................................................. 14
7.13 Respiration in Plants ...................................... 35
3.3 Sexual Reproduction ........................................ 15
7.14 Electron Transport System (ETS) and Oxidative
3.4 Health Consequences of Sex: ........................... 16 Phosphorylation:.................................................... 36
3.5 Population Size and Concerns: ......................... 17 7.15 The Respiratory Balance Sheet: ..................... 37
Heredity ............................................................... 18 7.16 Amphibolic Pathway: ..................................... 37
4.1 Introduction ..................................................... 18 7.18 Respiratory Quotient: .................................... 37
4.2 Inherited Traits: Understanding Variations and Respiration and Gas Exchange Processes ............... 38
Heredity ................................................................. 18
8.1 Respiratory Organs .......................................... 38
4.3 Rules for the Inheritance of Traits – Mendel’s
8.1 Mechanism of Breathing.................................. 38
Contributions ......................................................... 19
8.2 Respiratory Volumes and Capacities ............... 38
Cell.................................................... 21
8.3 Exchange of Gases ........................................... 39
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 Biology

8.4 Transport of Gases................. 39 14.6 Crop Management ......................................... 60

8.5 Regulation of Respiration ................... 40 14.7 Crop Protection Management ....................... 60
Fluids Within the Body and Circulatory System ...... 41 14.8 Storage of Grains ........................................... 61
9.1 Introduction ..................................................... 41 14.9 Control Measures .......................................... 61
9.2 Blood ................................................................ 41 14.10 Animal Husbandry: ...................................... 61
9.3 Circulatory Pathways ....................................... 42 14.11 Cattle Farming:............................................. 62
Excretory System in Animals ................................. 44 14.12 Poultry Farming ........................................... 62
10.1 Introduction to Excretion in Animals ............. 44 14.13 Fish Management ........................................ 63
10.2 Types of Nitrogenous Wastes and Excretion 14.14 Beekeeping .................................................. 63
Strategies: .............................................................. 44 Human Health and Disease ................................... 65
10.3 Excretory Structures in Animal Kingdom: . 45 15.1 Human Health and Disease ............................ 65
10.4 Human Excretory System (Kidney Structure): 45 15.2 Common disease in Humans ......................... 65
10.5 Urine Formation and Regulation.................... 45 15.3 Immunity ........................................................ 66
10.6 Mechanism of Concentration of the Filtrate: 46 15.4 Immunity in Human body .............................. 68
10.7 Regulation of Kidney Function ....................... 47 15.5 Vaccination and Immunization ...................... 68
10.8 Role of Other Organs in Excretion ................. 47 15.6 Allergy ............................................................ 68
10.9 Disorders of the Excretory System ................. 47 15.7 AIDS ................................................................ 69
Mobility and Motion ............................................. 49 15.8 Cancer ............................................................ 69
11.1 Introduction ................................................... 49 15.9 Drug and Alcohol Abuse................................. 70
11.2 Structure of Contractile Proteins ................... 50 Microbes in Human Welfare .................................. 73
11.3 Skeletal System .............................................. 51 16.1 Introduction ................................................... 73
11.4 Disorders of Muscular and Skeletal System ... 51 16.2 Microbes in Household Products ................... 73
Control and Coordination by the Nervous System .. 53 16.3 Microbes in Industrial Products ..................... 73
12.1 Introduction ................................................... 53 16.4 Microbes in Biogas Production: ..................... 75
12.2 Neuron as the Structural and Functional Unit: 16.5 Microbes as Biocontrol Agents ...................... 76
............................................................................... 53
Biotechnology....................................................... 77
13.1 Introduction ................................................... 55
17.1 Introduction ................................................... 77
Coordination and Integration through Chemical
Signaling ............................................................... 55 17.2 Principles of Biotechnology ........................... 77

13.2 Endocrine Glands and Hormones .................. 55 17.3 Cloning Vectors .............................................. 78

13.3 Mechanism of Hormone Action ..................... 57 Biotechnology And Its Applications ....................... 83

IMPROVEMENT IN FOOD RESOURCES .................... 58 18.1 Introduction ................................................... 83

14.1 Introduction ................................................... 58 18.2 Biotechnological Applications in Agriculture . 83

14.2 Improvement in Crop Yields........................... 58 18.3 Gene Therapy:................................................ 85

14.3 Crop Variety Improvement ............................ 58 18.4 Molecular Diagnosis:...................................... 85

14.4 Crop Production Management ...................... 59 18.5 Transgenic Animals: ......................... 86

14.5 Innovations for Water Availability: ................ 60 18.6 Ethical Issues: .......................... 86
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 General Science

1 PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS IN
HUMANS

1. 1 Introduction
How can one distinguish between living and non-living entities?
Visible Movement is a limited indicator of life as this criterion becomes less reliable when considering
situations where organisms are not actively moving, such as when they are asleep. Therefore, using visible
movement as the sole defining characteristic of life is insufficient. Molecular movement, even at microscopic
scales, is an essential aspect of life. This microscopic movement, including that of molecules, is considered
necessary for life.

Controversy Regarding Viruses: Viruses do not exhibit visible movement until they infect a cell. The debate
on whether viruses are truly alive is linked to the absence of molecular movement in their dormant state.

Importance of Molecular Movement for Maintenance: Living organisms are well-organized structures, and
the ordered nature of these structures tends to break down over time due to environmental effects. To prevent
this breakdown, organisms must continually repair and maintain their structures. Since all structures are
composed of molecules, constant molecular movement is necessary for maintenance.

1. 2. 1 Introduction to Life Processes

These are the set of activities that organisms perform for maintenance, even when not actively engaged in
specific tasks.

Energy Requirement and Nutrition: Energy is required for maintenance processes, and this energy comes
from outside the organism in the form of food. The process of transferring this external energy source into the
organism is referred to as nutrition.

Challenges in Multi-cellular Organisms: As organisms become more complex and multi-cellular, challenges
arise in supplying nutrients and oxygen to all cells. The need for specialized tissues and a transportation
system to carry substances throughout the body is emphasized.

1.2 Nutrition
It is the process by which living organisms obtain energy and materials for their growth, development, and
maintenance.

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 Biology

1.2.1 Energy Usage and Source:

Energy is required for various activities, even when organisms are not actively engaged in apparent activities. It
emphasizes the need for materials from outside for growth, development, and synthesis of essential
substances in the body.

1.2.2 Food as a Source of Energy and Materials:

The source of energy and materials for living things is identified as the food they consume.

1.2.3 Autotrophs and Heterotrophs:

Autotrophs are organisms that use simple inorganic substances like carbon dioxide and water for food,
including green plants and some bacteria. On the other hand, heterotrophs utilize complex substances, and
their survival depends directly or indirectly on autotrophs. Examples of heterotrophic organisms include
animals and fungi.

1.2.4 Autotrophic Nutrition and Photosynthesis:

Photosynthesis is a complex biochemical process in which autotrophs (organisms capable of producing their
own food) synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water, utilizing sunlight as an energy source. This
process primarily occurs in the chloroplasts of plant cells.

Steps of Photosynthesis:
▪ Absorption of Light Energy by Chlorophyll: Chlorophyll, a green pigment present in chloroplasts, absorbs
light energy from the sun. This energy absorption occurs in the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast.
▪ Conversion of Light Energy to Chemical Energy: The absorbed light energy is converted into chemical
energy through a series of complex reactions. This energy conversion involves the movement of electrons
and the generation of energy-rich molecules like ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
▪ Reduction of Carbon Dioxide to Carbohydrates: In the stroma of the chloroplast, the chemical energy
generated is used to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) to carbohydrates. This involves a series of enzymatic
reactions known as the Calvin cycle. Example: For instance, consider a green leaf exposed to sunlight. The
chlorophyll in the leaf captures sunlight, initiating the process of photosynthesis. The plant takes in carbon
dioxide from the air through tiny pores called stomata, and water is absorbed from the soil through the
roots. These raw materials are then transformed into glucose (a type of carbohydrate), releasing oxygen as
a byproduct.
▪ Guard Cells and Stomata:
➢ Role of Stomata: Stomata are tiny pores present on the surface of leaves. They play a crucial role in
the exchange of gases, allowing the entry of carbon dioxide needed for photosynthesis and the release
of oxygen and water vapor.
➢ Role of Guard Cells: Guard cells surround each stoma and control its opening and closing. When the
guard cells swell with water, they cause the stomatal pore to open, facilitating the entry of carbon
dioxide. Conversely, when the guard cells shrink, the stomatal pore closes to prevent excessive water
loss.
➢ Example: Imagine a plant in a sunny environment. The guard cells respond to environmental cues,
ensuring that the stomata are open during daylight hours when photosynthesis occurs. This allows the
plant to absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen while minimizing water loss.

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 General Science

1.2.5 Heterotrophic Nutrition:

Heterotrophic nutrition is the mode of nutrition in which organisms obtain ready-made organic substances by
consuming other living organisms or their by-products. This stands in contrast to autotrophic nutrition, where
organisms can produce their own food through processes like photosynthesis.

1.2.6 Strategies for Obtaining and Using Food:

▪ Fungi and External Digestion: Some organisms, like fungi, employ external digestion. They release
enzymes into the external environment, breaking down complex organic matter into simpler forms. The
fungi then absorb these simpler substances, serving as an example of heterotrophic nutrition.
▪ Ingestion and Internal Digestion: In contrast, various organisms ingest food and digest it internally. This
can involve breaking down complex substances into simpler ones within the body.

1.2.7 Diversity of Digestive Systems:

▪ Single-Celled Organisms: In single-celled organisms like Amoeba, food is taken in through temporary
extensions of the cell surface, forming a food vacuole. The complex substances are broken down inside
the vacuole and then diffused into the cytoplasm. Paramoecium, another unicellular organism, has cilia
that move food to a specific spot for ingestion.
▪ Multi-Cellular Organisms: Digestive Systems in Multi-Cellular Organisms: As organisms become more
complex, different parts of the body specialize in various digestive functions. For example, the digestive
system in humans includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine, each with
specific roles.

1.2.8 Nutrition in Human Beings:

▪ Alimentary Canal and Digestive Process: In humans, the digestive system consists of the alimentary
canal, a long tube extending from the mouth to the anus.
▪ Digestive Process: Mouth and Saliva- Food is initially processed in the mouth, where chewing breaks it
down mechanically. Saliva, containing enzymes like amylase, begins the chemical breakdown of starch
into simpler sugars.
▪ Peristaltic Movements: The food, now called bolus, moves through the esophagus to the stomach via
peristaltic movements — rhythmic contractions of muscles in the digestive tract.
▪ Stomach Digestion: In the stomach, gastric glands release hydrochloric acid and enzymes like pepsin to
break down proteins. The stomach's acidic environment aids in digestion.
▪ Small Intestine Absorption: The partially digested food then enters the small intestine, where further
digestion occurs. The pancreas and liver contribute digestive juices, and villi in the small intestine
facilitate nutrient absorption.
▪ Large Intestine and Waste Elimination: The unabsorbed material passes into the large intestine, where
water absorption occurs. The remaining waste is then eliminated through the anus.

Example:
Dental Caries: Dental caries, commonly known as tooth decay, is an example related to the digestive
process. Bacteria acting on sugars produce acids that can demineralize the enamel, leading to tooth decay.
Proper oral hygiene, including brushing to remove dental plaque, is essential to prevent dental caries.

This detailed exploration illustrates the diverse strategies organisms employ for obtaining and processing food,
from single-celled organisms to multi-cellular organisms like humans. The digestive process in the human
alimentary canal exemplifies the complexity of heterotrophic nutrition.

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 General Science

CHEMISTRY
INDEX
CHEMICAL REACTIONS, ACIDS & BASES, 4.2 Interaction between drugs and enzymes ........ 18
METALS & NON-METALS .................................. 3 4.3 Therapeutic Action of Different Classes of Drugs
1.1 Chemical Reaction:............................................. 3 ............................................................................... 19
1.2 Acids and Bases: ................................................. 4 4.4 Addition of chemicals to food for various
1.3 Occurrence and extraction of metals from the purposes ................................................................ 22
Earth's crust ............................................................. 6 4.5 Non-Nutritive Value of Additives: .................... 22
1.4 Corrosion and Prevention .................................. 6 4.6 Detergents being cleansing agents .................. 22
CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS....................... 7 IS MATTER AROUND US PURE ........................ 24
2.1 Covalent bonding in carbon compounds ........... 7 5.1 Mixture ............................................................ 24
2.2 Allotropes of Carbon .......................................... 8 5.2 Types of Mixture .............................................. 24
2.3 Versatile Nature of Carbon ................................ 8 5.3 Solution ............................................................ 24
2.4 Chemical Reactions of Carbon Compounds ....... 8 5.3.1 Properties of a Solution: ........................... 25
2.5 Health Considerations ........................................ 9 5.3.2 Concentration of Solution:........................ 25
2.6 Ethanol ............................................................. 10 5.4 Suspensions ..................................................... 25
2.7 Ethanoic Acid.................................................... 10 5.4.1 Properties of a Suspension ....................... 25
2.8 Soaps and Detergents ...................................... 11 5.4.2 Colloidal Solution ...................................... 25
ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY ....................... 12 5.4.3 Properties of a Colloid .............................. 26
3.1 Types of Pollution ............................................ 12 5.5 Components..................................................... 26
3.2 Global Warming and Greenhouse Effect: ........ 13 5.6 Physical and Chemical Changes ....................... 26
3.3 Acid Rain........................................................... 13 5.7 Pure Substance ................................................ 26
3.4 Photochemical Smog........................................ 14 5.7.1 Types of Pure Substance: .......................... 27
3.5 Stratospheric Pollution .................................... 14 ATOMS AND MOLECULES .............................. 29
3.6 Water Pollution ................................................ 15 6.1 Atoms: .............................................................. 29
3.7 Soil Pollution in Agriculture.............................. 16 6.2 Atomic Mass: ................................................... 30
3.8 Industrial Waste ............................................... 16 6.3 Molecule: ......................................................... 30
3.9 Green Chemistry .............................................. 16 Structure of Atom ......................................... 31
Environmental Challenges: ................................ 16 7.1 Structure of Atom ............................................ 31
CHEMISTRY IN DAILY LIFE ............................. 18 A. Thomson Model of Atom: ............................. 31
4.1 Classification of Drugs ...................................... 18 B. Rutherford Model of Atom: ........................... 32
C. Bohr’s Model of Atom.................................... 32

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 Chemistry

7.2 Distribution of Electrons in

Different Orbits ..................................... 33
7.3 Valency ............................................................. 33
7.4 ATOMIC NUMBER ............................................ 34
7.5 Mass Number ................................................... 34
7.6 Isotopes ............................................................ 34
7.6.1 Applications............................................... 34
7.7 Isobars .............................................................. 35

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 General Science

1 CHEMICAL REACTIONS, ACIDS &

BASES, METALS & NON-METALS

1.1 Chemical Reaction:

A chemical reaction is a process in which one or more substances (reactants) are transformed into new substances
(products) with different properties. During a chemical reaction, the bonds between atoms are broken and new
bonds are formed to create the products. The chemical identity of the substance’s changes, and this change is often
accompanied by observable effects such as changes in color, formation of gas, temperature changes, or the
production of light.

Types of Chemical Reactions:

▪ Combination Reaction: In a combination reaction, two or more substances combine to form a single product.
➢ Example: (CaO(s) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq) + Heat) (formation of slakedlime)
▪ Decomposition Reaction: In a decomposition reaction, a single substance breaks down into two or more simpler
substances.
➢ Example: (2H2O2(l) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g)) (decomposition of hydrogen peroxide)
▪ Displacement Reaction: In a displacement reaction, one element displaces another element from a compound,
leading to the formation of a new compound.
➢ Example: (Zn(s)+2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq)+H2(g)) (displacement of hydrogen from hydrochloric acid zinc)
▪ Double Displacement Reaction: In a double displacement reaction, the positive and negative ions of two
compounds exchange places to form two new compounds.
➢ Example: (Na2SO4(aq)+BaCl2(aq) → 2NaCl(aq)+BaSO4(s)) (formation of barium sulfate precipitate)
▪ Oxidation Reduction Reaction (Redox Reaction): In oxidation reduction reactions, electrons are transferred
between reactants, leading to changes in oxidation states.
➢ Example: (2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)) (oxidation of magnesium)

Effect of Oxidation Reactions in Everyday Life:

▪ Corrosion: Corrosion is the gradual deterioration of metals due to their reaction with substances in the
environment, such as oxygen and moisture.
➢ Example: Rusting of iron ((4Fe(s) +3O2(g) → 2Fe2O3(s)))
▪ Rancidity: Rancidity is the development of undesirable odors and flavors in fats and oils due to the oxidation of
their unsaturated fatty acids.
➢ Example: Oxidation of fats in food, leading to the development of a rancid taste and smell.

Oxidation reactions, whether in the form of corrosion or rancidity, can have significant impacts on the durability of
materials and the quality of food products. Preventive measures, such as the use of protective coatings for metals or
antioxidants in food, are often employed to minimize the effects of oxidation in everyday life.

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 Chemistry

1.2 Acids and Bases:

▪ Acids: Acids are substances that release hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water.
➢ Properties: Sour taste, turn blue litmus paper red, and have a pH less than 7.
➢ Examples: Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Sulfuric acid (H2SO4), Citric acid (found in citrus fruits).
▪ Bases: Bases are substances that release hydroxide ions (OH-)when dissolved in water.
➢ Properties: Bitter taste, feel slippery, turn red litmus paper blue, and have a pH greater than 7.
➢ Examples: Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), Potassium hydroxide (KOH), Ammonia (NH3).

Reaction of Acids and Bases with Metals:

1. Acids react with metals to produce salt and hydrogen gas.

▪ Example: (2HCl(aq) + Zn(s) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g))
2. Bases do not react with metals under normal conditions.

Reaction of Acids with Metal Carbonates and Metal Hydrogen Carbonates: Acids react with metal carbonates and
metal hydrogen carbonates to produce salt, water, and carbon dioxide.

Example: (CaCO3(s)+2HCl(aq)⟶CaCl2(aq)+H2O(l)+CO2(g))

Reaction of Acids and Bases with Each Other (Neutralization): Acids react with bases to form salt and water. This
process is called neutralization.

Example: (HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O (1))

Reaction of Metallic Oxides with Acids and Non-metallic Oxides with Bases:

1.Metallic Oxides with Acids: Metallic oxides react with acids to form salt and water.

Example: (CuO(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CuCl2(aq) + H2O (1))

2. Non-metallic Oxides with Bases: Non-metallic oxides react with bases to form salt and water.

Example: CO2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2CO3(aq) + H2O (1)

pH Scale: The pH scale is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution. It ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being
neutral, below 7 acidic, and above 7 basic.

Determining pH:

▪ pH < 7: Acidic
▪ pH = 7: Neutral
▪ pH > 7: Basic

Importance of pH in Everyday Life:

1. Plants and Animals: pH affects the growth and health of plants and animals.
2. Soil: Soil pH influences plant growth and nutrient availability.
3. Digestive System: pH plays a crucial role in the digestive process.
4. Tooth Decay: Acids can lead to tooth decay by eroding enamel.
5. Self-Défense: Some plants and animals use acidic or basic substances for self-defence.

Salts: Salts are ionic compounds formed by the neutralization of an acid and a base.

Family and pH:

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 General Science

1. Salts derived from strong acids and strong bases are neutral (pH = 7).
2. Salts derived from a strong acid and weak base are acidic (pH < 7).
3. Salts derived from a weak acid and strong base are basic (pH > 7).

Crystals of Salts Drying (Plaster of Paris): When crystals of salts are formed, they may trap water molecules. Plaster
1
of Paris is an example where Calcium sulfate hemihydrate (CaSO4 . H2O) captures water during crystallization. The
2
process of setting and hardening involves the gradual release of water, making it appear as if the crystals are drying.

Physical Properties of Metals:

▪ Lustre: Metals have a shiny appearance.

▪ Malleability: Metals can be hammered into thin sheets.
▪ Ductility: Metals can be drawn into thin wires.
▪ Conductivity: Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity.
▪ High Melting and Boiling Points: Metals generally have high melting and boiling points.
▪ Density: Metals are dense.
▪ Hardness: Metals are generally hard.

Physical Properties of Non-metals:

1. Lack of Luster: Nonmetals are not shiny.

2. Brittleness: Nonmetals are often brittle.
3. Poor Conductors: Nonmetals are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
4. Low Melting and Boiling Points: Nonmetals generally have low melting and boiling points.
5. Low Density: Nonmetals are less dense than metals.

Chemical Properties of Metals:

▪ Reaction with Oxygen (Burnt in Air): Metals react with oxygen to form metal oxides.
➢ Example: (4Na(s) + O2(g) → 2Na2O(s))
▪ Reaction with Water: Active metals react with water to form metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
➢ Example: (2K(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2KOH (aq) + H2(g))
▪ Reaction with Acids: Metals react with acids to produce salt and hydrogen gas.
➢ Example: (Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g))
▪ Reaction with Solutions of Other Metal Salts: Metals can displace less reactive metals from their salts in
solution.
➢ Example: (Cu(s) + 2AgNO3(aq) → Cu (NO3)2(aq) + 2Ag(s))

Reactivity Series: The reactivity series is a list of metals arranged in order of their decreasing reactivity.

Example: (K > Na > Ca > Mg > Al > Zn > Fe > Pb > H > Cu)

▪ Potassium (K)
▪ Sodium (Na)
▪ Calcium (Ca)
▪ Magnesium (Mg)
▪ Aluminium (Al)
▪ Zinc (Zn)
▪ Iron (Fe)
▪ Lead (Pb)
▪ Hydrogen (H)
▪ Copper (Cu)

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 General Science

INDEX
Light: Reflection & Refraction .................................. 2 Force and Laws of Motion ..................................... 21
1.1 Visibility in Light and Reflection ......................... 2 6.1 Introduction: .................................................... 21
1.2 Laws of Reflection .............................................. 2 6.2 Balanced and Unbalanced Forces: ................... 21
1.3 Curved Mirrors - Concave and Convex............... 2 6.3 First Law of Motion: ......................................... 22
1.4 Refraction of Light .............................................. 4 6.4 Inertia and Mass: ............................................. 22
1.5 Laws of Refraction.............................................. 5 Gravitation ........................................................... 27
1.6 Refraction by Spherical Lenses: ......................... 5 7.1 Law of Universal Gravitation: .......................... 27
Human Eyes ............................................................ 7 7.2 Thrust and Pressure: ........................................ 29
2.1 How eye functions ............................................. 7 7. 3 Buoyancy: ........................................................ 30
2.2 Power of Accommodation ................................. 7 7.4 Archimedes Principle: ...................................... 30
2.3 Defects of Vision and Their Correction .............. 8 Work Done ........................................................... 32
2.4 Eye Donation and its Impact .............................. 8 8.1 Mathematic Conception of Work done ........... 32
2.5 Impact of Eye Donation...................................... 8 8.2 Energy: ............................................................. 33
2.6 Refraction of Light Through a Prism .................. 8 8.3 Kinetic Energy: ................................................. 34
2.7 Scattering of Light: ............................................. 9 8.4 Potential Energy:.............................................. 35
Electricity.............................................................. 10 8.5 Law of Conservation of Energy ........................ 35
3.1 Electric Current and Circuit: ............................. 10 8.5 Rate of Doing Work: Power ............................. 36
3.2 Electric Potential and Potential Difference ...... 10 Sound ................................................................... 37
3.3 Resistance of a Conductor: .............................. 10 9.1 Propagation of Sound ...................................... 37
3.4 Resistance of a System of Resistors ................. 11 9.2 Sound Waves are longitudinal Waves: ............ 38
3.5 Practical Considerations:.................................. 11 9.3 Speed of Sound in Different Media: ................ 39
3.6 Heating Effect of Electric Current: ................... 11 9.4 Reflection of Sound.......................................... 39
3.7 Practical Applications of Heating Effect: .......... 11 9.5 Range of Hearing: ............................................ 40
3.7 Electric Power: ................................................. 12 9.6 Applications of Ultrasound: ............................. 41
Magnetic Phenomena Resulting from Electric Current
............................................................................. 13
4.1 Magnetic Field Due to a Current-Carrying
Conductor .............................................................. 13
Motion ................................................................. 16
5.1 What are Scalar and Vector Quantity .............. 17
5.2 Uniform and Non-Uniform Motion: ................. 17
5.3 Acceleration: Rate of Change in Velocity ......... 18
5.4 Equation of Motion: ................ 19

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 Physics

1 LIGHT: REFLECTION & REFRACTION

1.1 Visibility in Light and Reflection

We can see objects in a well-lit room, but not in a dark room. Objects become visible when
light illuminates them.
Explanation: Light enables visibility by reflecting off objects. When light falls on an object, it
interacts with its surface. The object reflects light in various directions, and some of this
reflected light enters our eyes, allowing us to see the object. Transparency allows light to
pass through, making objects visible on the other side.

1.2 Laws of Reflection

Mirrors reflect most of the light falling on them.
Explanation: The laws of reflection govern how light behaves when it strikes a surface:
▪ The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
▪ The incident ray, the normal to the mirror at the point of incidence, and the reflected
ray, all lie in the same plane.

1.3 Curved Mirrors - Concave and Convex

A spherical mirror has a reflecting surface that is part of a sphere.
▪ Concave Mirror: Curved inward, facing the center of the sphere.
▪ Convex Mirror: Curved outward.
Key Terms
▪ Pole (P): The center of the reflecting surface.

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 General Science

▪ Center of Curvature (C): The center of the sphere of which the mirror
is a part.
▪ Principal Axis: A line passing through the pole and the center of curvature.
▪ Radius of Curvature (R): The distance from the pole to the center of curvature.
▪ Focal Length (f): The distance from the pole to the principal focus.
Image Formation by Concave Mirrors
Observation: Image characteristics depend on the object's position relative to P, F, and C.

Ray Diagrams for Concave Mirrors

▪ Rays parallel to the principal axis converge at the principal focus for a concave mirror.
▪ Rays directed towards the principal focus reflect parallel to the principal axis.
▪ Rays directed at the center of curvature reflect back along the same path.
▪ Obliquely incident rays follow the laws of reflection at point P.
Image Formation by Convex Mirrors
Observation: Image formed by a convex mirror is virtual, erect, and diminished.
Ray Diagrams
▪ Object at infinity: Parallel rays diverge as if coming from the principal focus.
▪ Finite distance: Divergent rays appear to come from the virtual focus.

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 Physics

Uses of Concave and Convex Mirrors

▪ Concave Mirrors: Torches, search-lights, vehicle headlights, shaving mirrors,
dentistry, solar furnaces.
▪ Convex Mirrors: Rear-view mirrors in vehicles due to erect and wider field of view.
Sign Convention
1.Object always left of the mirror.
2.Distances measured from the pole, along the axis are positive (right) or negative (left).
3.Distances measured above the axis are positive; below are negative.
Mirror Formula and Magnification
Formulas:

1.Mirror Formula:

2.Magnification:

1.4 Refraction of Light

Light seems to travel along straight-line paths in a transparent medium. Refraction of light
is observed when light enters from one transparent medium to another.
Observations: Common observations include the apparent raising of the bottom of a tank
or a pond containing water and the apparent displacement of objects like a pencil in water.
Experiences: Experiences like the raised appearance of letters when viewed through a glass
slab or the apparent size change of a lemon in water showcase the effects of refraction.
Examples:
▪ Pencil partly immersed in water appears displaced at the interface of air and water.
▪ Letters appear raised when seen through a glass slab.
Refraction through a Rectangular Glass Slab: Light ray changes its direction at points
separating two transparent media. The refracted ray emerges parallel to the incident ray
but is shifted slightly.

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 General Science

1.5 Laws of Refraction

▪ Incident ray, refracted ray, and the normal lie in the same plane.
▪ Snell's Law: The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of
refraction is a constant for light of a given color and a given pair of media.
The Refractive Index: Refractive index is the ratio of the speed of light in one medium to
the speed of light in another medium. Absolute refractive index is the refractive index of a
medium with respect to air or vacuum.
More to Know:
▪ Optical density is related to the refractive index.
▪ Rarer medium has a lower refractive index, and denser medium has a higher refractive
index.
▪ The speed of light is higher in a rarer medium and lower in a denser medium.

1.6 Refraction by Spherical Lenses:

▪ Introduction to Lenses: Lenses are transparent materials with one or both surfaces
being spherical. A lens may be double convex (thicker at the center, converging), double
concave (thicker at the edges, diverging), or a combination of both.
▪ Lens Components and Nomenclature: A lens has two spherical surfaces forming parts of
spheres with centers called centers of curvature (C1 and C2). The line passing through
the centers of curvature is the principal axis, and the central point is the optical center
(O). The imaginary straight line passing through the centers of curvature is the principal
axis.
▪ Focal Points and Focal Length:
➢ Convex lens converges light rays to a principal focus (F).
➢ Concave lens diverges light rays, and the diverging rays appear to come from a
principal focus (F).
➢ Focal length (f) is the distance from the optical center to the principal focus.
➢ Convex lenses have two principal foci (F1 and F2).
▪ Sign Convention for Spherical Lenses: Focal length of a convex lens is positive, while
that of a concave lens is negative.
▪ Lens Formula and Magnification:

➢ Lens formula:

➢ Magnification:
▪ Power of a Lens:
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