1.

3 The Coming of Socialism to Europe

Introduction

In the 19th century (1800s), a new idea called socialism became popular
in Europe. Socialism was a way of thinking about how society should be
organized. Many people believed that private property (land,
businesses, and resources owned by individuals) was the reason for the
unfair treatment of workers. They thought that if property was owned by
society as a whole, life would be better for everyone.

Socialists wanted society to change and worked hard to spread their

ideas. Some of them believed in cooperatives (groups of people working
together and sharing profits). Others believed that governments should
take control of businesses and run them for the benefit of all people.

Why Were Socialists Against Private Property?

At that time, industries (large businesses and factories) were owned by

individuals (private owners). These owners were only interested in
making profits for themselves. They did not care about the poor workers
who worked long hours for very little money.

Socialists believed that if property was owned by society as a whole, it

would benefit more people. Instead of a few rich people controlling
everything, everyone could share in the wealth. This way, workers would
have better lives.

Different Ideas About Socialist Society

Socialists had different ideas about how to create a fair society. Some
believed in cooperatives, while others wanted government control of
industries.

The Idea of Cooperatives

 A cooperative is a group of people who work together and share

profits equally.

 Robert Owen (1771-1858), a British factory owner, wanted to

prove that cooperatives could work.

 He set up a cooperative community called New Harmony in

Indiana, USA.

 In this community, people worked together and shared profits

instead of competing against each other.

 Owen believed this was a better way to organize society.

Government Support for Cooperatives

 Some socialists believed that cooperatives could not be successful if

they were created by individuals alone.

 They thought that governments should help build cooperatives.

 Louis Blanc (1813-1882), a socialist from France, wanted the

government to encourage cooperatives instead of allowing
businesses to be run by capitalists.

 These cooperatives would be owned and managed by workers.

 Profits would be shared based on the work done by each person.

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels: A New Vision for Socialism

Two famous thinkers, Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels

(1820-1895), introduced new ideas about socialism. They studied how
factories and businesses worked and came up with their own theories.

Karl Marx’s Ideas

 Marx said that industrial society was controlled by capitalists (rich

people who own factories and businesses).

 Workers were forced to work long hours for low wages, while
capitalists became richer.

 Marx believed this system was unfair and needed to be changed.

 He said workers should overthrow (remove) the capitalist system.

 Marx believed in a system called communism, where property and

wealth would be shared by everyone.

 He thought that in the future, workers would defeat capitalists

and create a society where there were no rich or poor people.

The Birth of Communism

 Karl Marx believed that workers had to fight against capitalists to

create a fair world.

 He predicted that one day, workers would win and capitalism

would end.

 He called this new system communism, where all property would

be owned by society and not by individuals.

 In a communist society, everyone would work for the common

good, and no one would be richer or poorer than others.
  Marx was sure that communism was the future and that workers
would eventually triumph.

Important Terms and Their Meanings

 Socialism – A system where property and resources are controlled

by society instead of individuals.

 Private Property – Land, businesses, and resources owned by

individuals or private companies.

 Industries – Large businesses and factories that produce goods.

 Cooperatives – Groups of people who work together and share

profits equally.

 Robert Owen – A British factory owner who created a cooperative

community called New Harmony.

 Louis Blanc – A French socialist who wanted the government to

support cooperatives.

 Capitalists – Rich people who own businesses and factories.

 Karl Marx – A socialist thinker who believed that workers should

overthrow capitalists.

 Friedrich Engels – A socialist thinker who worked with Karl Marx.

 Communism – A system where all property and wealth are shared

by society instead of being owned by individuals.

Conclusion

Socialism became a major idea in Europe because workers were treated

unfairly in the capitalist system. Socialists believed that if property and
businesses were controlled by society, everyone would be treated equally.
Some socialists believed in cooperatives, while others like Karl Marx
believed in communism. Marx thought that one day, workers would take
power and create a society where wealth was shared equally. These ideas
influenced many movements and revolutions in the 20th century.

1.4 Support for Socialism

Socialism Spreads in Europe 🌍

By the 1870s, socialism had spread across Europe. More and more
people were supporting the idea that workers should be treated fairly and
that wealth should be shared more equally.
To organize their efforts and work together, socialists formed an
international group called the Second International.

Workers Start Fighting for Their Rights 🏭

In England and Germany, workers started forming associations

(groups) to fight for their rights. They wanted:

 Better working conditions

 Higher wages

 Shorter working hours

 The right to vote (so they could choose leaders who supported
workers)

These worker associations also created funds (money collections) to help

their members during difficult times, like sickness or unemployment.

In Germany, these groups worked closely with a political party called the
Social Democratic Party (SPD). Over time, SPD became a powerful
party and won many seats in Germany’s parliament.

The Rise of Socialist Parties

By 1905, socialists had formed their own political parties:

 Britain – The Labour Party was created to represent workers.

 France – The Socialist Party was formed.

These parties fought for workers' rights and tried to pass laws to improve
their lives.

Did Socialists Gain Power? 🤔

Even though socialist ideas were growing, they did not form a
government in Europe until 1914 (before World War I).

However, they were influential (had a strong effect) in politics. Many of

their ideas helped shape new laws that improved working conditions and
gave workers more rights.

But most governments in Europe were still run by conservatives,

liberals, and radicals.
Important Terms and Their Meanings 📖

 Second International – A global organization of socialist groups

formed in the 1870s.

 Workers’ Associations – Groups of workers who fought for better

conditions and wages.

 Trade Unions – Organizations that help protect workers' rights.

 Labour Party – A political party in Britain that represented workers.

 Socialist Party – A political party in France that supported

socialism.

 Social Democratic Party (SPD) – A political party in Germany that

worked for workers' rights.

Summary ✨

 By the 19th century, socialism became popular as a way to make

society fairer.

 Socialists believed that private property made society unfair.

 Robert Owen and Louis Blanc wanted cooperatives where

workers shared profits.

 Karl Marx said workers must overthrow capitalism and create a

communist society.

 By the 1870s, workers started forming trade unions to fight for

their rights.

 Political parties like the Labour Party and Socialist Party were
formed to support workers.

 Though socialists did not form a government before 1914, their

ideas helped improve laws and working conditions.

This marks the beginning of socialism as a powerful movement that

would later shape many countries in the 20th century!

2.2 Economy and Society

Agriculture in Russia

At the beginning of the 20th century, most people in Russia were farmers.

About 85% of the Russian empire’s population earned their living from
agriculture.
This was a much higher percentage than in most European countries.

In France and Germany, only 40% to 50% of the people were farmers.

In Russia, farmers grew crops for themselves and also for selling in the
market.

Russia was a major exporter of grain.

Industry in Russia

Industries were not spread evenly across the country.

They were found in certain areas.

Main industrial areas:

 St. Petersburg

 Moscow

Most products were made by craftsmen (skilled workers who made things
by hand).

However, large factories also existed alongside smaller workshops.

Industrial Growth (1890s – 1900s)

Many new factories were built in the 1890s because:

 Railways expanded (more train tracks were built).

 Foreign investment increased (other countries gave money to help

Russian industries grow).

As a result:

 Coal production doubled.

 Iron and steel production became four times more.

By the 1900s, the number of factory workers and craftsmen was almost
equal in some areas.

Working Conditions in Factories

Most factories were owned by private industrialists (rich people who ran
businesses).

The government checked large factories to ensure:

 Minimum wages (a basic salary for workers).

 Limited working hours.

However, there were problems:

  Factory inspectors could not stop the owners from breaking rules.

 In small workshops, workers had to work longer hours.

Working hours:

 Big factories → 10-12 hours per day

 Small workshops → Up to 15 hours per day

Living conditions:

 Some workers lived in small rooms.

 Others lived in dormitories (large rooms shared with many people).

Workers Were Divided

Workers in Russia were not all the same.

Some had strong ties to villages (they planned to return).

Others had settled in cities permanently.

They were also divided based on skill.

Example:

 Metalworkers (people who worked with iron and steel) considered

themselves higher than other workers.

 This was because their work needed more training and skill.

Women Workers

By 1914, 31% of factory workers were women.

But women were paid less than men.

They earned only half or three-fourths of what men earned.

Example:

If a man earned 4 rubles, a woman would get only 2 or 3 rubles for the
same work.

Worker Strikes

Despite being divided, workers sometimes united and went on strike.

Strike – When workers refuse to work to protest against low wages or bad
conditions.

Major strikes happened in:

 1896-1897 → Textile industry (cloth factories).

  1902 → Metal industry (factories making iron and steel products).

Peasants in Russia

Peasants (farmers) cultivated most of the land.

But large areas of land were owned by:

 Nobles (rich landowners).

 The Crown (royal family).

 The Orthodox Church.

Peasant Attitude Towards Nobles

Peasants were religious, but they did not respect nobles.

Nobles got their power from the Tsar, not because they were loved by
people.

Difference from France:

 In France, during the French Revolution, peasants respected nobles

and even fought for them.

 In Russia, peasants hated nobles and wanted their land.

Peasant Revolts

Peasants often refused to pay rent and sometimes killed landlords.

These revolts happened on a large scale in:

 1902 → South Russia.

 1905 → All over Russia.

Peasant Land System in Russia

Russian peasants were different from European peasants.

In Russia, peasants pooled (combined) their land together.

Their commune (mir) would divide the land based on family needs.

Commune (Mir) – A group of peasants who shared land and divided it

among themselves.

Summary

 85% of Russians were farmers (more than in Europe).

 Russia was a major exporter of grain.

 Industries were found in a few areas like St. Petersburg and Moscow.
  Factory working conditions were bad (long hours, low pay, poor
living conditions).

 Women made up 31% of factory workers but earned less than men.

 Workers often went on strike (refused to work) to protest against low

wages.

 Peasants hated nobles and wanted their land.

 In Russia, peasants shared land through a system called "mir"

(commune).

Important Terms & Meanings

Agriculturists – Farmers who grow crops.

Craftsmen – Skilled workers who make things by hand.

Industrialists – Rich people who own factories and businesses.

Foreign Investment – Money given by other countries to help industries

grow.

Strike – When workers refuse to work as a protest.

Commune (Mir) – A group of peasants who share land and divide it

among themselves.

2.3 Socialism in Russia

Before 1914, all political parties were illegal in Russia. This means
that people were not allowed to form or join political groups freely.

The Russian Social Democratic Workers Party was founded in 1898

by a group of socialists.

 Socialists are people who believe in socialism, a system where

wealth and power are shared more equally.

 They respected Karl Marx’s ideas. Marx was a famous thinker

who believed that workers should overthrow the rich and create an
equal society.

Since the Russian government did not allow political parties, this party
had to operate secretly and work as an illegal organisation.

 They started a newspaper to spread their ideas.

 They mobilised (gathered and encouraged) workers to fight for

their rights.
  They organised strikes (work stoppages) to protest against
factory owners and unfair conditions.

Different Views on Socialism in Russia

Some Russian socialists believed that peasants (farmers) were natural

socialists.

 In Russia, peasants had a custom of dividing land among

themselves from time to time.

 Because of this, these socialists thought peasants—not factory

workers—would be the main force behind a socialist
revolution.

 They also believed Russia could become socialist faster than

other countries.

Socialists were active in the countryside in the late 19th century

(1800s).

In 1900, they formed the Socialist Revolutionary Party.

 This party fought for peasants' rights.

 They wanted land owned by nobles to be given to peasants.

The Social Democrats disagreed with the Socialist Revolutionaries

about peasants.

 Lenin, an important leader, thought peasants were not one united

group.

 Some were rich and owned land, while others were poor and
worked for landowners.

 Some were even capitalists (people who own businesses and

hire workers).

Because of this difference (differentiation) among peasants, Lenin

believed they could not all be part of the socialist movement.

The Party Split: Bolsheviks vs Mensheviks

The Russian Social Democratic Workers Party had disagreements

about how to organise.

Vladimir Lenin, who led the Bolshevik group, had a strict idea:

 Since Russia was a repressive (harsh and controlling) society

under the Tsar, the party should be disciplined.
  They should carefully choose their members and keep their
group small but strong.

The Mensheviks (another group) thought differently:

 They believed the party should be open to everyone who wanted

to join.

 They followed the model of Germany, where anyone could be part

of the party.

This difference in opinion led to a split in the socialist movement in

Russia.

2.4 A Turbulent Time: The 1905 Revolution

Russia was an autocracy (a system where one ruler has all the power).

Unlike other European rulers, even in the early 1900s, the Tsar (the
emperor of Russia) did not have to answer to a parliament (a group of
elected representatives who make laws).

Liberals (people who wanted some changes in the government) wanted to

end this unfair system.

Along with Social Democrats and Socialist Revolutionaries (political

groups that wanted major changes in society), they worked with
peasants (farmers) and workers (factory laborers) to demand a
constitution (a set of rules for how a country should be governed).

People from different parts of the Russian Empire also supported this
movement:

 Nationalists (people who wanted independence for their own

regions) supported it in places like Poland.

 Jadidists (Muslim reformers) in areas where Islam was dominant

wanted modern education and changes in society.

Causes of the 1905 Revolution

The year 1904 was very difficult for workers in Russia.

The prices of basic goods (like food and clothing) increased rapidly, but
wages did not rise at the same speed.

Because of this, the actual value of wages dropped by 20%.

As a result, more and more workers joined workers’ associations

(groups that protected workers’ rights).

In 1904, a group called the Assembly of Russian Workers was formed.

When four workers from the Putilov Iron Works (a large factory) were
fired, workers decided to go on strike (refuse to work until their demands
were met).

In the next few days, over 110,000 workers in St. Petersburg went on
strike.

They demanded:

 A reduction in working hours to 8 hours a day.

 An increase in wages (higher salaries).

 Better working conditions (safer and fairer workplaces).

Bloody Sunday and the 1905 Revolution

On January 22, 1905, a large group of workers, led by Father Gapon (a

priest who supported workers), marched to the Winter Palace (the Tsar’s
palace) in St. Petersburg to present their demands.

However, instead of listening to them, the police and Cossack soldiers

attacked the peaceful march.

More than 100 workers were killed, and around 300 were injured.

This tragic event became known as Bloody Sunday.

After this, protests and strikes (when workers refuse to work) started all
over Russia.

Even universities were shut down as students protested against the lack
of civil liberties (basic rights like freedom of speech and equality).

Many educated people like lawyers, doctors, and engineers also joined
the protests.

They formed a group called the Union of Unions and demanded a

constituent assembly (a group of people chosen by the public to create
a new government).

The Creation of the Duma

Because of the massive protests, the Tsar agreed to create a Duma (an
elected group that would help make decisions in the government).

For a short time, many trade unions (groups that protect workers' rights)
and factory committees (worker-led groups in factories) were active.

However, after 1905, these groups were declared illegal (banned by the
government).
The Tsar still wanted full control and did not like his power being
questioned.

He dismissed (removed) the first Duma within 75 days and the second
Duma within three months.

To keep power, he changed the voting laws and filled the third Duma
with conservative politicians (people who supported the Tsar and did
not want change).

As a result, liberals and revolutionaries (people who wanted a new

government) were kept out.

2.5 The First World War and the Russian Empire

In 1914, a war started between two powerful groups of countries in
Europe.

These groups were:

 The Central Powers – Germany, Austria, and Turkey.

 The Allies – France, Britain, and Russia (later joined by Italy and
Romania).

Each of these countries had colonies around the world, so the war was
fought not only in Europe but also in different parts of the world.

This war was called the First World War.

Russia’s Role in the War

At first, the war was popular in Russia, and people supported Tsar
Nicholas II.

But as time passed, the Tsar did not listen to the Duma (the elected
parliament).

Because of this, people stopped supporting him.

During the war, people in Russia hated Germany because it was their
enemy.

To show their anger, the government changed the name of St.

Petersburg (which sounded German) to Petrograd (a more Russian
name).

The Tsarina Alexandra (the wife of the Tsar) was originally German, so
people did not trust her.

Also, she took advice from Rasputin, a monk (religious man) who was
very unpopular.
This made people lose faith in the royal family.

The War on Different Fronts

The war was fought differently in the west and the east:

 On the western front (France), soldiers fought from trenches

(deep ditches dug in the ground for protection).

 On the eastern front (Russia, Germany, Austria), the armies

moved around a lot, which led to huge losses of soldiers.

Between 1914 and 1916, Russia’s army suffered terrible defeats in

Germany and Austria.

By 1917, more than 7 million Russian soldiers were killed, injured,

or missing.

As the Russian army retreated (moved back), they burned crops and
destroyed buildings to stop the enemy from using them.

This left over 3 million people homeless and turned them into
refugees (people forced to leave their homes).

The Tsar’s government became even more unpopular because of

these failures.

Even Russian soldiers did not want to fight anymore.

The War’s Impact on Russia’s Economy

The war also hurt Russia’s industries (factories and businesses).

Russia did not have many industries in the first place.

To make things worse, Germany controlled the Baltic Sea, so Russia

couldn’t import (bring in) goods from other countries.

Factories in Russia started breaking down faster than in other European

countries.

By 1916, even the railways were not working properly.

Many strong, healthy men were sent to fight in the war, so there
were not enough workers left in factories and farms.

Many small workshops that made important daily goods had to

close.

Most of the grain (wheat) was sent to feed the army, so in the cities,
food like bread and flour became very rare.
By the winter of 1916, people were starving, and there were riots
(angry protests) at bread shops because there was not enough food.

3 The February Revolution in Petrograd

In the winter of 1917, life in Petrograd, the capital of Russia, was very
difficult.

Divisions in the City

The way the city was built showed the clear divisions among its people:

 The right bank of the River Neva had factories and workers’
houses.

 The left bank had the Winter Palace, government buildings, and
rich people’s homes.

Problems in February 1917

 There were severe food shortages in the workers’ areas.

 The winter was extremely cold, with heavy snow and frost.

 The Tsar wanted to close the Duma (parliament), but many

politicians were against this.

Start of the Protests

On 22 February, a lockout (when factory owners refuse to let workers

enter) happened at a factory on the right bank.

On 23 February, workers in 50 factories went on strike to support

those locked out.

Many of the leaders of the strike were women.

This day later became known as International Women’s Day.

The workers marched from the factory area to the city centre
(Nevskii Prospekt).

At this point, no political party was organizing the protests.

The government saw that workers were surrounding the rich areas,
so they imposed a curfew (a rule that people must stay inside at night).

The protesters left in the evening but came back on 24 and 25

February.

The government sent the cavalry (soldiers on horses) and police to

watch the protests.
The Protests Grow Stronger

On 25 February, the government suspended the Duma.

Many politicians spoke against this.

On 26 February, more demonstrators came onto the streets of the

left bank.

On 27 February, people attacked the Police Headquarters.

Crowds filled the streets, shouting slogans for bread, better wages,
shorter working hours, and democracy.

The government sent cavalry again to stop the protesters, but this
time, the soldiers refused to shoot.

At one army barrack, an officer was shot.

Soon, three regiments of soldiers rebelled and joined the striking

workers.

By that evening, the workers and soldiers created a ‘Soviet’ (council)

in the same building as the Duma.

This was called the Petrograd Soviet.

The Fall of the Tsar

The next day, a delegation (group of representatives) went to meet

the Tsar.

The military commanders told him that it was best to give up his
throne.

The Tsar agreed and abdicated (gave up his throne) on 2 March

1917.

After this, Duma leaders and Soviet leaders together formed a

Provisional Government to run the country.

A new government would be chosen through a constituent assembly

elected by all adults.

The city of Petrograd had played the most important role in the
February Revolution, which ended the monarchy in Russia in
February 1917.

3.1 After February

The Provisional Government (temporary government after the
Tsar left) included army officials, landowners, and industrialists
(factory and business owners) who had a lot of power.

However, both liberals (people who wanted democracy) and

socialists (people who wanted equality and government control of
resources) worked to create an elected government (government
chosen by voting).

Restrictions on public meetings (large gatherings) and associations

(organized groups) were removed.

All over Russia, Soviets (workers’ councils) like the Petrograd Soviet
were formed, but there was no fixed way to elect members.

Lenin’s Return and the April Theses

In April 1917, Vladimir Lenin (leader of the Bolsheviks) returned to

Russia from exile (forced to live in another country).

The Bolsheviks (a socialist group that wanted revolution quickly)

had opposed World War I since 1914.

Now, Lenin wanted Soviets to take control of Russia.

He made three demands, known as the April Theses (Lenin’s main

ideas):

1. End the war immediately.

2. Give land to peasants (farmers who had no land).

3. Nationalise (put under government control) banks.

Lenin also wanted to rename the Bolshevik Party as the Communist

Party, to show its new extreme (radical) ideas.

At first, many Bolsheviks (Lenin’s followers) were shocked.

They thought it was too early for a socialist revolution (workers

taking control of everything) and that the Provisional Government
should be supported for now.

But over the next few months, things changed.

Growing Protests

During summer 1917, workers started protesting more.

In factory areas, workers formed factory committees (groups that
questioned factory owners).

Trade unions (worker groups fighting for better pay and

conditions) also grew.

In the army, soldiers’ committees (groups of soldiers discussing

army problems) were created.

In June 1917, about 500 Soviets (workers’ councils) sent members to

the All Russian Congress of Soviets (a big meeting of Soviets from
across Russia).

The Provisional Government was losing power, and the Bolsheviks

were getting stronger.

The government tried to stop the protests by:

 Blocking workers from taking over factories.

 Arresting Bolshevik leaders.

 Using force against Bolshevik protests in July 1917.

 Making many Bolsheviks run away or hide.

Land Seizures by Peasants

Meanwhile, in villages, peasants (poor farmers) and their Socialist

Revolutionary leaders (people who fought for peasant rights)
demanded land be given to them.

Land committees (groups that decided how land was divided)

were set up.

Between July and September 1917, peasants took land from

landowners with the support of the Socialist Revolutionaries.

3.2 The Revolution of October 1917

As the conflict (fight or struggle) between the Provisional

Government (temporary government) and the Bolsheviks (Lenin’s
revolutionary group) grew, Lenin feared that the Provisional
Government might turn into a dictatorship (one-person rule with
total power).

In September 1917, Lenin started planning a rebellion (uprising)

against the government.
He gathered Bolshevik supporters from the army, soviets (workers’
councils), and factories to prepare for action.

Planning the Uprising

On 16 October 1917, Lenin convinced the Petrograd Soviet (workers’

council in Petrograd) and the Bolshevik Party to agree to a socialist
seizure (forceful takeover) of power.

To organize the attack, the Soviet created a Military Revolutionary

Committee (a group in charge of the revolution) under Leon
Trotskii (a key Bolshevik leader).

The date of the revolution was kept secret to surprise the

government.

The Uprising Begins – 24 October 1917

On 24 October, the revolution started.

Sensing danger, Prime Minister Kerenskii (head of the Provisional

Government) left the city to get troops.

At dawn (early morning), government soldiers captured the buildings

of two Bolshevik newspapers to stop their messages from
spreading.

Pro-government troops were sent to control the telephone and

telegraph offices and protect the Winter Palace (the government’s
headquarters).

However, the Military Revolutionary Committee quickly responded by

ordering its supporters to seize (take control of) government offices
and arrest government ministers (leaders).

Later in the evening, the ship Aurora (a Bolshevik warship) fired

shells (bombs) at the Winter Palace.

At the same time, other Bolshevik ships took control of military points
along the River Neva.

By night, the entire city was under Bolshevik control, and the
government ministers surrendered.

Victory of the Bolsheviks

At a meeting of the All Russian Congress of Soviets (a large
gathering of soviets from all over Russia) in Petrograd, most
members supported the Bolshevik revolution.

Similar uprisings (rebellions) took place in other cities, leading to

heavy fighting, especially in Moscow.

By December 1917, the Bolsheviks had complete control over

Moscow and Petrograd.

4 What Changed after October?

The Bolsheviks (Lenin’s revolutionary group) were completely
against private property (personal ownership of land, businesses,
etc.).

In November 1917, they nationalised (took government control of)

all industries and banks.

This meant that the government now owned and managed them
instead of individuals.

Changes in Land and Housing

Land was declared social property (owned by everyone, not just rich
landlords), and peasants (farmers) were allowed to take land from
the nobility (wealthy landowners).

In cities, the Bolsheviks divided large houses according to family

needs, so that everyone had a place to live.

They also banned aristocratic (royal and noble) titles like ‘Duke’ or
‘Lord’ to make everyone equal.

To symbolize (show) the new era, new uniforms were designed for the
army and officials.

In 1918, a design competition was held, and the Soviet hat

(budeonovka, a special cap) was chosen.

Political Changes

The Bolshevik Party was renamed the Russian Communist Party

(Bolshevik).

In November 1917, elections were held for the Constituent Assembly

(a group meant to write a new constitution).
However, the Bolsheviks did not win a majority (more than half the
votes).

In January 1918, the Assembly rejected (refused) Bolshevik ideas,

so Lenin dismissed (removed) it.

Lenin believed that the All Russian Congress of Soviets (workers'

councils across Russia) was more democratic (fair and equal) than
an Assembly elected in a chaotic situation.

Russia Becomes a One-Party State

In March 1918, even though their allies opposed (did not agree with)
the decision, the Bolsheviks made peace with Germany at Brest
Litovsk (a treaty ending Russia’s role in World War I).

In the years that followed:

 The Bolsheviks became the ONLY political party allowed in

elections.

 The All Russian Congress of Soviets became the Parliament

(government of the country).

 Trade unions (worker groups) were put under government

control.

 A secret police (Cheka, later called OGPU and NKVD) was

created to punish critics of the Bolsheviks.

Impact on Arts and Culture

Many young writers and artists supported the Bolsheviks because they
believed in socialism (equality for all people) and wanted change.

After October 1917, this led to new ideas and creativity in art and
architecture.

However, many artists later became disillusioned (disappointed)

because the Bolsheviks started censoring (controlling and limiting)
what people could write and say.

4.1 The Civil War

When the Bolsheviks ordered land redistribution (dividing land
among peasants), the Russian army began to break apart.
Most soldiers were peasants, and they wanted to go home to claim
land, so they deserted (left the army without permission).

Meanwhile, many groups opposed the Bolsheviks:

 Non-Bolshevik socialists (other left-wing revolutionaries)

 Liberals (those who wanted democracy)

 Supporters of autocracy (people who still wanted a Tsar)

These groups condemned (strongly disapproved of) the Bolshevik

takeover.

Their leaders moved to South Russia, where they formed armies to

fight against the Bolsheviks (called the ‘reds’).

Different Sides in the Civil War (1918–1919)

Three main forces fought for control of Russia:

1. The Reds (Bolsheviks) – Led by Lenin, supported by workers

and peasants

2. The Greens (Socialist Revolutionaries) – Opposed the

Bolsheviks

3. The Whites (Pro-Tsarists, rich landowners, and other anti-

Bolsheviks)

The Greens and Whites controlled most of Russia during 1918–

1919.

They were also supported by foreign countries:

 France, America, Britain, and Japan helped them because they

feared the spread of socialism (a system where wealth is
shared equally).

Impact of the Civil War

As these armies fought, Russia suffered from looting (stealing),

banditry (criminal gangs), and famine (extreme food shortage).

Among the Whites, those who supported private property (rich

landlords and businessmen) took harsh action against peasants
who had taken land.
Because of this, many peasants stopped supporting the Whites, and
by January 1920, the Bolsheviks had taken back control of most of
Russia.

Cooperation and Conflict

The Bolsheviks worked with non-Russian nationalities (different

ethnic groups in the Russian Empire) and Muslim jadidists (Muslim
reformers who wanted modernization).

However, problems arose where Russian settlers themselves became

Bolsheviks.

For example, in Khiva (Central Asia), Bolshevik settlers massacred

(killed large numbers of) local nationalists, claiming they were
protecting socialism.

This confused many people about what the Bolshevik government

truly stood for.

Formation of the Soviet Union (USSR) in 1922

To fix this issue, the Bolsheviks granted political autonomy (self-

rule) to non-Russian regions when they formed the Soviet Union
(USSR) in December 1922.

However, they also forced unpopular policies on these regions, such

as:

 Discouraging nomadism (forcing wandering tribes to settle

in one place).

Because of these policies, their attempt to win over different

nationalities only partly succeeded.

4.2 Making a Socialist Society

During the civil war, the Bolsheviks kept industries and banks
nationalised (under government control).

They allowed peasants to farm land that had been socialised (taken
from rich landlords and given to everyone). The Bolsheviks used
confiscated (seized/taken) land to show how collective (shared)
farming could work.

Introduction of Centralised Planning

In 1927, the Bolsheviks introduced centralised planning (a system
where the government controls the economy).

 Officials planned how the economy should work and set

targets (goals) for a five-year period.

 Based on this, they made the Five-Year Plans (government

plans to develop industries and agriculture).

During the first two Five-Year Plans (1927–1932 and 1933–1938):

 The government fixed (controlled) all prices to promote

industrial growth (expansion of factories and production).

 Industrial production increased massively, especially in oil,

coal, and steel.

 New factory cities were built to support this growth.

Difficulties of Rapid Industrialisation

The fast pace of construction caused poor working conditions

(unsafe and hard jobs for workers).

Example:

 In Magnitogorsk (a city built for steel production), a huge

steel plant was constructed in just three years.

 Workers suffered extreme hardships, leading to many strikes

(work stoppages).

Living conditions were also bad:

 In winter, with temperatures of -40°C, people had to climb

down from the fourth floor and run across the street just to
use the toilet.

Improvements in Education and Social Welfare

Despite these struggles, the government expanded schooling (built

more schools).

 Factory workers and peasants were allowed to study in

universities.

 Crèches (daycare centers for children) were set up in

factories, so women workers could focus on their jobs.
  Cheap public healthcare was provided.

 Model (well-planned) living quarters were built for workers.

However, these benefits were not equal for everyone because

government resources were limited (there wasn’t enough money
to help all people equally).

4.3 Stalinism and Collectivisation

 The period of the early Planned Economy (an economic system

where the government controls industries and agriculture) was
linked to the disasters of collectivisation (a system where small
private farms were taken by the government and merged into large
farms).

 By 1927-1928, the towns in Soviet Russia faced a severe grain

shortage (not enough food supply for the people).

 The government fixed prices (decided the price of grain that

peasants must follow), but the peasants refused to sell their
grain to government buyers at these low prices.

 Stalin, who became the leader after Lenin’s death, introduced

firm emergency measures (strict and immediate actions).

 He believed that rich peasants and traders in the countryside

were hoarding grain (keeping grain in secret) to sell later at
higher prices.

 This was called speculation (waiting for prices to rise before selling
goods to make more profit), and Stalin wanted to stop it.

 In 1928, Party members toured (traveled around) the grain-

producing areas, supervising enforced grain collections (forcing
peasants to give grain to the government).
 They also raided kulaks – the name for well-to-do peasants
(peasants who owned slightly more land, animals, and tools than
others).

 Who were Kulaks?

➤ Kulaks were rich peasants who owned larger farms and
employed workers.
➤ The Soviet government saw them as enemies of socialism
because they resisted giving up their grain and land.
➤ Stalin targeted them, believing they were responsible for grain
shortages.

 As shortages continued, the government decided to collectivise

farms (merge small farms into large state-controlled farms).

 It was argued that grain shortages happened because farms were

too small to be modernised (could not use modern machines and
technology).

 After 1917, land had been given to peasants, but these small
farms were inefficient (not producing enough food).

 Stalin’s solution was to eliminate kulaks, take away land from

peasants, and set up collective farms.

 Collectivisation Programme
➤ From 1929, the government forced peasants to work in
collective farms (kolkhoz) (large farms owned by the state).
➤ The bulk of land and tools were taken away from individual
farmers and given to kolkhoz.
➤ Peasants had to work together, and the profit was shared
among all.

 Peasants resisted collectivisation and were angered (frustrated

and upset).
 Many destroyed their livestock (killed their animals) instead of
handing them over to the government.

 Between 1929 and 1931, the number of cattle fell by one-

third.

 What happened to those who resisted collectivisation?

➤ They were severely punished.
➤ Many were deported (sent far away from their homes) or exiled
(forced to leave their country).
➤ The government labeled them as enemies of socialism.

 Peasants argued that they were not kulaks and were not against
socialism.

 They simply did not want to work in collective farms because

they preferred their own land.

 Stalin’s government allowed some independent cultivation, but

treated such peasants harshly.

 Did collectivisation improve farming?

➤ No, it did not increase production immediately.
➤ The bad harvests of 1930-1933 led to a devastating famine
(severe food shortage).
➤ Over 4 million people died due to starvation.

 Consequences of Collectivisation
➤ Many within the Communist Party criticised
collectivisation.
➤ They said that industrial production was confused and
unorganized under the Planned Economy.
➤ Stalin and his supporters accused these critics of working
against socialism.
 Great Purge (1936-1939)
➤ Stalin began a campaign against those who opposed his
policies.
➤ By 1939, over 2 million people were in prisons or labour
camps (forced work camps).
➤ Most of them were innocent, but no one dared to speak for
them.
➤ Many were forced to make false confessions under torture
and were executed (killed).
➤ Several of these victims were talented professionals
(scientists, engineers, writers, and artists).

5. The Global Influence of the Russian

Revolution and the USSR

 Existing socialist parties in Europe did not completely approve

(agree) with how the Bolsheviks took power and ruled.

 However, the idea of a workers’ state (a government run by

workers) inspired people all over the world.

 In many countries, communist parties were formed, such as

the Communist Party of Great Britain.

 The Bolsheviks encouraged colonial peoples (people living in

countries controlled by foreign powers) to follow their example.

 Many non-Russians from outside the USSR participated in:

➤ The Conference of the Peoples of the East (1920) (a meeting
to spread socialist ideas to Asia and the Middle East).
➤ The Bolshevik-founded Comintern (an international union of
pro-Bolshevik socialist parties).

 Some foreign supporters of socialism received education in the

USSR’s Communist University of the Workers of the East (a
university to train foreign communists).
 By the time of the Second World War, the USSR had given
socialism a global image and increased its influence
worldwide.

 By the 1950s, even within the USSR, it was recognised that the
government’s actions did not match the ideals of the
Russian Revolution.

 Many in the world socialist movement also realised that all

was not well in the Soviet Union.

 The USSR had transformed from a backward country into a

global power.

 Its industries and agriculture had developed, and the poor

were being fed.

 However, the government denied essential freedoms (such as

free speech and political choice) to its citizens.

 Development was carried out through repressive policies

(strict and harsh control over people).

 By the end of the 20th century, the international reputation

of the USSR as a socialist country had declined.

 However, socialist ideals still had respect among the people.

 In different countries, the ideas of socialism were rethought in

different ways, leading to new versions of socialism.

QUESTIONS
 1. What were the social, economic, and political conditions
in Russia before 1905?

Social Conditions:

 Russian society was divided into privileged nobles and poor

peasants.

 The majority of the population were peasants, living in

poverty and oppression.

 Workers in cities had long working hours, low wages, and no

rights.

 No political freedom—people could not question the Tsar’s rule.

Economic Conditions:

 Russia was mainly agricultural, with outdated farming methods.

 Industry was growing slowly, mostly in cities like St. Petersburg

and Moscow.

 Workers were exploited (paid very little and worked in bad

conditions).

 Peasants had to pay heavy taxes to the government.

Political Conditions:

 Absolute monarchy—Russia was ruled by Tsar Nicholas II, who

had total control.

 No democracy—the people had no say in the government.

 Opposition was crushed—revolutionaries and critics of the Tsar

were arrested or killed.

 The Russian army was used to suppress protests and

uprisings.

2. How was the working population in Russia different from

other countries in Europe before 1917?

In Russia:

 The majority of workers were peasants who had moved to cities

recently.
 They still had ties to their villages and returned to farming
during harvest time.

 Factory workers had terrible working conditions (low wages,

long hours, harsh punishments).

 Trade unions were not allowed, and protests were often crushed
by the police.

In Europe:

 Industrial workers were more settled in cities and had no village

ties.

 Trade unions were strong and fought for workers' rights.

 Some European countries had democratic governments, so

workers could demand better conditions.

 Laws protected workers’ rights, unlike in Russia.

3. Why did the Tsarist autocracy collapse in 1917?

Main Reasons:

 Russia’s defeat in World War I (millions of soldiers died, food

shortages, economic crisis).

 People lost faith in Tsar Nicholas II due to poor leadership.

 The February Revolution (1917)—protests and strikes forced the

Tsar to abdicate.

 The Provisional Government failed to improve conditions,

leading to the October Revolution.

 Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, took control and ended the Tsarist rule
permanently.

4. Main events and effects of the February & October

Revolutions

February Revolution (1917):

Main Events:

 Protests started in Petrograd due to food shortages and war

losses.
 Workers and soldiers joined the protests.

 The Tsar lost control and abdicated (stepped down).

 A Provisional Government was set up, but it was weak.

Effects:

 End of monarchy—Russia was no longer ruled by the Tsar.

 The Provisional Government took power, but it failed to solve

problems.

 Bolsheviks gained support, leading to the October Revolution.

October Revolution (1917):

Main Events:

 Lenin and the Bolsheviks overthrew the Provisional

Government.

 The Bolsheviks took control of Petrograd and arrested

government ministers.

 The Winter Palace was captured by Bolshevik forces.

Effects:

 Bolsheviks took power and started a socialist government.

 Private property was abolished, and industries were

nationalized.

 Russia became a one-party communist state.

 The Russian Civil War (1918-1920) began as opponents fought

the Bolsheviks.

Who was involved?

 February Revolution: Workers, soldiers, women protesters,

and the Provisional Government.

 October Revolution: Bolsheviks, led by Lenin and Trotsky,

against the Provisional Government.
 Impact on Soviet History:

 February Revolution ended monarchy, but did not solve

Russia’s problems.

 October Revolution led to communist rule and created the

USSR.

5. What were the main changes brought by the Bolsheviks

immediately after the October Revolution?

Political Changes:

 End of Provisional Government—Bolsheviks took complete

control.

 Russia became a one-party state, ruled by the Bolsheviks

(later Communist Party).

Economic Changes:

 All industries and banks were nationalized (taken over by the

government).

 Land was given to peasants, and private property was abolished

Social Changes:

 Nobility lost their power and privileges.

 Old aristocratic titles were banned.

 New socialist uniforms were introduced.

Foreign Relations:

 Russia made peace with Germany (Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 1918).

 Other countries feared communism and started opposing the

USSR.

6. Short Notes on Key Terms

Kulaks:
 Rich peasants in Russia who owned large farms.

 Opposed collectivization and were punished under Stalin’s rule.

The Duma:

 Russia’s Parliament, created after the 1905 Revolution.

 Had very little power, as the Tsar could dismiss it anytime.

Women Workers (1900-1930):

 Worked in factories, textile mills, and farms, but were paid less
than men.

 Led protests during the February Revolution (1917).

 After the revolution, some women got jobs in government and

industry, but conditions were still tough.

The Liberals:

 Political group that wanted democracy in Russia.

 Supported constitutional monarchy (where the Tsar’s power is

limited by a parliament).

 They were against socialism and communism.

Stalin’s Collectivization Programme:

 Started in 1929 to force peasants into collective farms

(kolkhoz).

 Private farms were abolished, and land was taken by the state.

 Many peasants resisted, leading to mass arrests, famine, and

deaths.

 By 1933, over 4 million people died due to famine.