MPYE-009: Philosophy of Science and Cosmology

Q1. Write a note on the commonality and difference between scientific and philosophical
methods.

Scientific and philosophical methods both aim at understanding reality, but they differ in
approach, scope, and validation.

Commonalities:

1. Rational Inquiry: Both rely on reason and logical analysis.

2. Systematic Approach: Both disciplines adopt structured methods to
arrive at conclusions.
3. Conceptual Clarity: Science and philosophy emphasize defining
terms and constructing coherent arguments.
4. Critical Thinking: Both require skepticism, questioning, and
evaluation of evidence or reasoning.

Differences:

1. Empirical Basis: Science depends on empirical observation and

experimentation. Philosophy often deals with abstract reasoning and
conceptual analysis.
2. Method of Verification: Scientific claims are testable and falsifiable.
Philosophical claims may not be empirically verifiable.
3. Scope: Philosophy addresses questions beyond empirical reach (e.g.,
metaphysics, ethics), whereas science focuses on observable
phenomena.
4. Language: Science often uses mathematical or technical language;
philosophy leans towards analytical and discursive reasoning.

In conclusion, science and philosophy are complementary. Philosophy scrutinizes the

foundations of science (epistemology, ethics of research), while science informs philosophical
discourse (e.g., cosmology and ontology).

Q2. What is falsification? Write an essay on the contribution of Karl H. Popper in the
development of philosophy of science.

Falsification is the idea that scientific theories should be structured in such a way that they can
be proven false by observation or experiment. Introduced by Karl Popper, falsifiability became a
criterion for distinguishing scientific theories from non-scientific ones.
Popper was critical of inductive reasoning—the idea that general laws can be derived from
repeated observations. He argued that no amount of confirming evidence can conclusively verify
a theory, but a single counter-example can falsify it. This led to his demarcation principle:
science advances by bold conjectures and rigorous attempts at refutation.

For example, the statement "All swans are white" can be falsified by observing a single black
swan. Thus, a good scientific theory should make risky predictions that can be tested.

Popper’s philosophy emphasized:

 Critical Rationalism: Knowledge grows through criticism.

 Objective Knowledge: Theories are independent of individual beliefs.
 Open Society: Science thrives in free and open debate.

His work reshaped scientific methodology, steering it away from verificationism and towards a
more dynamic model of conjecture and refutation.

Q3a. What do you understand by observation? Discuss the limits of observation in science.

Observation is the process of acquiring data through the senses or instruments. It is foundational
in science, serving as the basis for hypotheses, experiments, and theory validation.

However, observation has limitations:

1. Theory-ladenness: Observations are influenced by the observer’s

theoretical framework. What we see depends on what we expect.
2. Instrumental Limits: Instruments extend perception but have their
own biases and errors.
3. Subjectivity: Human perception can be flawed or selective.
4. Under-determination: Multiple theories can explain the same
observations.

Therefore, while observation is crucial, it must be interpreted within a theoretical context and is
subject to revision.

Q3b. What are the philosophical implications of the Bayesian theory of Probability?

Bayesian theory interprets probability as a measure of degree of belief, not just frequency.
Probabilities are updated with new evidence using Bayes’ Theorem.

Philosophical implications include:

 1. Subjectivity: Probability becomes personal and dynamic.
2. Rational Decision-Making: Emphasizes belief revision and evidence-
based inference.
3. Scientific Method: Challenges the objectivity of frequentist
approaches and accommodates uncertainty more flexibly.
4. Confirmation Theory: Offers a model for how evidence confirms
hypotheses.

Bayesianism bridges logic and epistemology, making it influential in AI, statistics, and scientific
theory assessment.

Q4a. Write a note on the Aupanishadik understanding of cosmology.

The Upanishads present a spiritual cosmology rooted in the concept of Brahman—the ultimate,
formless reality from which the cosmos emerges. The world is seen as a manifestation of
Brahman through Maya (illusion or creative power).

Creation is not ex nihilo but a transformation or expression of Brahman. Time is cyclical,

involving creation (srishti), preservation (sthiti), and dissolution (pralaya). The individual self
(Atman) is identical to Brahman, implying a unity of microcosm and macrocosm.

This cosmology emphasizes consciousness, interconnection, and metaphysical unity over

physical explanation.

Q4b. Highlight the main features of feminist account of science.

Feminist critiques of science expose the gender biases in scientific practices, institutions, and
epistemology. Main features include:

1. Situated Knowledge: Emphasizes the role of context and perspective

in knowledge production.
2. Critique of Objectivity: Challenges the idea of a detached, neutral
observer.
3. Inclusivity: Advocates for diverse participation in scientific research.
4. Ethical Concerns: Questions exploitation and marginalization in
research (e.g., reproductive studies).
5. Reconstruction: Aims to reform science to be more democratic and
socially just.

Feminist epistemology enriches science by integrating social, ethical, and gender-aware

perspectives.
Q4e. What are the postulates of special theory of relativity?

Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity (1905) is based on two main postulates:

1. Principle of Relativity: The laws of physics are the same in all

inertial frames of reference.
2. Constancy of the Speed of Light: The speed of light in a vacuum is
constant (c = 3x10^8 m/s), regardless of the motion of the source or
observer.

Consequences include:

 Time Dilation: Moving clocks run slower.

 Length Contraction: Moving objects shorten in the direction of motion.
 Mass-Energy Equivalence: E=mc^2

These postulates revolutionized physics and altered our understanding of space, time, and
energy.

Q5a. Decoherence

Decoherence is the process by which quantum systems lose their quantum behavior and appear
classical. It occurs when a quantum system interacts with its environment, causing the
superposition states to collapse into definite outcomes.

This explains why macroscopic objects don’t exhibit quantum weirdness. Decoherence helps
interpret quantum mechanics, especially in the Many-Worlds and Copenhagen interpretations,
but it does not solve the measurement problem entirely.

Q5b. Idea of Incommensurability

Incommensurability, introduced by Kuhn and Feyerabend, refers to the idea that scientific
theories from different paradigms cannot be directly compared because they use different
standards, languages, and assumptions.

It challenges the linear progress of science and emphasizes the complexity of paradigm shifts.
Incommensurability implies that scientific revolutions involve radical conceptual changes.
Q5c. Paradigm Shift

Coined by Thomas Kuhn, a paradigm shift is a fundamental change in the basic concepts and
practices of a scientific discipline. It occurs when anomalies in the existing paradigm lead to a
scientific revolution and a new framework.

Examples: The shift from Newtonian to Einsteinian physics. Kuhn argued that science is not
purely cumulative but undergoes episodic transformations.

Q5d. Dark Matter

Dark Matter is an invisible substance that makes up about 27% of the universe’s mass-energy. It
does not emit, absorb, or reflect light, making it undetectable by electromagnetic means.

Its presence is inferred from gravitational effects on galaxies and cosmic structures. Dark matter
plays a crucial role in cosmology, especially in explaining galactic rotation curves and large-
scale structure.

Q5g. The Inflationary Theory

The Inflationary Theory postulates that the universe underwent a rapid exponential expansion in
the first fraction of a second after the Big Bang.

Proposed by Alan Guth, it solves problems in the Big Bang model such as the horizon problem,
flatness problem, and monopole problem. It predicts a homogeneous and isotropic universe
consistent with cosmic microwave background data.

End of MPYE-009 Assignment