Lecture 10
INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY
The most important livestock products originate from physiological processes. These include
meat, milk and eggs. For an animal to be productive, it must first be alive and healthy. The
various physiological systems ensuring normal functioning of an animal include the Respiratory,
Circulatory, Nervous, Endocrine, Reproductive, Digestive and Excretory Systems.
Animal physiology and meat production
Growth
Muscle development
Fat deposition
Connective tissue development is influenced by factors such as:
Species
Sex
Nutrition
Age
Growth is a characteristic of living things and can be defined as an increase in body size or mass
of part or all of the body over a specific period of time. Growth results from any or all of the
following processes:
• Increase in body weight till mature size is reached
• Increase in cell number and size accompanied by protein deposition
• Increase in structural tissues and organs. Structural tissues include Bone, Muscle and
other connective tissues such as fat, tendons, etc.
Development often accompanies growth as cells and tissues become differentiated, increasing
in complexity. Development involves the directive coordination of all diverse processes until
maturity is reached. It involves:
• Growth
• Cellular differentiation
• Changes in body shape and form
Meat is derived principally from muscle, fat and connective tissue. The major component of
muscle is protein, formed in the cells of the body in processes involving formation of
messenger-RNA in the nucleus (Transcription) and protein synthesis in the cytoplasm
(Translation).
Meat
Animal physiology and milk production
Mammary gland development and growth
Udder size and milk production
Influencing factors
Stage of lactation
Parity
Feeding frequency
Milking frequency
Female mammals produce milk after parturition for nurture of their young. Milk is produced in
the mammary gland known as the udder in Cattle, Sheep and Goats.
Mammary gland (Udder) of a Goat
Hind leg
Udder
Teat
Animal physiology and egg production
The chicken egg is one of the most complete foods available to man. It is well packaged (in a
shell) and contains protein, fat, minerals and other nutrients in proportions needed. A good
understanding of the physiology of chicken egg production helps the farmer to maximise profit.
Structure of chicken egg
Animal physiology and artificial insemination
Definition and utility
Artificial insemination, or AI for short, is the introduction of spermatozoa into the female
reproductive tract around the time of oestrus for the purpose of achieving conception. AI is one
of the most powerful tools developed in the twentieth century for the genetic improvement of
livestock. It enables the application of high selection pressure on the male side thereby
substantially increasing the rate of genetic progress per year.
Artificial insemination involves the following processes:
Semen collection Semen evaluation Semen processing Semen storage Insemination
Semen preservation and storage
Fresh, diluted semen
Ambient storage, 25-30oC
Chilled storage, 5oC
Deep-frozen storage, -196oC
Artificial vagina for bull semen collection
Animal physiology and embryo transfer
Definition and utility
Embryo transfer (ET) is an applied reproductive physiology procedure for obtaining several
offspring from a highly valued dam using other females as surrogate dams. It is a technique that
enables high selection pressure to be applied on the female side.
The processes involved in ET are:
Super ovulation Mating or AI Embryo recovery Embryo transfer
Super-ovulation, mating or AI
Embryo recovery, embryo transfer
Animal physiology and controlled breeding
Definition and utility
Controlled breeding is the manipulation of the female reproductive cycle to suit Management
objectives. It involves the following processes:
Separation of sexes, oestrus detection, oestrus synchronization, AI, ET, Pregnancy
diagnosis
Animal physiology and artificial insemination
Definition and utility
Artificial insemination, or AI for short, is the introduction of spermatozoa into the female
reproductive tract around the time of oestrus for the purpose of achieving conception. AI is one
of the most powerful tools developed in the twentieth century for the genetic improvement of
livestock. It enables the application of high selection pressure on the male side thereby
substantially increasing the rate of genetic progress per year.
Insemination involves the following processes:
Semen collection Semen evaluation Semen processing Semen storage Insemination
Semen preservation and storage
o Fresh, diluted semen
o Ambient storage, 25-30oC
o Chilled storage, 5oC
o Deep-frozen storage, -196oC
Equipment used for Artificial insemination
Cattle artificial vagina (AV)
MARKING HARNESSES
Rubber liner for cattle AV Rubber liner for cattle AV
Cone for cattle AV
Insemination guns
Ram/Buck AV
MARKING HARNESSES
Introduction
Oestrus or “heat” is a period during the reproductive cycle when female animals become
sexually receptive, signalling they are ready for mating. In most cases, this can also be referred
to as “standing heat” because the female will stand to be mated by the male. Oestrus is caused
by oestrogen being produced within developing follicles in the ovary, and ovulation usually
occurs after the initial signs of oestrus are detected.
Duration of oestrus and the time of ovulation in relationship to the onset of oestrus vary with
the species. If behavioural or physical signs are not obvious, oestrus may even pass unnoticed.
Successful recognition of the signs of oestrus for mating, just prior to the time of ovulation, can
result in increased conception rates for the herd or flock.
Detection Aids
Apart from personal observations and sound record keeping, there are various methods used to
detect oestrus in the herd. Marker animals can be used for oestrus detection and there are
different marking devices that can also be used. Marker animals are usually males that have
been altered in some way, so they cannot mate, but they still have the desire to mate, resulting
in a visual mark from the marking device left on the female in oestrus.
Teaser animals are another detection aid, involving surgical alteration of the male, causing
them to be sterile. The most common surgical method is a vasectomy, involving the removal of
a section of the vas deferens thereby preventing sperm passage. Others include: pressure-
sensitive heat-mount detectors such as KaMar® heat detectors and Chin-ball marking harness in
bulls. In sheep, a marking harness can be fitted on the vasectomized or aproned ram. The
harness is similar to the chin-ball marker used for cattle. It has a coloured crayon that is
situated over the sternum of the ram so that it will mark the ewes’ rump as it attempts to
breed.
