KFRI Research Report 4

TAUNGYA IN RELATION TO SOIL PROPERTIES SOIL

EROSION AND SOIL MANAGEMENT

T.G. Alexander
K.Sobhana,
M. Balagopalan
M.V. Mary

KERALA FOREST RESERCH INSTITUTE

PEECHI, THRISSUR
December 1980 Page:24
 CONTENTS
Page File
Abstract r.4.2
Chapter
1 Introduction 1 r.4.3
2 Background 2 r.4.4
3 Materials and Methods 8 r.4.5
4 Results 11 r.4.6
5 Discussion 17 r.4.7
6 Conclusion and Recommendation 22 r.4.8
7 Literature Cited 23 r.4.9
ABSTRACT

Though taungya is in vogue in Kerala Forestry since 1922, the effects of taungya
practices on soil properties have not been studied so far. Further, the present
cropping patterns of rice-rice, rice-tapioca, tapioca-tapioca and lately ginger are
ad hoc choices and either economic analyses or experimental data are not
available to support these choices. Therefore, this project agrisilvicultural
practices in relation to soil properties, soil erosion and soil management was
taken up in April 1977 with the objectives of evaluating changes in soil properties
due to taungya practices, assessing indirectly the extent of soil erosion in
taungya plantations and improving the management of soils during the first two
years of forest plantations.

Six taungya plots of 0.4 to 2.0 ha were selected in clear felled areas of
Vazhachal, Trichur and Nilambur Divisions. Soil samples were collected from
profiles to characterize the plots and 12 stratified surface samples (0-20 cm)
were taken from each plot at various stages. Sand, siltand clay separates, pH in
soil-water suspension, organic carbon, and cation exchange capacity were
selected as the soil properties to be studied.

After two years of taungya cropping, changes tend to occur with sand, silt and
clay contents, pH, organic carbon, and cation exchange capacity. Distribution of
more silt plus clay and less sand in the surface samples after two croppings
suggest that surface sample texture is influenced by the texture of the
subsurface horizons. This observation is supported by the profile data. It implies
that the surface horizons are partly eroded and the subsurface horizons are
gradually getting exposed.

Since two years of crop growth is unlikely to cause much effect on the sand, silt
and clay contents, organic carbon, and cation exchange capacity, the changes
seen are likely due to the disturbance caused to the soil in the form of
preplanting tillage, intercultivation and harvesting operations. The data suggest
that one crop of rice causes less changes in some of these soil properties than
rice-rice, rice-tapioca and tapioca crops. Further, the raising of one crop of rice
causes minimum disturbance to the surface horizons of the soils and after the
harvest, the residues form a surface, much which will retard runoff and erosion.

Based on the experimental data and well-established principles of tropical soil

management, it is suggested that only one crop of rice may be allowed in
taungya plantations. However, if a second crop is required for taungya
plantations, rice may be cultivated with minimum preparation of land. If the
choice is for tapioca or any tuberous/rhizomatous crop requiring thorough land
preparation, soil conservation measures should be adopted for keeping soil loss
to the minimum.
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INTRODUCTION

Agrisilviculture (taungya) is the combination of agriculture and silviculture in which

forestland is used for growing agricultural crops during the initial years of forest
plantation. Taungya fits in with the concept of multiple land use and here the land is
used simultaneously for rising agricultural and forestry crops.

Though taungaya is in vogue in Kerala Forestry since 1922, the effects of taungya
practices on soils have not been studies so far. A general observation is that these
practices lead to considerable soil erosion in our forest plantations. Even though
short-term benefits are obtained through lease income and saving in weeding costs,
loss through soil erosion is irretrievable. Further, the present cropping patterns of
rice-rice, rice-tapioca, tapioca-tapioca, and lately ginger are choices out of
exogenous considerations and experimental data are not available to support these
choices. These observations necessitate an organized study on taungya practices for
evolving optimal soil management practices in forest plantations during their initial
years.

The present project agrisilvicultural practices in relation to soil properties, soil

erosion and soil management was taken up in April 1977 with the objectives of
evaluating changes n i soil properties due to taungya practices, assessing indirectly
the extent of soil erosion in taungya plantations and improving the management of
soils during the first two years of forest plantations.
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BACKGROUND

Origin and Development of Taungya in India

Taungya is a Burmese word, which means temporary cultivation on hilly lands.

The word is derived from taung, which means hill and ya meaning cultivation
usually of a temporary character. Taungya is also the term originally used for a
shifting field of shifting cultivation in Burma (Blanford 1925).

In 1856 when Diertrich Brandis was in Burma (then part of India), shifting
cultivation was rampant and there were several court cases against the
encroaching villagers. Brandis realized that shifting cultivation which was so
detrimental to the management of timber resources could possibly be rendered
useful to the development of forestry. Based on the well-known German system
of waldfeldbau which involves cultivation of agricultural crops in forests, and on
the success of teak taungya plantations in Taungoo and Tharrawaddy Divisions,
Brandis encouraged the concept ‘regeneration of teak with the assistance of
taungya’. (Blanford 1925, King 1979).

Soon Forest Department distributed teak (Tectona grandis) and rice (Oryza
sativa) seeds to farmers and two decades later, this system had proved so good
that teak plantations could be established very much cheaper than otherwise. At
the same time the taungya system was of educational value. The villagers no
longer had to defend themselves in court for destroying the forests; instead they
promoted afforestation of the cleared land by sowing teak seeds. After the
clearing and before afforestation the taungya fields were usually used for the
intermediate cultivation of rice, tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) and sesame
(Sesamum indicum) in the valleys and of sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum),
cotton (Gossypium spp.) and maize (Zea mays) on the slopes. Thus a symbiotic
agreement between the Forest Department and farmers developed.

The Forest Department later introduced taungya into British India too. In India,
the first taungya plantation was initiated in 1910s. In the Siwaliks (Uttar
Pradesh), twelve new settlements were created with the villagers’ help. Each
farmer was given 0.3 to 1 ha of forestland to clear and cultivate. During the first
two years, the whole area was cultivated whereas during the next three years
cultivation took place between the sal (Shorea robusta) seedlings. The farmers
agreed to look after and weed the plantation in return for the use of the land for
cultivation of food crops.

When we study the history of forest management in India and Burma, it is

evident that the aim of taungya was to curb shifting cultivation, which was
harmful to timber resources. Simultaneously, food was produced for the local
people. The advantages of taungya were manifold, ranging from higher yields of
agricultural as well as tree crops, protection from soil erosion if contour
cultivation and terracing were practiced on slopy lands and more regular
employment for the local population. Discipline among farmers, expert
knowledge on the part of forester and good organization were decisive factors or
its success.
 3

Taungya is extensively practiced in several States. It is called Kumri in Tamil

Nadu and Kumri or Poonam in Kerala. There is considerable variation in the
practices followed in different regions. Some of the finest taungya plantations
can be seen in Gorakhpur Forest Division of Uttar Pradesh.

Taungya in some of the Tropical countries

Taungya is widely practiced in tropical forestry with local variations in the

system. The principle underlying the system of taungya is that in all cases
temporary fertility of the forestland is used by the farmers for cultivation of
agricultural crops.

Burma

Taungya system was started in 1856. However from 1906 onward, taungya
plantations were almost given up in most Forest Divisions and attention was
turned more to the improvement of the natural stock by improvement fellings.
Due to the earlier taungyas, teak plantations had been scattered in such an
indiscriminate way in small blocks that organized tending and thinning were
almost impossible. Hence for sometime there was a great prejudice against any
further planting operations. The resumption of taungyas in the 1920s was a great
step forward in Burma toward systematic forestry (Blanford 1925).

Indonesia

Taungya is called Tumpangsari and it is prevalent in central Java for

establishment of teak plantations. The farmers are allowed to cultivate blocks of
land for two years, growing dryland rice and maize and simultaneously
maintaining teak seedlings, Since 1974, as system of intensified taungya has
been introduced to assist the farmers to obtain greater yields from their crops.
Improved seeds, fertilizers and pesticides are supplied free to farmers in return
for the maintenance of young teak crop. The State Forest Corporation considers
taungya to be economically beneficial since the cost per hectare of establishing
teak is considered to be as low as Rp 20,000 compared to Rp 40 000 using
departmental labour (Rs 400 and 800 respectively).

In central Java, rice, maize, green beans (Phaseolus spp.), and tapioca
(Mannihot esculenta) are cultivated along with teak and leucaena (Leucaena
leucocephala) interplanted with rows of mahogani (Swietenia mahagoni) and
rosewood (Dalbergia latifolia) surrounded by hedges of sappan (Caesalpinia
sappan). Good selection of seed for the food crops, the correct use of fertilizers
and weed control with herbicides contribute to what is claimed to be a massive
increase in food production as well as the successful establishment of a tree crop.
In north Sumatra, Pinus merkusii is planted with the special green belt of clove
(Eugenia caryophyllata), nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) and cinnamon
(Cinnamomum zeylanicum) on land subjected to shifting cultivation (Anonymous
1979).

Nigeria

Forest regeneration is commonly achieved through taungya system. A tract of

 4

commercially logged land is allotted to a farmer who cuts the residual trees and
undergrowth, burns them and raises his food crops along with tree seedlings
planted by the Forest Department. The farmer ordinarily crops the land for two
years, then turns it over to the Forest Department and he is assigned a new area
for cultivation (Onweluzo 1979).

Taungya in Kerala

Taungya is known by several names such as Poonam, Kumri and Tuckle. It was
introduced in 1922 in an area of 84 ha of teak plantation in Konni Division
(George 1961).Since that time, taungya has been gradually extended to other
areas. In 1932, teak taungya plantations were initiated in Begur area of Wynad
Division. The taungya system practised during 1930s was as follows (Laurie
1934):

The taungyadars were allotted their plots in May, usually about 0.4 ha to each
family. They did a clean scraping of the area towards the end of may and ragi
(Eleucine coracana) was sown at the beginning of the rains usually in the first or
second week of June. The teak planted by the Forest Department was kept
weeded by the taungyadars who also replaced casualties free of cost. Ragi was
harvested either in November or December, by which time it was one metre high
and very dense. With early stump planting, it was possible to get the teak
seedlings upto over 45 cm before the ragi competed with them seriously.
Regarding teak taungya, one difficulty was that in two years the teak saplings
were so high that they interfered with the cultivation and taungyadars objected
to being not given a new area for cultivation.

The taungya system practised now is similar to the one just described. Instead of
allotting smaller areas to farmers, larger blocks are now leased for taungya by
tender and generally contractors are the taungyadars and not farmers. Also a
variety of crops are grown such as rice, tapioca, ginger (Zingiber officinale),
sesame and pulses. The annual taungya area and lease amount for the period
1974 to 1978 are shown in Figures 1 and 2.

From Taungya to Agroforestry

As we have seen the taungya system is a development from shifting cultivation

in that the agricultural crops are raised by destroying tree crops in shifting
cultivation and in taungya, agricultural crops are grown in association with tree
crops.

As the population increased considerably in the tropical regions, the use of

forestland for agricultural purposes became a necessity and the
commercialization of taungya led to a series of agrisilvicultural practices – all
variations of taungya system – in most of the tropical countries. From these
agrisilvicultural practices developed the concept of agroforestry involving
integration of agriculture, animal husbandry and fisheries with forestry. In other
words, agroforestry envisages the use of forestland for agriculture, animal
husbandry and fisheries with forestry. In other words, agroforestry envisages the
use of forest land for agriculture, animal husbandry and fisheries. However, the
ways and means of achieving the desired ends by this integration will have to be
developed. This evolutionary pattern of practices shows that taungya is possibly
an intermediate step in the sequence shifting cultivation to agroforestry.
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In India, though taungya was intended to help the farmers (mostly tribals),
directly or indirectly they were alienated from taungya operations. This is
particularly true in Kerala. Presently, contractors are mostly the taungyadars and
the products mainly tapioca, paddy and ginger are moved in to from the
production area. Though in Kerala taungya has indirectly encouraged
encroachment of forest lands, in countries like Thailand and Indonesia, the
taungya plantations act as buffer zones against encroachment since farmers
(mostly tribals) are very much involved in taungya operations.

Resume of Previous Taungya Studies

Though there have not been many detailed studies on the different aspects of
taungya, many workers have recorded their observations based on the limited
field studies. Based on the observations of taungya practices in the settlements
of Paleungs, Burma, Watson (1908) expresses the fear of converting forest land
into unproductive wasteland incapable of supporting any population in two
decades. However, another observer (Anonymous 1919) from Burma notes that
taungya system incorporating farming is more suitable for Burmese conditions.
Adam (1923) stresses the importance of knowledge of agricultural crops used in
taungya, with special reference to their effect on the tree crops. From
observations of taungya in Thindawyo reserve in Burma, Hay (1924) records the
suppression of tree seedlings by sugarcane. In the same vein, working in Cachar
Division, Rowbotham (1924) points out the suppression of teak seedlings by rice
in the first year. And, Hussain (1925) comments on the detrimental effect of
shade of arhar (Cajanus cajan) on the sal seedlings.

In an Indonesian study Coster and Kardjowasono (1935) conclude that

agricultural crop in any form retards teak growth and succession of more
agricultural crops is harmful. Tapioca is found to be more harmful followed by dry
paddy, groundnut and goat pepper. They also comment on root competition and
shade effects. However, they suggest that ill effects of taungya are not so great
as to abandon it. Another observer (Anonymous 1936) suggests that taungya
practiced in areas covered by species other than bamboos or grasses have a
profound effect on the lime requirement of the surface soils. This indirectly
indicates that the leaching rate is increased under taungya. In this connection,
Coster’s (1939) report shows that teak is susceptible to root competition,
especially that of grass.

Manning (1941) suggests that the quality of the agricultural crop in taungya
must be improved. He also recommends that the improvement of the land can be
achieved through terracing in hilly areas. Some of the general observations on
taungya are those of Browne (1929), De (1932), Schnepper (1934), Aguirre
(1963), and Champion and Seth (1968).

In Kerala, experiments conducted in Palghat Division (Anonymous 1947, 1949)

indicate that many agricultural crops have no detrimental effect on teak growth.
The workers suggest that hill rice, chillies, cotton, millets, tapioca, horsegram
and ginger can be grown along with teak without any loss in height increment.
 7

Commenting on the advantages of taungya in Java, Alphen de Veer (1954) notes

that leasing of land to the planters serves a social purpose and in return the
young trees take advantage of the good care which is given by the former in the
form of regular weeding and soil working. Also from the Indonesian experience,
Joeswopranjoto (1957) recommends that soil conservation measures should be
adopted in teak plantations.

From Malaysian experience, Cheah (1971) recommends taungya as a measure

against encroachment and for successful afforestation of unproductive area. Also
Mansoor and Bor (1972) note that taungya system can play an important role in
forest rehabilitation in Malaysia because it is an inexpensive means of afforestation.
They comment that in addition to its desirable or positive economic aspects, because
of the involvement of rural people, taungya also provides employment and improves
the living standards of the rural population. Considering the positive roles of taungya
practices, National Commission on Agriculture (1976) recommends that the Forest
Departments should encourage taungya in afforestation sites to provide employment
to rural population and simultaneously to increase productivity of agricultural crops.
 8

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The experimental plots were laid out in forest plantations to conform to usual
management practices. As management practices such as taungya leasing and
cultivation of specified crops by the taungyadars were beyond our control, all the
cropping sequences except tapioca-tapioca were available for soil-sampling before
cropping, after first and after second croppings.

Soil Samples

Six taungya plots were selected in 1977 from clearfelling areas of Vazhachal, Trichur
and Nilambur Divisions (Table 1). Soil samples were collected from profiles to
characterize soil in each plot. For taking surface samples (0-20 cm), each plot was
divided into four horizontal subplots and three random samples were collected from
each subplot (Table 2). Such stratified surface samples were taken from all the plots
before cropping (control); from Kollathirumed, Vazhachal, Pullamkandam, Elencheri
and Kariem-Muriem after rice; from Elencheri and Kaiem-Muriem after rice-rice; from
Kollathirumed after rice-tapioca; and from Kondazhi after tapioca cultivations. The
soil samples were air-dried, passed through 2 – mm sieve and stored for analyses.

Rationale for the Analyses

One of the objectives of the study being evaluation of changes in soil properties due
to taungya practices, properties of the soils have to be studied before cropping and
after rice, rice-rice and tapioca croppings.

Particle-size distribution, an important physical property and soil reaction (pH),

organic carbon and cation exchange capacity, three important chemical properties of
the soils were selected for analyses. Considering the three year duration of the
project as well as the general nature of the problem, study of these properties can
throw enough light on the effect of taungya practices on soil properties.

Since soil erosion measurements would involve much instrumentation and a large
number of plot-years, it was decided to asses the extent of erosion indirectly. Such
an indirect assessment can be based on the premise that if surface horizon is being
eroded or part of it is slowly removed, the properties of the horizon immediately
below would tend to show up in the properties of the surface samples (0-20 cm) to
be sampled after rice, rice-rice, rice-tapioca or tapioca croppings. Though the profile
samples were essentially taken for characterization of each plot, the properties of the
surface one or two horizons can be studied from the profile data.

Analyses

Particle-size separates (sand 2.00 – 0.02, silt 0.02 – 0.002, clay < 0.002 mm
diameter), pH in soil water suspension, organic carbon and cation exchange capacity
analyses were done according to methods described in Methods of Soil Analysis
(American Society of Agronomy 1965) and Soil Chemical Analysis (Jackson 1958). A
simplified textural diagram developed by us was used for determination of textural
class of the soil after particle-size analysis (Fig.3).
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RESULTS

Descriptions of the profiles and their properties are given in Tables 3-8 and
properties of surface samples in relation to taungya treatments are given in
Table 9 and Figure 4.

Particle-size Separates

The relative proportion of sand, silt and clay separates determines soil texture.
Most of the surface horizons are loam in texture. In the profiles, sand (coarser
separate) decreases and silt plus clay (finer separates) increases with depth. In
the surface samples, texture ranges from loamy sand to loam with most of them
being loam.

Soil Reaction (pH)

Hydrogen ion activity or pH value is a measure of soil reaction. Most of the

surface horizons are strongly acid. In Kollathirumed, Pullamkandam and Kariem-
Muriem, pH decreases with depth and in the Vazhachal, Kondazhi and Elencheri
profiles, it tends to increase with depth. The surface samples are medium to
strongly acid.

Organic Carbon

Organic matter content of a soil can generally be calculated from organic carbon
content by multiplying the latter by 1.72 since organic matter contains
approximately 58% carbon. In all the profiles, organic carbon decreases with
depth and beyond 100 cm depth, there is very little of it. This is expected as
there will be more litter deposited in the surface horizons. The surface samples
are fairly rich I the organic carbon.

Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

The sum of exchangeable bases (principally calcium, magesium, potassium and

sodium) and exchangeable hydrogen plus aluminum is a measure of CEC of soil.
CEC values tend to decrease with depth in Kollathirumed, Pullamkandam,
Kondazhi and Elencheri and remains steady with depth in Vazhachal and Kariem-
Muriem profiles. In the surface samples CEC values are fairly high.

Soil Properties in Relation to Taungya Cropping

Sand decreases and silt plus clay increases with rice in Kollathirumed, Vazhachal,
Elencheri and Kariem-Muriem and with tapioca cropping in Kollathirumed and
Kondazhi surface sample. In Pullamkandam, sand increases and silt plus clay
decreases with rice cultivation. pH decreases with first rice in Kollathirumed ,
Vazhachal, Pullamkandam, Elencheri and Kariem-Muriem whereas it increases
with second rice in Elencheri and Kariem-Muriem and with tapioca in
Kollathirumed and Kondazhi. Organic carbon increases with rice cropping in
Kollathirumed,; it comes back to the initial level with tapioca; it decreases with
rice in Vazhachal and Pullamkandam; and it increases with rice in Elencheri and
with tapioca in Kondazhi. Cation exchange capacity decreases with rice-tapioca in
Kollathirumed, with rice in Vazhacahl and Pullamkandam and it increases with
rice-rice in Elencheri and Kariem-Muriem. However, it remains unchanged with
tapioca cropping in Kondazhi surface samples.
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DISCUSSION

Changes in Soil Properties

After two years of taungya cropping, changes tend to occur with sand, silt and
clay contents, pH, organic carbon and cation exchange capacity. Distribution of
more silt plus clay and less sand in the surface samples after two years of
cropping suggests that surface sample texture is influenced by the texture of the
subsurface horizons. This is evident when we study the properties of the top two
horizons of the profiles (Tables 3-8). The san content decreases and silt plus clay
content increases with depth in the profiles. For example, Kollathirumed 10-35
cm horizon has 67% san and 33% silt plus clay compared to 71% san and 29%
silt plus clay in the 0-10 cm horizon. The same trend is evident in Vazhachal,
Pullamkandam, Kondazhi, Elencheri and Kariem-Muriem profiles. In all the
profiles organic carbon decreases with depth and cation exchange capacity tend
to decrease with depth in all the profiles except Vazhachal and Kariem-Muriem.

Since two years of crop growth is unlikely to cause much effect on the sand, silt
and clay contents, organic carbon and cation exchange capacity, the changes
seen are likely due to the disturbance caused to the soil in the form of
preplanting tillage, intercultivation and harvesting operations. The data suggest
that one crop of rice causes less changes in some of these soil properties than
rice-rice, rice-tapioca and tapioca crops.

These findings are in concordance with the nature of disturbance caused to the
soil in establishing second crop of rice or first or second crop of tapioca. The
maximum disturbance to the soil is from the mound formation for tapioca
planting. Even though initial disturbance will be there in raising the first rice crop,
during harvesting of rice there is hardly any damage to the soil. In fact the crop
residues form a good surface much which retard surface runoff and erosion. In
the case of tapioca as well as second rice crop, ground preparation is necessary
for crop establishment.

Soil Erosion

Many of the advantages of taungya are vitiated by its greatest disadvantage of

accelerated erosion and hence soil loss. The soil loss is so visible in many areas
that its quantification is not at all necessary for taking steps to combat this acute
problem associated with taungya. Though we have not conducted field studies to
estimate the runoff and soil loss through erosion, there is enough evidence to
show that soil erosion is an acute problem in taungya plantations (Fig. 5-10).
There is also indirect evidence from the data of soil properties as discussed
already. In many of the sites, the properties of the surface samples are
influenced by those of subsurface horizons. It implies that the surface horizons
are partly being eroded and the subsurface horizons are gradually getting
exposed.
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Figure 5. Erosion of tapioca mounds in tapioca taungya at Wadakkancheri Range

Figure 6. Erosion of tapioca mounds in tapioca taungya at Wadakkancheri Range

 19

Figure 7. Beginning of gully erosion Figure 8. Erosion of ginger beds in

in ginger taungya at Neriamangalam ginger taungya at Mullaringad
Range Range
 20

Figure 9. Ginger beds being washed down the slopes in ginger taungya at
Neriamangalam Range

Figure 9. Two-way slopes showing erosion along two sides of ginger bed at
Mullaringad Range
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Soil erosion is a function of the erosivity of the rain and the erodibility of soil.
Erosivity is the potential ability of the rain to cause erosion whereas erodibility is
the vulnerability of the soil to erosion. The latter depends on the inherent
characteristics of the soil and how it is managed. In taungya plantations without
soil conservation measures, both erosivity and erodibility are enhanced. Under
rice-rice, rice-tapioca and tapioca cultivations, due to the additional soil
disturbance in establishing these crops, both these factors are accelerated and
therefore soil erosion occurs considerably more here than in the case of just rice
cultivation.

Soil Management

The experimental data point out the need for a different approach in the
management of soils in taungya plantations. If the forest land is not properly
managed in taungya, productive land will be converted into unproductive
marginal land. This is mainly because the taungyadar has only a transient
interest in the area he cultivates or gets it cultivated. Two years of cultivation
without proper soil management practices can convert an area into an
unproductive one. Also permanent damages occur in our taungya plantations. For
instance, combined use of land for agriculture and silviculture is often
detrimental to forest plantations, especially on slopy areas. Also the exposure
and loss of topsoil can lead to increased laterization which results in the
formation of a hard surface layer or a hard crust on the surface of the soil.

The data tend to show that one crop of rice causes minimum changes whereas
rice-rice, rice-tapioca and tapioca cultivations cause maximum changes in some
of the soil properties. The advantage of one rice crop is that it causes minimum
disturbance to the surface horizons of the soils. After the harvest, the residues
form a surface much which will retard runoff and erosion.

Soil management practices to combat soil erosion are generally based on two
broad principles; firstly, practices which increase infiltration rates of soils for
reducing runoff and secondly, practices which help safe disposal of runoff water if
rainfall exceeds the infiltration capacity of the soils. Usually a combination of
both practices are essential for adequate erosion control. Practices which help to
maintain high soil infiltration rates are based on farming operations which will
maintain a mulch or vegetative cover on the soil. The safe disposal of runoff
water requires physical manipulation of land including landshaping, laying out of
contour bunds, terraces, waterways, and ridges. Considering the constraint of
financial resources in laying out engineering control methods, the least we can
follow is the use of crop residues from the previous crop for conservation of soil.

As suggested before, the residues left after the harvest of first rice crop form a
surface mulch which prevents direct raindrop impact on the soil. Because there is
minimum tillage, it decreases runoff and reduces soil loss. Further, such a mulch
reduces weed growth and conserves moisture in the soil profile.
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CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Agrisilvicultural practices (taungya) tend to cause changes in sand, silt and clay
contents. pH, organic carbon, and cation exchange capacity of the soils. Raising of
one crop of rice causes minimum where as rice-rice, rice-tapioca or tapioca
cultivations cause maximum changes in some of the soil properties. Indirect
evidence points to more soil erosion with rice-rice, rice-tapioca and tapioca than rice
alone cultivations. Based on the experimental data and well-established principles of
tropical soil management, it is suggested that only one crop of rice may be allowed
in taungya plantations. The cultivation of one crop of rice results in minimum soil
disturbance which is helpful in reducing soil loss. Furthermore, residues left after rice
harvest form a surface mulch which will retard runoff and soil erosion in taungya
plantations.

However, if a second crop is required for taungya plantations, rice may be cultivated
with minimum preparation of land. If the choice is for tapioca or any
tuberous/rhizomatous crop requiring thorough land preparation, soil conservation
measures should be adopted for keeping soil loss to the minimum. Otherwise
valuable topsoil will be lost for the short-term benefit of lease income from taungya.
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LITERATURE CITED

ADAM, J.B.M.1923. Field crops in taungya plantations. Ind. For. 49: 597- 600.

AGUIRRE, A. 1963. Silvicultural and economic study of the taungya system in the
conditions of Turrialba, Costa Rica. Turrialba 13: 168- 171.

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