Organizational

Behavior, 14e
Chapter 5
Motivating Behavior

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 5-1
The Nature of Motivation

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 The Importance of Motivation
• Motivation – set of forces that leads people to behave in particular ways
• Job performance (P) depends upon motivation (M), ability (A), and
environment (E):
P=M×A×E
• To reach high levels of performance, an employee must:
− Want to do the job well (motivation)
− Be able to do the job effectively (ability)
− Have the materials, resources, equipment, and information required to do
the job (environment)
• A deficiency in any one of these areas hurts performance.

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 The Motivational Framework
• How motivational processes occur:
− Need: anything an individual requires or wants
▪ A need deficiency triggers attempts to satisfy the need.
− Goal-directed behaviors result from individuals trying to satisfy their need
deficiencies.
− Rewards and punishments are consequences of the goal-directed behavior.
− Assessment of the extent to which the outcome addressed the original need
deficiency

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 Figure 5.1 Motivational Framework
This framework provides a useful
way to see how motivational
processes occur. When people
experience a need deficiency,
they seek ways to satisfy it,
which results in a choice of goal-
directed behaviors. After
performing the behavior, the
individual experiences rewards
or punishments that affect the
original need deficiency.

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 Early Perspectives on Motivation
• Traditional approach
− Scientific management – approach to motivation that assumes that
employees are motivated by money
• Human relations approach – suggests that fostering a false sense of
employees’ inclusion in decision making will result in positive employee
attitudes and motivation to work hard
• Human resource approach – assumes that people want to contribute
and can make genuine contributions

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 Individual Differences and Motivation
• Task-specific self-efficacy – a person’s beliefs in their capabilities to do
what is required to accomplish a specific task
• Three dimensions of self-efficacy:

Magnitude beliefs about how difficult a task can be to accomplish

beliefs about how confident the person is that the specific task
Strength
can be accomplished
beliefs about the degree to which similar tasks can be
Generality
accomplished

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 Knowledge Check 5.1
You want to enhance an employee’s belief in being able to accomplish
tasks similar to those at which they have already been successful. Which of
the dimensions of task-specific efficacy will you focus on?
a. Magnitude
b. Strength
c. Generality
d. Expectation

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 5-2
Need-Based Perspectives on Motivation

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 The Hierarchy of Needs
Need-based theory – assumes that need deficiencies cause behavior
Hierarchy of needs – assumes that human needs are arranged in a
hierarchy of importance

Basic (or deficiency) needs Growth needs

− Physiological − Esteem
− Security − Self-actualization
− Belongingness

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 Figure 5.2 The Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s hierarchy of
needs consists of five basic
categories of needs. This
figure illustrates both
general and organizational
examples of each type of
need. Of course, each
individual has a wide
variety of specific needs
within each category.

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 Discussion Activity
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs provides a good general framework for
categorizing human needs. Refer to Figure 5.2 as needed as you consider
these questions:
a. What are the meanings of the labels deficiency needs and growth
needs, and why do the needs of the hierarchy fall under one of these
labels?
b. Does a manager need to pay more attention to employees’ deficiency
needs or growth needs? Why?
c. What deficiencies do you see in Maslow’s model?

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 Discussion Activity Debrief
a. What are the meanings of the labels deficiency needs and growth needs, and why do
the needs of the hierarchy fall under one of these labels?
− The three sets of needs at the bottom of the hierarchy are called deficiency needs because
they must be satisfied for the individual to survive and be fundamentally comfortable.
Growth needs focus on personal growth and development.
b. Does a manager need to pay more attention to employees’ deficiency needs or
growth needs? Why?
− The answer here is often situational. Workers who cannot meet deficiency needs cannot
survive, so meeting those needs is primary for any employer. Growth needs can then be
attended to, which will help the employees be more productive.
c. What deficiencies do you see in Maslow’s model?
− Research shows that the needs hierarchy does not generalize well to other countries. Levels
of needs are not always present, and the actual hierarchy of needs does not always conform
to Maslow’s model. Sometimes, managers are overly clumsy or superficial in their attempts
to use a theory such as this one.

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 The ERG and Two-Factor Theories
• ERG theory – describes existence, relatedness, and growth needs
− More than one need may motivate a person at the same time.
− Satisfaction-progression and frustration-regression components
• Two-factor theory – identifies motivation factors, which affect
satisfaction, and hygiene factors, which determine dissatisfaction
− Motivation factors – Are intrinsic to the work itself and include factors
such as achievement and recognition
− Hygiene factors – Are extrinsic to the work itself and include factors
such as pay and job security

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 Figure 5.3
The Two-Factor
Theory of Motivation
The traditional view of satisfaction
suggested that satisfaction and
dissatisfaction were opposite ends of a
single dimension. Herzberg’s two-factor
theory found evidence of a more
complex view. In this theory, motivation
factors affect one dimension, ranging
from satisfaction to no satisfaction. Other
workplace characteristics, called
“hygiene factors,” are assumed to affect
another dimension, ranging from
dissatisfaction to no dissatisfaction.
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 The Acquired Needs Framework
• Acquired needs framework – centers on the needs for achievement,
affiliation, and power
− Need for achievement – the desire to accomplish a task or goal more
effectively than was done in the past
− Need for affiliation – the need for human companionship
− Need for power – the desire to control the resources in one’s
environment

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 5-3
Process-Based Perspectives on Motivation

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 The Equity Theory of Motivation
• Process-based perspective – focuses on how people behave in their
efforts to satisfy their needs
• Equity theory – focuses on people’s desire to be treated with what they
perceive as equity and to avoid perceived inequity
− Equity – the belief that we are being treated fairly in relation to others;
inequity is the belief that we are being treated unfairly in relation to
others
− Equity comparison process in terms of an input-to-outcome ratio:

Outcomes self Outcomes other

compared with
Inputs self Inputs other
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 Figure 5.4 Responses to Perceptions
of Equity and Inequity
People form equity perceptions
by comparing their situation
with that of someone else. If
they perceive equity, they are
motivated to maintain the
current situation. If they
perceive inequity, they are
motivated to use one or more of
the strategies shown here to
reduce the inequity.

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 The Expectancy Theory of Motivation
• Expectancy theory – suggests that people are motivated by how much
they want something and the likelihood they perceive of getting it
• Basic expectancy model components:
Effort-to-performance The perceived probability that effort will lead to
expectancy performance
Performance-to- The perceived probability that performance will lead
outcome expectancy to certain outcomes
Outcome Anything that results from performing a behavior
Valence The degree of attractiveness or unattractiveness
(value) that a particular outcome has for a person

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 Figure 5.5 The Expectancy Theory of Motivation
The expectancy theory is the most complex model of employee motivation in organizations.
As shown here, the key components of expectancy theory are effort-to-performance
expectancy, performance-to-outcome instrumentality, and outcomes, each of which has an
associated valence. These components interact with effort, environment, and ability to
determine an individual’s performance.

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 Figure 5.6 The Porter-Lawler Model
The Porter and Lawler expectancy
model provides interesting insights
into the relationships between
satisfaction and performance. As
illustrated here, this model predicts
that satisfaction is determined by the
perceived equity of intrinsic and
extrinsic rewards for performance.
That is, rather than satisfaction
causing performance, which many
people might predict, this model
argues that it is actually performance
that eventually leads to satisfaction.

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 Evaluations of Expectancy Theory
• Expectancy theory has been tested by many different researchers in a
variety of settings and using a variety of methods.
− Its complexity makes it difficult to test.
• People will engage in motivated behavior if they:
− Value the expected rewards
− Believe their efforts will lead to performance
− Believe their performance will result in the desired rewards

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 5-4
Learning-Based Perspectives on Motivation

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 How Learning Occurs
• Learning – a relatively permanent change in behavior or behavioral
potential resulting from direct or indirect experience
• How learning occurs:
− Traditional view
▪ Classical conditioning – a simple form of learning that links a
conditioned response with an unconditioned stimulus
− Contemporary view
▪ Learning as a cognitive process, which assumes people are conscious,
active participants in how they learn

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 Reinforcement Theory and Social Learning
• Reinforcement theory – based on the idea that behavior is a function of
its consequences
− Also called operant conditioning (Skinner)
− People consciously explore different behaviors and systematically
choose those that result in the most desirable outcomes.
• Social learning – when people observe the behaviors of others,
recognize the consequences, and alter their own behavior as a result
− Behavior being observed and imitated must be relatively simple.
− Observed and imitated behavior must be concrete, not intellectual.
− Learner must have the physical ability to imitate the observed behavior.

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B.F. Skinner Theory of Operant Conditioning

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 Behavior Modification
• Behavior modification – the application of reinforcement theory to influence
the behaviors of people in organizational settings
− Positive reinforcement uses rewards or other desirable consequences that a
person receives after exhibiting behavior.
− Negative reinforcement (avoidance) involves opportunity to avoid or escape
from an unpleasant circumstance after exhibiting behavior.
− Punishment is the application of unpleasant or aversive consequences to
decrease the likelihood of a behavior.
− Extinction decreases the frequency of behavior by eliminating a reward or
desirable consequence that follows a behavior.

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 Examples
Positive Reinforcement
An employee consistently meets their sales targets, and as a result, the
manager gives them a bonus. The bonus reinforces the employee's good
performance, motivating them to continue meeting or exceeding targets.
Negative Reinforcement
A team member is allowed to skip attending long weekly status meetings if
they submit their reports on time. The removal of the tedious meetings acts
as negative reinforcement, encouraging them to complete their tasks
punctually.

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 Examples
Punishment
An employee repeatedly arrives late for work, so the manager reduces their
remote working privileges. This punishment is intended to decrease the
occurrence of tardiness.
Extinction
An employee frequently interrupts meetings to make off-topic jokes, and
the team used to laugh. Over time, the team stops reacting to the
interruptions, and eventually, the employee stops making these off-topic
comments because they no longer receive attention or reinforcement.

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 Figure 5.7 Types of Reinforcers
Individual behavior can be affected when stimulus is either presented or removed
after a particular behavior. This is also dependent on whether the stimulus is
positive or negative.

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 The Timing of Reinforcement
Timing of
Nature of Reinforcement
Reinforcement
Fixed-ratio Behavior is reinforced according to the number of behaviors
exhibited, with the number of behaviors needed to gain
reinforcement held constant.
Fixed-interval Behavior is reinforced according to some predetermined,
constant schedule based on time.
Variable-ratio Behavior is reinforced according to the number of behaviors
exhibited, but the number of behaviors needed to gain
reinforcement varies from one time to the next.
Variable-interval Behavior is reinforced after periods of time, but the time span
varies from one time to the next.
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 Motivating the Right Behavior
1. Define the problem—what is it that could be improved?
2. Identify and define the specific behavior(s) you wish to change.
3. Record and track the occurrence of the target behavior.
4. Analyze the current negative consequences of the undesired
behavior and arrange for more positive consequences to follow the
desired behavior.
5. Evaluate whether the behavior has improved and by how much.

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 Table 5.1 Applying Motivation Theories to Various
Managerial Challenges to Enhance Motivation
Herzberg’s
Self- Needs Expectancy Equity
Two-Factor Reinforcement
Efficacy Theory Theory Theory
Managerial Challenges Theory
Firm has a low-cost business strategy but
needs to motivate employees x x x x x x
An employee feels he cannot meet his
performance goals x x
An employee feels underpaid relative to her
coworkers x x
An employee engages in inappropriate
behavior (bullying, ridiculing coworkers) x
A talented employee is not feeling
challenged at work x x x
Because the work is repetitive, some
employees find it boring and hard to stay x x
motivated

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 Knowledge Check 5.2
According to research, what is the most effective schedule of reinforcement
for sustaining a behavior?

a. Variable reinforcement
b. Fixed-ratio reinforcement
c. Fixed-interval reinforcement
d. Extinction

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