CORE-8 PSYCHOPATHALOGY

What does the term psychopathology mean?

Psychopathology is the scientific study of mental disorders, including their symptoms,
causes (etiology), development, and treatment.

Concept of abnormality (in psychology)

Abnormality refers to patterns of behavior, thought, or emotion that are considered
atypical, dysfunctional, distressing, or deviant from societal norms. Defining "abnormal" is
complex and depends on various factors. Here are the main approaches used to define
abnormality:

1. Statistical Infrequency

• Definition: A behavior is considered abnormal if it is statistically rare or unusual in

the general population.

• Example: Very high or very low IQ scores.

• Limitations:

o Doesn't distinguish between desirable and undesirable behaviors (e.g., high

IQ is rare but not abnormal in a negative sense).

o Some common disorders (like mild depression) may be statistically frequent

but still clinically significant.

2. Deviation from Social Norms

• Definition: Behavior that deviates from the accepted standards or norms of society
is considered abnormal.

• Example: Talking to oneself in public or violating cultural taboos.

• Limitations:

o Norms vary across cultures and time periods.

o Risk of labeling nonconformists as "abnormal."

3. Failure to Function Adequately

• Definition: A person is considered abnormal if they are unable to cope with the
demands of everyday life.

• Indicators: Distress, irrationality, unpredictability, loss of control.

• Example: A person with severe anxiety unable to hold a job.

• Limitations:

o Some people with mental disorders can still function well in daily life.

o May be subjective—what is “functioning” may vary from person to person.

4. Deviation from Ideal Mental Health (Jahoda’s Criteria)

• Definition: Abnormality is the absence of characteristics associated with ideal

mental health.

• Criteria include:

o Positive self-attitude

o Self-actualization

o Resistance to stress

o Accurate perception of reality

o Autonomy

o Environmental mastery

• Limitations:

o Unrealistically high standards—very few people meet all these criteria.

5. Cultural and Contextual Factors

• Definition: Abnormality is viewed in the context of cultural beliefs, religious

practices, and environmental influences.

• Example: Hearing voices may be seen as spiritual in some cultures but psychotic in
others.
Perspectives of abnormal behavior - Psychodynamic, Behavioral,
Cognitive, Humanistic-Existential, and Sociocultural
1. Psychodynamic Perspective

Key Idea: Abnormal behavior is the result of unconscious conflicts, often rooted in
childhood.

Main Points:

• Developed by Sigmund Freud.

• Focuses on the unconscious mind — thoughts, memories, and desires we are not
aware of.

• Problems like anxiety or depression are seen as unresolved inner conflicts.

• For example, if someone had a troubled childhood with strict parents, they may
develop guilt or anxiety later in life.

• Techniques used include dream analysis, free association, and talk therapy to
uncover hidden issues.

Example:

Someone has panic attacks when facing authority. A psychodynamic therapist might
explore if they had a controlling parent and still unconsciously fear authority.

2. Behavioral Perspective

Key Idea: Abnormal behavior is learned — just like any other behavior.

Main Points:

• Based on classical and operant conditioning.

• Believes that behavior is shaped by the environment — rewards, punishments, and

observational learning.

• Abnormal behavior can be unlearned or replaced with healthy behavior.

• Focuses on what we can observe and measure — not unconscious thoughts.

Example:
If someone has a phobia of dogs, a behaviorist would look into whether they were once
bitten or scared by a dog and learned to fear them.

3. Cognitive Perspective

Key Idea: Abnormal behavior is caused by faulty thinking patterns or distorted beliefs.

Main Points:

• Developed in response to behaviorism — which ignored thoughts.

• Focuses on how people perceive, think, and interpret situations.

• Negative thoughts can lead to negative emotions and behavior.

• Therapy focuses on changing irrational or negative thoughts (e.g., Cognitive

Behavioral Therapy - CBT).

Example:

A person who constantly thinks, “I’m a failure, nobody likes me,” may become depressed.
Changing these thoughts can change how they feel and act.

4. Humanistic-Existential Perspective

Key Idea: Abnormal behavior results from a lack of self-awareness, personal growth, or a
failure to find meaning in life.

Main Points:

• Focuses on the whole person, free will, and the drive to achieve one’s full potential.

• Humanistic: People have an innate drive toward growth (Carl Rogers, Abraham
Maslow).

• Existential: People struggle with issues like freedom, responsibility, isolation, and
death.

• Abnormal behavior occurs when someone feels blocked from living an authentic,
meaningful life.

Example:
Someone may feel anxious or depressed because they feel unfulfilled in life or are not living
in line with their true values.

5. Sociocultural Perspective

Key Idea: Abnormal behavior is influenced by social and cultural factors.

Main Points:

• Looks at the role of society, culture, family, gender, race, economic status, and
social norms.

• Mental health issues may be more common in disadvantaged groups due to stress,
discrimination, or lack of support.

• Also considers how cultural beliefs affect the way people understand and express
symptoms.

Example:

Depression may look different in different cultures. In some, people may talk about
physical pain instead of sadness due to cultural norms.

Summary Table:

Perspective Key Cause of Abnormal Behavior Focus

Unconscious conflicts, early childhood

Psychodynamic Unconscious mind
experiences

Behavioral Learned behaviors from environment Observable behavior

Cognitive Faulty or irrational thinking Thoughts and beliefs

Humanistic- Free will, meaning, self-

Lack of personal growth or meaning
Existential growth

Cultural, social, and environmental

Sociocultural Society and culture
factors
 Classification of maladaptive behavior-DSM-IV
The DSM-IV stands for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders,
Fourth Edition, created by the American Psychiatric Association. It was used by mental
health professionals to diagnose and classify mental disorders until it was replaced by
DSM-5 in 2013. But many foundational ideas from DSM-IV are still taught and used in
understanding maladaptive behavior.

What is Maladaptive Behavior?

Maladaptive behavior refers to actions or tendencies that interfere with a person’s

ability to function in daily life, cope with stress, or relate to others. These behaviors are
often a sign of a mental disorder.

DSM-IV Classification System: The Multi-Axial System

DSM-IV used a five-axis system to classify mental disorders in a more complete, holistic
way. Each axis gave a different kind of information about the person’s condition.

Axis I: Clinical Disorders

This includes major mental disorders that cause significant impairment.

Examples:

• Mood Disorders: Depression, Bipolar Disorder

• Anxiety Disorders: Panic Disorder, Phobias

• Psychotic Disorders: Schizophrenia

• Substance Use Disorders

• Eating Disorders: Anorexia, Bulimia

These are the main reasons people seek help, and they often show clear signs of
maladaptive behavior, like extreme fear, sadness, or distorted thinking.

Axis II: Personality Disorders & Mental Retardation

This axis includes:

• Long-term, inflexible patterns of behavior (personality disorders)

• Intellectual disabilities

Examples:

• Personality Disorders: Borderline, Antisocial, Narcissistic

• Intellectual Disability (formerly called mental retardation)

These disorders develop early and affect how a person relates to others and manages
emotions.

Axis III: General Medical Conditions

This includes physical health issues that may affect mental health.

Examples:

• Brain injury

• Diabetes

• Thyroid disorders

These conditions might mimic or worsen mental disorders, contributing to maladaptive

behavior (e.g., thyroid issues can mimic depression).

Axis IV: Psychosocial and Environmental Problems

Here, the focus is on life stressors that affect mental health.

Examples:

• Divorce

• Unemployment

• Abuse or neglect

• Homelessness
These problems might trigger or worsen mental health issues, leading to maladaptive
behavior like aggression, withdrawal, or substance use.

Axis V: Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF)

This is a score (from 1 to 100) that shows how well a person is functioning overall.

For example:

• 91–100: Doing great; no symptoms

• 51–60: Moderate symptoms or difficulties

• 1–10: Serious risk of harm to self/others

A low GAF score suggests that the person is showing serious maladaptive behavior.

Summary Table:

Axis Focus Examples

I Clinical Disorders Depression, Anxiety, Schizophrenia

II Personality/Developmental Disorders Borderline PD, Intellectual Disability

III Medical Conditions Diabetes, Brain injury

IV Environmental Stressors Divorce, Job loss

V Global Functioning Score GAF Score from 1 to 100

 Assessment techniques- Diagnostic tests, Rating scales, History taking
interview, Projective tests
1. Diagnostic Tests

Purpose: To identify or confirm the presence of a psychological disorder or condition.

Features:

• Standardized and based on diagnostic criteria (like DSM-5 or ICD-10).

• Often include structured questionnaires or checklists.

• Used by clinical psychologists, psychiatrists, and counselors.

Examples:

• Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) – screens for depression.

• MINI (Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview) – for various psychiatric

disorders.

• Wechsler Intelligence Scale (WISC/WAIS) – for cognitive assessment.

Usefulness:

• Helps in clinical diagnosis and treatment planning.

• Objective and evidence-based.

2. Rating Scales

Purpose: To measure the intensity, frequency, or severity of specific symptoms, behaviors,

or traits.

Features:

• Usually in the form of Likert-type scales (e.g., 1 to 5).

• Can be self-report or observer-rated.

• Easy and quick to administer.

Examples:

• Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HAM-A) – measures anxiety levels.

 • CBCL (Child Behavior Checklist) – parent-report rating scale for children’s
behavior.

• Likert Scale – commonly used for attitudes or emotions.

Usefulness:

• Helps track changes over time (e.g., before and after therapy).

• Used in both clinical and research settings.

3. History-Taking Interview

Purpose: To gather detailed background information about a person’s mental, emotional,

social, and physical history.

Features:

• Semi-structured or unstructured.

• Conducted face-to-face by a trained psychologist or psychiatrist.

• Builds rapport and gives context to other assessments.

Topics Covered:

• Family and personal history.

• Medical and psychiatric history.

• Educational and occupational background.

• Social and relationship patterns.

Usefulness:

• Essential for forming a clinical impression.

• Helps in understanding the development and context of problems.

4. Projective Tests

Purpose: To explore unconscious thoughts, feelings, and conflicts through ambiguous

stimuli.

Features:
 • Based on psychoanalytic theory.

• Responses are subjectively interpreted by trained professionals.

• No right or wrong answers – focuses on projection of inner self.

Examples:

• Rorschach Inkblot Test – person interprets ambiguous inkblots.

• Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) – person makes up stories about pictures.

• Sentence Completion Test – person finishes incomplete sentences.

Usefulness:

• Helps uncover hidden emotions, motives, or personality structure.

• Used especially in psychodynamic assessment or personality profiling.

Summary Table:

Technique Main Use Type Examples

Diagnostic Tests Diagnose mental disorders Objective BDI, MINI, WAIS

Rating Scales Measure symptom severity Quantitative HAM-A, CBCL

History-Taking Understand life Semi-structured clinical

Qualitative
Interview context/history interview

Reveal unconscious
Projective Tests Subjective Rorschach, TAT
processes