Abnormal Psychology: Comprehensive Overview with Examples and
Research
Abnormal psychology is the scientific study of behaviors, thoughts, and emotions that deviate
from societal norms and cause significant distress or impairment. This field aims to
understand, diagnose, and treat maladaptive behavior by integrating biological,
psychological, and sociocultural perspectives.
1. Understanding Abnormal Behavior
1.1 Definition of Abnormal Behavior
• Abnormal behavior is defined by a combination of personal distress, psychological
dysfunction, deviation from social norms, dangerousness, and societal cost. It is
not just different from the average but is behavior that impairs an individual's ability
to function effectively.
1.2 Historical Views of Abnormal Behavior
• Demonology and Supernatural Beliefs:
• Ancient Times: Abnormal behavior was often attributed to possession by evil spirits
or demons. Exorcism, trephination (drilling holes in the skull), and other ritualistic
practices were common treatments.
• Middle Ages: The belief in witchcraft led to the persecution and execution of those
considered to be witches, often people exhibiting symptoms of mental illness.
• Somatogenic Perspective:
• Hippocrates (460-377 BC): Proposed that mental disorders were caused by
imbalances in bodily fluids or "humors." This biological approach laid the foundation
for the later medical model.
• Renaissance Period: The establishment of asylums marked a shift towards
institutional care for the mentally ill, although the conditions were often inhumane.
• Psychogenic Perspective:
• Late 19th Century: The development of psychoanalysis by Sigmund Freud
emphasized the role of unconscious conflicts and early childhood experiences in
abnormal behavior.
• Moral Treatment Movement: Led by figures like Philippe Pinel and Dorothea Dix,
this movement advocated for more humane treatment of the mentally ill in the 18th
and 19th centuries.
1.3 Criteria for Abnormality
1. The Four Ds of Abnormality
• Distress:
o Personal Distress involves significant suffering, such as the overwhelming
sadness in severe depression.
• Dysfunction:
o Psychological Dysfunction refers to impaired cognitive, emotional, or
behavioral functioning, like compulsions in OCD.
o Maladaptive Behavior disrupts daily life, exemplified by substance abuse
leading to job loss.
• Deviance:
o Deviance from Social Norms involves behaviors like antisocial acts (e.g.,
theft) that violate societal standards.
o Statistical Deviancy includes rare characteristics, such as an exceptionally
low or high IQ.
o Violation of Standards of Society includes actions like public nudity in
conservative cultures.
• Danger:
o Dangerousness encompasses behaviors that pose a risk, such as suicidal
behavior or violent outbursts.
2. Additional Criteria
• Suffering: Personal distress caused by conditions like chronic pain without a clear
medical cause.
• Social Discomfort: Behavior causing discomfort to others, such as talking to oneself
loudly in public.
• Irrationality and Unpredictability: Irrational behaviors like sudden aggression
without clear provocation.
• Costliness to Society: Economic and social impacts of mental health issues, such as
the societal burden of schizophrenia.
2. The Science of Abnormal Psychology
2.1 Purpose of Abnormal Psychology
• The study of abnormal psychology aims to predict, explain, diagnose, identify
causes of, and treat maladaptive behavior. This field involves understanding the
complexities of psychological disorders (psychopathology) and developing effective
interventions.
2.2 Psychopathology
• Psychopathology is the study of psychological disorders, focusing on their
symptoms, causes, and treatment. Mental disorders are characterized by
psychological dysfunction that leads to significant distress or impaired
functioning, deviating from societal or cultural norms.
3. Theoretical Models of Abnormality
3.1 Biological Model
• Malfunction in the Body:
o The biological model views mental illness as resulting from physical issues
within the body, particularly the brain. Neurotransmitter imbalances,
hormonal disturbances, genetic factors, and even viral infections (e.g.,
strep leading to PANDAS) are potential causes of mental disorders.
• Neurotransmitter Imbalances:
o For example, low levels of serotonin are linked to depression, while excess
dopamine activity is associated with schizophrenia.
• Genetic Factors:
o Many mental disorders have genetic components. For instance, bipolar
disorder and schizophrenia show higher prevalence rates among individuals
with first-degree relatives who also have these disorders.
• Biological Treatments:
o Treatments include pharmacotherapy (e.g., antidepressants, antipsychotics),
Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT), and psychosurgery (e.g., lobotomy,
rarely used today).
Example:
• Schizophrenia: Gottesman and Shields (1982) conducted twin studies showing a
concordance rate of 48% for schizophrenia in identical twins, compared to 17% in
fraternal twins, highlighting the strong genetic component.
3.2 Psychodynamic Model
• Freud's Psychoanalysis:
o Freud argued that mental disorders arise from unconscious conflicts rooted in
early childhood. These conflicts involve the interplay between the id, ego, and
superego and the unresolved issues from the psychosexual stages of
development.
• Defense Mechanisms:
o Freud identified defense mechanisms like repression and sublimation to
protect the ego from anxiety.
• Assessment Techniques:
o Techniques such as free association, transference analysis, and dream
analysis are used to uncover repressed material.
Example:
• Phobias: Freud suggested that phobias might be a displaced fear stemming from an
unconscious conflict. For instance, a fear of snakes could represent a repressed fear
of one's father.
Research Study:
• Freud's case study of Little Hans provided evidence for the Oedipus complex,
where a boy's phobia of horses was interpreted as a displaced fear of his father.
3.3 Behavioral Model
• Learning Theories:
o The behavioral model emphasizes that abnormal behavior is learned through
interaction with the environment. The focus is on classical conditioning and
operant conditioning, as well as observational learning.
• Classical Conditioning:
o Also known as Pavlovian conditioning, it involves pairing a neutral
stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response.
For example, a child might develop a phobia of dogs after being bitten.
• Operant Conditioning:
o Operant conditioning is based on the consequences of behavior. Positive
reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment are key concepts.
For instance, compulsive behaviors in OCD are reinforced because they
reduce anxiety.
• Observational Learning:
o Modeling is learning by watching others. For example, a child might learn
aggressive behaviors by observing aggressive role models.
Example:
• OCD: Compulsive hand-washing in OCD can be understood as a behavior reinforced
by the reduction of anxiety, making it more likely to occur.
Research Study:
• Watson and Rayner's (1920) experiment with Little Albert demonstrated how a
phobia could be conditioned in a child by associating a neutral stimulus (white rat)
with a frightening noise.
3.4 Cognitive Model
• Cognitive Processes:
o The cognitive model focuses on the role of thought patterns (schemas,
cognitive errors) in the development of psychological disorders. Maladaptive
thoughts can lead to maladaptive behaviors.
• Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT):
o CBT combines cognitive restructuring (changing negative thought patterns)
with behavioral techniques to treat disorders like depression and anxiety.
• Cognitive Errors:
o Cognitive distortions such as overgeneralization, catastrophizing, and
black-and-white thinking contribute to psychological distress.
Example:
• Depression: Beck's cognitive triad suggests that individuals with depression have
negative views of themselves, the world, and the future, which perpetuate depressive
symptoms.
Research Study:
• Beck et al. (1979) found that cognitive restructuring was effective in reducing
symptoms of depression, supporting the efficacy of CBT.
3.5 Humanistic and Existential Models
• Humanistic Perspective:
o Focuses on self-actualization and the concept of the fully functioning
person. Carl Rogers emphasized unconditional positive regard and
conditions of worth in personality development.
• Existential Perspective:
o Emphasizes the individual's responsibility in creating meaning in life,
dealing with existential anxiety, and the importance of self-awareness and
personal growth. It stresses free will and the search for meaning in a chaotic
world.
Example:
• Anxiety: Existentialists believe that anxiety arises from the fear of isolation,
freedom, and death. Individuals must confront these realities to live authentically.
Research Study:
• Maslow's (1943) hierarchy of needs theory, though not strictly existential, supports
the idea that self-actualization and personal growth are central to well-being.
3.6 Sociocultural Model
• Cultural and Social Factors:
o The sociocultural model examines the role of cultural, social, and
environmental factors in the development and treatment of mental disorders.
It considers how race, ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic status, and cultural
norms influence behavior and the perception of abnormality.
• Multicultural Considerations:
o Different cultures have different views on what constitutes normal and
abnormal behavior. For example, some cultures may view hearing voices as a
spiritual experience rather than a symptom of schizophrenia.
• Socioeconomic Status:
o Lower socioeconomic status is linked to higher stress levels and reduced
access to mental health services, which can exacerbate or lead to mental
disorders.
Example:
• Eating Disorders: The sociocultural emphasis on thinness in Western societies has
been linked to the prevalence of eating disorders like anorexia nervosa, particularly
among young women.
Research Study:
• Nolen-Hoeksema and Girgus (1994) found that societal pressures and gender roles
contribute to the higher rates of depression observed in women, supporting the
sociocultural model.
4. Diagnostic Classification of Mental Disorders
4.1 Clinical Diagnosis
• Process of Diagnosis:
o Clinical diagnosis involves using assessment data (interviews, psychological
testing, observation) to determine whether an individual's symptoms align
with the diagnostic criteria outlined in established classification systems like
the DSM-5-TR or ICD-11.
• Purpose:
o Diagnosis helps mental health professionals identify the disorder, predict its
course, guide treatment, and facilitate communication among professionals.
4.2 Classification Systems
• DSM-5-TR (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth
Edition, Text Revision):
o The DSM-5-TR is used primarily in the United States and provides a
comprehensive list of mental disorders, each with specific diagnostic criteria,
subtypes, and specifiers. The DSM-5-TR uses a categorical approach,
where disorders are distinct categories, but it also acknowledges dimensional
aspects (severity of symptoms).
o Key Elements of Diagnosis:
▪ Diagnostic Criteria and Descriptors: Specific symptoms and
characteristics required for diagnosis.
▪ Subtypes and Specifiers: Additional details to clarify the diagnosis
(e.g., MDD with atypical features).
▪ Principle Diagnosis: The primary disorder that requires treatment.
▪ Provisional Diagnosis: Used when there is strong suspicion of a
disorder but insufficient information for a definitive diagnosis.
• ICD-11 (International Classification of Diseases, 11th Revision):
o The ICD-11, published by the World Health Organization (WHO), is a global
standard for diagnosing all diseases, including mental and behavioral
disorders. It provides broader categories compared to the DSM and is used
internationally for clinical, research, and health management purposes.
Example:
• Major Depressive Disorder (MDD): In the DSM-5-TR, MDD is diagnosed based on
criteria such as persistent depressed mood, loss of interest, and physical symptoms
like changes in sleep or appetite. The ICD-11 provides a similar framework but with
broader categories and codes that are used globally.
4.3 Limitations of DSM Classification
• Comorbidity:
o High rates of comorbidity (the presence of more than one disorder in an
individual) complicate diagnosis and treatment, as it can be difficult to
distinguish between overlapping symptoms.
• Cultural Bias:
o The DSM-5-TR is rooted in Western perspectives and may not fully account
for cultural variations in symptom expression and interpretation, leading to
misdiagnosis or culturally inappropriate treatment.
• Overmedicalization:
o There is concern that the DSM-5-TR may pathologize normal variations in
behavior, leading to unnecessary labeling and treatment of individuals who are
simply experiencing natural responses to life circumstances.
• Stigmatization:
o Diagnostic labels can contribute to social stigma, impacting an individual's
self-esteem and leading to discrimination in various aspects of life, including
employment and relationships.
Research Study:
• Rosenhan's (1973) "On Being Sane in Insane Places" study highlighted the
dangers of diagnostic labels and the stigmatization that can result from psychiatric
diagnoses.
Conclusion
Abnormal psychology is a complex field that integrates biological, psychological, and
sociocultural perspectives to understand, diagnose, and treat mental disorders. By exploring
various models of abnormality and utilizing classification systems like the DSM-5-TR and
ICD-11, mental health professionals can provide more effective and culturally sensitive care.
Mastery of these concepts, supported by key research studies and real-world examples, is
crucial for excelling in the study of abnormal psychology.
Recommended Readings:
1. American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders (5th ed.).
2. World Health Organization. (2019). International Classification of Diseases (11th
Revision).
3. Beck, A. T. (1979). Cognitive Therapy and the Emotional Disorders.
