Acknowledgement

We would like to express my sincere gratitude towards the Department of

Architecture, Kathmandu Engineering College, Kalimati, Kathmandu, for giving us
such a valuable learning opportunity.
Our immense gratefulness goes to our teacher for guiding us throughout the
course of the study, their suggestions and criticisms has helped us. We are thankful
to them for their valued guidance and ever positive attitude towards me during the
project.
We are again grateful towards our fellow friends for their interactions and help.

1
Table of Contents
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..1
1. Introduction: ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………2
1.1URBAN PLANNING………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………2
1.1.1 Importance………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..2
1.1.2 Objectives………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….2
1.1.3 Purposes………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…3
1.1.4 Environmental and Manmade Impacts on Urban Housing……………………………………………….…3
1.1.5 Urban Density……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…….5
1.1.6 Urban Problems…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……..6
1.1.7 Urbanization in Nepal…………………………………………………………………………………………………………6
1.1.8 Existing Scenario Of Urban Services in The Kathmandu Valley……………………………………….…..7
1.1.9 Major Drawbacks in The Valley……………………………………………………………………….…………………7
1.1.10 History of Urban Planning In Nepal…………………………………………………………………..………………8
2. LITERATURE REVIEW………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………26
2.1 LAND USE\ LAND DISTRIBUTION ………………………………………………………………………………………………27
2.1.1 Block size……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………27
2.1.2 Types of housing ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….28
2.1.3 Housing layouts …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………30
2.2 PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURES…………………………………………………………………………………………………….31
2.2.1 Road……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………31

2.2.2 Water Supply and Drainage…………………………………………………………………………………………………51

2.2.3 Electricity…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….56

2.2.4 Telephone and Gas……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..59

2.2.5 Solid Waste Management…………………………………………………………………………………………………..61

2.3 SOCIO- ECONOMIC INFRASTRUCTURE……………………………………………………………………………………….66

2.3.1 Proximity……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………67

2.3.2 Education facilities……………………………………………………………………………………………………….……69

2.3.3 Health………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..71

2.3.4 Open Space and Recreational spaces…………………………………………………………………………………73

2.3.5 Landscape spaces……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….82

2.3.6 Commercial complex…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..83

2.3.7 Restaurants…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………85

2.3.8 Library…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………87

2.3.9. Exhibition spaces……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….89

2.4 DISASTER MANAGEMENT………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…90

2.4.1. Fire Protection…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..90

2.4.2 Earthquake prevention……………………………………………………………………………………………………….90

2.5 SUSTAINABILITY…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………92

2.5.1. Theory……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….92

2.5.2. how to ensure sustainability of city…………………………………………………………………………………..92

2.6 RESILIENT DESIGN………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………95

2.7 SAFETY AND SECURITY…………………………………………………………………………………………………….………..98

2.7.1. Comfort and Security…………………………………………………………………………………………………………98

2.8 ROLE OF PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SPACES…………………………………………………………………………………..100

2.9 UNIVERSAL DESIGN………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….101

2.9.1. Universal design requirements………………………………………………………………………………………..101

2.10 Norms and Standards: Nepal………………………………………………………………………………………………….108

3. CASE STUDIES…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………111

3.1 NATIONAL CASE STUDY: PEPSICOLA TOWN PLANNING…………………………………………………………111

3 .1.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………………111

3.1.2 Objectives of Pepsicola Town Planning……………………………………………………………………….111

3.1.3 Infrastructure…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…112

3.1.5 Social aspects……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..115

3.1.6 Economical aspects……………………………………………………………………………………………..……..115

3.1.6 Types of Housing………………………………………………………………………………………………….…..…116

3.1.7 Analysis……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...117

3.2 INTERNATIONAL CASE STUDY 1: GANDHINAGAR TOWN PLANNING………………………………………118

3.2.1 INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..118

3.2.2 BACKGROUND…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….118

3.2.3 OBJECTIVE OF CASE STUDY………………………………………………………………………………………….119

3.2.4 PLANNING……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………119

3.2.5 LAND USE OF PLANNED TOWN……………………………………………………………………………………120

3.2.6 UNIT TYPES …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………121

3.2.7 Households ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..121

3.2.8 Redevelopment strategies…………………………………………………………………………………………..123

3.2.9 Infrastructures and services ………………………………………………………………………………………..124

3.2.10 Analysis of Section 21………………………………………………………………………………………………..131

3.2.11 LEARNINGS………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..133

3.3 INTERNATIONAL CASE STUDY 2: KHUDA KI BASTI, KKB-III………………………………………………………..134

3.3,1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….134

3.3.2 Background………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………134

3.3.3 Objectives……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..135

3.3.4 Planning…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………135

3.3.5 BUILT UP DENSITY AT KKB-III………………………………………………………………………………………….137

 3.3.6 HOUSES OF KKB-III…………………………………………………………………………………………………………138

3.3.7 ROADS OF KKB-III…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..139

3.3.8 Open Spaces…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………140

3.3.9 Amenities……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..141

3.3.10 Sustainability……………………………………………………………………………………………………...………142

3.3.11 Water Supply and Drainage……………………………………………………………………………..…………143

3.3.12 General Housing Layout………………………………………………………………………………………………144

3.3.13 Solid Waste Management……………………………………………………………………………………………145

3.4. Sustainability Study: Vikas Community………………………………………………………………………..…………146

3.4.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……147

3.4.2 Unique Features of The Third Building…………………………………………..………………………………149

3.4.3 Land Conservation and Rainwater Harvesting……………………………………………………….………151

3.4.4 Biological Wastewater Treatment By Lagooning…………………………………………………………..153

3.4.5 Cseb Blocks………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………….154

3.4.7 Stack Effect………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………158

3.4.7 Vaults……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…….158

3.4.9 Dome…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….159

3.4.10 Terms Used…………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………159

3.4.11 Learnings………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………159

4. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS………………………………………………………………………………………………………….160

5. SITE ANALYSIS ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….176

5.1. Introduction...…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..176

5.2. Orientation………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………176

5.3. Proximity………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….177

5.4. Topography……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….178

5.5. Climatic condition………………………………………………………………………………………………………………179

5.6. Bus stop……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………180

5.7. Ethnicity and socio- culture……………………………………………………………………………………………….180

5.8. Occupation………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………181
 5.9. Electricity…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………181

5.10. Health services………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..182

5.11. SEWAGE MANAGEMENT……………………………………………………………………………………………..182

5.12. DRAINAGE……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………182

5.13. Water Supply………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..182

5.14. Education……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..183

5.15. SWOT ANALYSIS……………………………………………………………………………………………………………183

5.15.1. Physical Aspect……………………………………………………………………………………………………..183

5.15.2. Socio- Cultural and Socio-Economic aspect……………………………………………………………184

5.15.3. Environmental aspect……………………………………………………………………………………………184

6. PROGRAMME FORMULATION………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….185

7. Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….193

6. Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….194
Abstract
The report is entitled “ Report on Neighbourhood Planning”. Neighbourhood planning is
traditionally seen as an expert discipline with little room for ‘soft’ values and concerns
based on feelings rather than fact. At the same time the final product of the planning
process, the built environment, is a habitat for a wide variety of people with equally
diverse wants and needs.

The main objective is to find how does planning incorporate the needs, wants and visions
of existing and future inhabitants while at the same time raising awareness of the often
complex issues and problems involved in urban development.
The various tools used for the study are the literature studies, study on some national and
international planning with different ideas and concepts.

1
1. Introduction:
1.1 Urban Planning:
Urban planning is a technical and political process concerned with the development and
design of land use and the built environment, including air, water, and the infrastructure
passing into and out of urban areas, such as transportation, communications, and
distribution networks.

1.1.1 Importance:

• It helps in the organized and planned development of cities.

• Helps in offering a better quality of life.
• It aids in the economic growth and economic development of the place.
• It takes into account the environmental considerations.
• It makes cities resilient.
• Better infrastructure & sustainable form of development.
• Provides easy access to educational and health facilities for the people.
• A good and efficient public transport system.
• The waste management system becomes efficient & reliable.
• Provides more jobs and other economic opportunities for the people.
• It helps to channel the social, economic and physical forces in a planned manner to create
the total environment.

1.1.2 Objectives:

• Increase socialization
• Sharing of public amenities & recreational facilities
• Safe & healthy environment within the neighborhood
• Safety and efficiency to road users & pedestrians
• Maintain, enhance and improve areas for recreational activities
• Determine community’s prospects for future
• To fulfill the needs and aspirations of the community.
• For effective coordination between physical forces that govern the structure of the
community and the technical means to regulate it.
• For formulating long range and short range action program with a view to injecting long
term considerations into short term actions 2
1.1.3 Purposes
• For an orderly arrangement of different parts of the city so that each part could perform
its function with minimum costs and conflicts.
• For an efficient system of circulation within the city and outside using available modes of
transportation.
• The development of each part of the city to optimum standards in terms of lots size,
sunlight, green space in residential areas, and parking and building spaces in commercial
areas.
• For the provision of safe, hygienic, and comfortable housing in a variety of dwelling types
to meet the needs of all types of families.
• For the provision of recreation, schools and other social services of a high standard of
size, location, and quality.
• For the provision of water supply, sewage and public services, etc.

1.1.4 Environmental and Man Made Impacts on Urban Housing:

a) Macro level
b) Intermediate level
c) Micro level

a) Macro level
-Natural:
• Key attributes/components of the natural setting.
• Direct and indirect impacts on physical and visual quality of natural landscape, cultural
or socio-economic assets
• Compatibility with natural and landscaping setting
-Manmade:
• Urban Context.
• Contribution to the cityscape in terms of adding legibility and creating high quality city
environment.
• Visual impact and suitability of landmark feature.
• Suitability and visibility of visual features.
• Compatibility with landscape and development pattern.
• Compatibility with overall height and massing.
• Contribution to the local character.
• Compatibility with heritage setting.
3
b) Intermediate level
-Natural:
• Direct and Indirect impacts on physical and visual qualities of natural landscape
-Manmade:
• Location Sustainability
• Relationship with the visual corridors
• Impact on penetration of light and air
• Compatibility with street pattern
• Visual impact and suitability of landmark feature
• Compatibility with overall height profile and massing
• Compatibility with local heritage
• Impact on the surroundings

c) Micro level

-Natural:
• Functional appropriateness in relation to natural environment

• Response to natural landscape in local context

-Man Made:
• Contextual and functional appropriateness at street level

• Contribution to pedestrian friendly environment

• Human scale and quality enhancement

• Creation of spatial feeling

4
1.1.5 URBAN DENSITY

Urban density is a term used in urban planning and urban design to refer to the number of
people inhabiting a given urbanized area. As such it is to be distinguished from other
measures of population density. Urban density is considered an important factor in
understanding how cities function. Research related to urban density occurs across diverse
areas, including economics, health, innovation, psychology and geography as well as
sustainability.

Urban density is a very specific measurement of the population of an urbanized area,

excluding non-urban land-uses. Non-urban uses include regional open space, agriculture and
water-bodies.

There are a variety of other ways of measuring the density of urban areas:

• Floor area ratio - the total floor area of buildings divided by land area of the lot upon
which the buildings are built
• Residential density - the number of dwelling units in any given area
• Population density - the number of human persons in any given area
• Employment density - the number of jobs in any given area
• Gross density - any density figure for a given area of land that includes uses not
necessarily directly relevant to the figure (usually roads and other transport
infrastructure)
• Net density - a density figure for a given area of land that excludes land not directly
related to the figure.
• Weighted density - a density metric which measures the density at which the average
citizen lives. It is determined by calculating the standard density of each census tract,
assigning each a weight equal to its share of the total population, and then adding the
segments.

Population density 108 person/ha to 123 person/ha in international standards, whereas in

context of Nepal, according to KVTDC ,for medium city like Kathmandu valley, it is 200 to
205 person/ha.

1.1.6 URBAN PROBLEMS

The increase in population density and its healthy accommodation is the major challenge of
today’s urban world. In developing countries, there is a general tendency to migration
towards settlement pockets since people are not provided with modern facilities and
opportunities in their original home ground. Due to the lack of decentralization of general
services and facilities, already deteriorated settlements are constantly disturbed by
migration.

For countries like ours, overall planning and provision of fundamental needs for whole
country is a very long process. The planning and management shall be done from the local
effort for the betterment of the migration infected areas concurrently with the overall
development of the country. The first problem with migration is the provision of housing.
The ever-demanding nature of drinking water, communication and energy will follow the
route. This leads to a haphazard settling with a very unhealthy environment. 5
The following salient points shall highlight the obstacles in overall urban planning and cause
of disorientation in our housing sector:

• Lack of detailed land-use framework

• Never mentioned policy of sub-division of land parcels
• Lack of professionalism in construction sector
• Financial crisis
• Lack of clear policies
• Lack of co-operation and authority

Hence the most important aspect to check the uncontrolled and haphazard urbanization is
to realize comprehensive development plan and to implement it.

1.1.7 URBANIZATION IN NEPAL

Nepal is one of the developing countries in which rate of urbanization is still very low.
According to the population census preliminary report 2011, total urban population has
been increased to 17% however Kathmandu valley has witnessed a rapid growth of
urbanization during last two decades and remains the most urbanized region in Nepal.

People are migrating in the capital city from other parts of the country in search of better
social and economic opportunities. On the other hand, the origin residents of the city core
are moving to the new housing in the urban fringes because of degrading living qualities in
the core area. Due to this ever growing urbanization trend, Kathmandu city has been
expanding radially towards its periphery in haphazard way.

In Nepal the main characteristic of urbanization are following:

• Rural to urban migration
• Change of agricultural activities to non-agriculture activities
• Change in occupational structure from agriculture to industry and services
• Change from a sparse rural settlement pattern to a relatively dense urban settlement
pattern
• Increase interactions and functional linkage among centers of population concentrations
• Change in behaviors, values and institutional structure
• Change in physical environment
• Increased modern amenities and services

6
1.1.8 EXISTING SCENARIO OF URBAN SERVICES IN THE
KATHMANDU VALLEY:

In Nepal, the services and infrastructure conditions are more critical than shelter itself.
According to the housing survey of 1992, the number of homeless population was estimated
to be only19000. The access tends to decrease due to increasing pressure on land,
increasing economic disparity, implementation of higher standards etc. People will continue
providing shelter themselves as adequate as they could perceive and they themselves define
what is adequate if access condition could be met. Shelter delivery system in Nepal is based
on the increasing of access of people to housing elements.

The identified housing elements are building, materials, technology, finance, land and
information. Of these, land is identified as the most critical element and various land
readjustment projects have help to increase the land supply. Community’s efforts have been
supported by the national and local governments in improving infrastructure and service
conditions.

However, much efforts and commitments are required to ensure adequate housing for all,
given the projected short fall every year. The urban environment in Kathmandu is fast
deteriorating. All the urban areas have serious deficiencies in essential infrastructures. The
physical life is far from being satisfactory.

1.1.9 MAJOR DRAWBACKS IN THE VALLEY:

In Kathmandu valley, inadequate provision of infrastructure and services has given rise to
slum areas, haphazard growth, and weak inter-linkage between urban and rural areas. This
entire situation led to rapid degradation of urban environment causing serious health
problems and the quality of urban life has deteriorated. This deteriorating environmental
condition has possessed a serious challenge to tourism development ultimately to the
economy of the country. Income distribution pattern has become more skewed during the
last decade. Income distribution pattern have shown that disparity in income has
considerably widened.

There is economic stagnation. The disparities have increased in urban areas all the more. So
due to increasing urban population, the need for infrastructure and services increased
rapidly. The future population of the city is of crucial importance in the provision of
infrastructure and service needs over time depend upon major national policies, industrial
location, environment conservation, land use, decentralization etc.

But the urban development policy has not yet been integrated with such policies. To come
over the urban problems some effective measures have been started to launch so far as
solution for Land development. LR project is one among them. To fulfill urban issues to
some extent there are some land readjustment projects going in the Kathmandu Valley
under the initiation of the Town Development Committee.

7
1.1.10 HISTORY OF URBAN PLANNING IN NEPAL

Nepal has undergone several political changes after Rana regime. History of urban planning
began with Third National Plan (1967-71). In 1973, Town Plan Implementation Act (TPIA)
was enacted. In 1976 a separate planning and urban development authority was established
as Kathmandu Valley Town Development Committee, presently converted into Kathmandu
Valley Town Development Authority under the Kathmandu Valley Development Authority
Act 1988.

In 1982, a Decentralization Act to facilitate development processes. In 1992, Municipal Act

and Rules were defined. MOUD helps municipalities to develop periodic plans (3 to 5 years).
Involvement of municipalities in planning has positive results. To give full momentum to the
development of urban areas, the government in 1988 created a separate ministry- Ministry
of Housing and Physical Planning (now Ministry of Urban Development).

The existing urban conditions are reflected through available basic data on urban
infrastructure, environment, economy, governance, finance and investment and through
analysis of current nature and characteristics of urban land, densities and form. Land
fragmentation, Page 2 of 139 A unregulated urban land market, faulted land acquisition and
compensation and incomprehensive zoning regulations characterize the current urban land.
The present ward density of municipalities is distributed in a wide range with 362.4 ppha as
highest in Kathmandu and 2.57 ppha as lowest in Kamalamai municipality. Further, it is
observed that the density increases with the population size of municipality. The evolving
urban form is becoming increasingly disorganized, mixed with incompatible land uses,
declining level of amenities

Urban development, town planning or Building Till date, more than 21 municipalities
prepared IAPs. But, IAPs failed due to contradictory legal framework and weaknesses in
terms of Institutional capacities at both central and local levels. Now this authority is
headed by the former mayor of Kathmandu Municipal Corporation (KMC). This is how Nepal
in line with the international practices pursued the planning practices institutionally.

1.2 PLANNING PRACTICES IN NEPAL

1. Rajbiraj Planning (1944)
• First planned settlement in Modern Nepal
• Grid sheet pattern with the central spaces occupied by the Administrativebuildings
• Overgrowth and expanding out along accesslines

2. The Physical Development Plan for the Kathmandu Valley (1969)

• A team of native and foreign planners in initiation of Carl Purscha

3. Regional Development Centers (1970-1975)

• Division into 5 development regions

8
4. Town Development (Implementation) Act-1973 and “1976Plan”
The 1976 plan which comprises of a number of policy document and the land use
regulations are the further elaboration of the 1969 plan and 1973 plan in the form of the
detailed land use plan and policy guidelines.

5. Bhaktapur Development Project (1974-1984) A mixed conservation and development

approach for Bhaktapur

6. Ring Road Plan-1975

• Not consulted with any urban planner and was conflicted with the plan of1973

7. Kathmandu Valley Physical Development Concept-1984

• Prepared by the Kathmandu Valley Town Planning Team

8. Kathmandu Valley Urban Policy Study-1986

• With technical assistance of USAID (United States Agency for International Development)

9. Structure Plan-1987
• Draft structure plans for 32 municipalities formulated in 1987 under DHUD/ UNDP/ World
Bank Project

10. Urbanization and Habitation Policy of the 7th Plan(1985-1990)

11. Urban Development through Local Effort (UDLE)

• A joint assistance program of Nepal Government &German Society for Technical
Cooperation.

12. Urban Development and Conservation Scheme for Greater Kathmandu-1988

13. Role of Eighth Plan in Urban Planning and Development Process(1992-1997)

• Principal objectives of the Eight Plan (1992-97): - Sustainable economic growth -
Reduction of regional imbalance

14. Kathmandu Valley Urban Development Plans and Programs-1991

15. Study on Regulating Growth of KathmanduValley-1995

16. Kathmandu Urban Development Project (1994-1999)

17. Other Local Area Planning

• The Local Area Plans address land use, infrastructure and investment programs, and
development control

18. The Long Term Development Concept of Kathmandu Valley-2002

19. Proposed Outer Ring Road Development Project

• Main goals of the project: - To manage the rapid haphazard urban development especially
outside the existing Ring Road,
9
1.3 Development Theories
a. Smart Growth Theory
Smart growth theory is an urban planning and transportation theory that concentrates
growth in the centre of a city to avoid urban sprawl; and advocates compact, transit-
oriented, walk able, bicycle-friendly land use, including neighbourhood schools, complete
streets and mixed land use development with a range of housing choices. Its goals are to
achieve a unique sense of community and place; expand the range of transportation,
employment and housing choices; equitably distribute the costs and benefits of
development; preserve and enhance natural and cultural resources; and promote public
health.

b. Compact Development:
Compact, liveable urban neighbourhoods attract more people and business. Creating such
neighbourhoods is a critical element of reducing urban sprawl and protecting the climate.
Such a tactic includes adopting redevelopment strategies and zoning policies that channel
housing and job growth into urban centres and neighbourhood business districts, to create
compact, walk able, and bike and transit friendly hubs. This sometimes requires local
governmental bodies to implement code changes that allow increased height and
density downtown and regulations that not only eliminate minimum parking requirements
for new development but also establish maximum number of allowed spaces. Other topics
falling
under this concept are:
• Mixed land-use development
• Inclusion of affordable housing
• Restrictions or limitations on suburban design forms (e.g. detached houses on individual
lots, strip malls and surface parking lots)
• Inclusion of parks and recreation areas.

Transit Oriented Development: Transit-oriented development (TOD) is a residential or

commercial area designed to maximize access to public transport, and mixed-use/ compact
neighbourhoods tend to use transit at all times of the day. Many cities striving to implement
better TOD strategies seek to secure funding to create new public transportation
infrastructures and improve existing services. Other measures might include regional
cooperation to increase efficiency and expand services, and moving buses and trains more
frequently through high-use areas. Other topics fall under this concept:

Transportation demand management measures

• Road pricing system (tolling)
• Commercial parking taxes

c. Pedestrian and Bicycle-friendly Design:

Biking and walking instead of driving can reduce emissions, save money on fuel and
maintenance, and foster a healthier population. Pedestrian and bicycle-friendly
improvements include bike lanes on main streets, an urban bike-trail system, bike parking,
pedestrian crossings, and associated master plans. The most pedestrian- and bike friendly
variant of smart growth and New Urbanism is New Pedestrianism because motor vehicles
are on separate grid.
10
d. New Urbanism Theory
New Urbanism is an urban design movement that promotes environmentally friendly habits
by creating walkable neighbourhoods containing a wide range of housing and job types. It
arose in the United States in the early 1980s, and has gradually influenced many aspects of
real estate development, urban planning, and municipal land-use strategies. New Urbanism
is strongly influenced by urban design practices that were prominent until the rise of the
automobile prior to World War II; it encompasses ten basic principles such as traditional
neighbourhood design (TND) and transit-oriented development (TOD). These ideas can all
be circled back to two concepts: building a sense of community and the development of
ecological practices.

New Urbanists support: regional planning for open space; context-appropriate architecture
and planning; adequate provision of infrastructure such as sporting facilities, libraries and
community centres; and the balanced development of jobs and housing. They believe their
strategies can reduce traffic congestion by encouraging the population to ride bikes, walk, or
take the train. They also hope that this set up will increase the supply of affordable housing
and rein in suburban sprawl. The Charter of the New Urbanism also covers issues such as
historic preservation, safe streets, green building, and the re-development of brownfield
land. The ten Principles of Intelligent Urbanism also phrase guidelines for new urbanist
approaches. Architecturally, new urbanist developments are often accompanied by New
Classical, postmodern, or vernacular styles,
although that is not always the case.

e. Pedestrian Mall Theory

A pedestrian mall or pedestrianized street are defined as streets or zones that are almost
exclusively closed to vehicular traffic and are primarily reserved for the use of
pedestrians.(Zegree, 1997). These are typically located in the central business districts.
Shopping areas with storefront lined streets. Closed off automobile traffic ensures that
residents can commute safely, conveniently and comfortably. Primarily developed to counter
the decay of central business districts of cities and towns (Rzepczynski, 2009). "Pedestrian
street" and "Pedestrian zone" are the more common terms worldwide.

Principles and Benefits of Pedestrian Mall Developments

11
1.4 Neighbourhood Planning Concept
This concept was given by Clarence A. Perry’s in 1929.Urban
planning is concerned with designing settlements from the
smallest towns to the largest cities. Urban, city, and town
planning integrates land use planning and transportation
planning to improve the built, economic and social
environments of communities. Regional planning deals with
a still larger environment, at a less detailed level. Urban
planning can include urban renewal, by adapting urban
planning methods to existing cities suffering from decay and
Fig: Clarence Perry’s
lack of investment.
neighbourhood unit
Types of Planning Units In planning a system of interrelated areas and facilities, each type of
geographic area—neighbourhood, community, school district, city, county, region, state, and
nation—must be considered. In some instances, the entire state must be included and,
when accessible, areas and facilities provided by the federal government must be taken into
account.
1.4.1 The 10 minutes Neighbourhood Concept
The neighbourhood is a residential area with homogeneous
characteristics, of a size comparable to that usually served by
an elementary school. A typically ideal neighbourhood for
planning purposes would be an area V* to 1 mile square and
containing about 6000 to 8000 people. Neighbourhoods
occur in various shapes and sizes. Population densities vary
from a few thousand to many thousands per square mile, and
there is also a wide variation in the numbers of children.
Therefore, each neighbourhood must be studied carefully.
Because most residents live within a short distance of the
school or playground, they walk to it and tend to use it
frequently, often for shorter periods than in the centres
planned for a larger geographic unit. Perry outlined six basic
principles of good neighbourhood design. As may be
understood, these core principles were organized around
several institutional, social and physical design ideals.
• Major arterials and through traffic routes should not pass
through residential neighbourhoods. Instead these streets
should provide boundaries of the neighbourhood;
• Interior street patterns should be designed and
constructed through use of cul-de-sacs, curved layout and
light duty surfacing so as to encourage a quiet, safe and
low volume traffic movement and preservation of the
residential atmosphere;
• The population of the neighbourhood should be that which
is required to support its elementary school;
• The neighbourhood focal point should be the elementary
school centrally located on a common or green, along with
other institutions that have service areas coincident with
the neighbourhood boundaries. 12
• The radius of the neighbourhood should be a maximum of one quarter mile thus
precluding a walk of more than that distance for any elementary school child; and
• Shopping districts should be sited at the edge of neighbourhoods preferably at major
street intersections.

1.4.2 PRINCIPLES OF NEIGHBORHOOD:

• Size: The town is divided into self- contained units or sectors of 10,000 population and this
is further divided into smaller units called neighbourhood units with 2000 to 5000
population based on the requirement of one primary school. The size of the unit is therefore
limited to about 1 to 1.5 sqkm. I.e. within walkable distance of 10 to 15 minutes.

• Boundaries: The unit should be bounded on all its sides by main road, wide enough for
through traffic.

• Protective strips: These are necessary to protect the neighbourhood from annoyance of
through traffic and to provide suitable facilities for development parks, playgrounds and
road widening scheme in future. These are also called: “minor green belts”.

• Internal streets: The internal streets are designed to ensure safety to the people and the
school going children in particular since the mother are anxious every day till the safe return
of the child.

13
• Layout of building: To encourage neighbourhood relation and secure social stability and
balance, houses to suit the different income group should be provided such as single family
houses, double family houses, cottages, flats etc
.
• Shopping centres: Each shop should be located on the circumference of the unit, preferably at
traffic junctions and adjacent to the neighbourhood units.

• Community centre: Each community will have its centre with social, culture and recreational
amenities.
• Facilities: All public facilities requires for the family for their comfort and convenience should
be in easy reach.

14
Fig: Anatomy of Great Neighborhood

15
1.4.3 Philosophies and Theories of Neighbourhood Planning:

1.4.3.1 Philosophies by some individuals

Throughout the human history, the need for planning has been felt and as a result, various
individuals have shared their various philosophies for planning. Especially after the industrial
revolution, the need for planning was felt immensely due to rise in social problems and
disparity between the various social groups which led to poor living conditions and
mismanaged infrastructure in different portions of the settlements where the working class
resided. Similar to this history, various places of the world have had various social reforms
and eventual need and realization of planning.
Some of the theories proposed by some planners have been summarized below:

1) Le Corbusier
Le Corbusier was one of the pioneers to introduce the idea of living in a city that is planned,
designed and built. He promoted hugeness, hierarchy and centralism in city structure and
proposed cities could be anywhere: free of context, history or tradition. He considered city
as a blank piece of paper. He used four basic elements of urban biology: Sun (heat and light),
Space (volume), Vegetation (open spaces), Steel and concrete (steel structures and curtain
panels).
Le Corbusier developed some basic principles for planning:
• Relieve the congestion of central districts to satisfy traffic requirements.
• Improve traffic flow.
• Increase planted areas
• Centre of the city consists of high skyscrapers.
• Separation of workspaces, residences, shopping and entertainment centres, monuments
and government buildings.
• He calculated that 14 sq. m. per person could be settled on 10 sq. m. if food preparation
and laundering were communal.

Fig: Masterplan of Chandigarh 16

Le Corbusier explains: “The city of today is a dying thing because its planning is not in the
proportion of geometrical one fourth. The result of a true geometrical lay-out is repetition, the
result of repetition is a standard. The perfect form.”
An example of a planned city based on his principles is the city of Chandigarh in India.
The master plan of the city as analogous to human body:
• Head (the Capitol complex, sector 1)
• Heart (the city centre, sector 17)
• Lungs (the leisure valley, open spaces and sector greens)
• Brain (the cultural and educational institutions)
• Circulatory system (the network of roads)
• Intestines (the industrial area)

Fig: Masterplan of Chandigarh

17
 2) Clarence Perry
An American planner, Clarence Perry helped define a neighbourhood unit by aiding in
holistic planning and design strategy that addresses the configuration of the major physical
components of a community. He mentioned that planning of neighbourhood is done to
inform the physical configuration of a neighbourhood to create synergies among land uses,
activate the public realm, and create opportunities for housing and mobility choice, all
resulting in a community with a clear place identity.
Typically, the neighbourhood unit is defined by the following characteristics:
• a mix of uses and building types .
• a range of mobility choices
• a dynamic relationship between the elements of the public and private realm
• a clear organizational hierarchy
Perry outlined six basic principles of good neighbourhood design:
• Centre the school
• Place arterial streets along the perimeter
• Design internal streets
• Restrict local shopping areas to the perimeter
• Dedicate at least 10 percent of the neighbourhood land area to parks and open space
The 5-minute walking radius is the standard indicator for informing the configuration of and
distribution of land uses in a walkable neighbourhood. Ideally, most daily needs of the
neighbourhood residents are available within this area. Commercial and community uses
are located at important junctions within and on the edges of the neighbourhood.

Fig: Neighbourhood unit by Clarence Perry

18
Fig: Sustainable Neighbourhood Unit Concept Fig: Updated Neighbourhood unit by Duany Plater-
(2008) By Farr & Associates Zyberk & Company
3) Charles Correa
Indian modern Architect and Planner Charles Correa has had an immense contributions in
planning. We can take the planning of Navi Mumbai to understand his philosophies. His
philosophies for Navi Mumbai can be summarized as:
• Decentralization by the design of self-sufficient townships (nodes). \
• Residential neighbourhoods (sectors).
• Creations of ponds to accumulate excess run.
• Each node is planned to accommodate a range of some income group.
• Open to sky terraces for middle income groups.

He paid special attention to air ventilation and to provide humane living environments. In
India, the urban population is increasing as twice as fast as rural areas, he took on this
challenge and designs homes, both for low and high incomes in Mumbai. Even while
designing small spaces within this high density environment, he incorporated a high level of
privacy also in small spaces. He combined vernacular and modern concepts to create
designs that support the cultural identity of a place and community.
In order to overcome the crowding problem during daytime, he had proposed a line of
platforms 2 meters wide and 0.6m high with water taps placed at approximately intervals of
30m. During the day, these platforms would be used by the hawkers-thus clearing the
pavements and night time they can use it to sleep.

Fig: Pavement in Navi Mumbai

19
1.4.4 TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES OF PLANNING:

14.4.1 Land Development Schemes:

Conversion of unimproved property into a site that possesses features capable of

supporting a desired activity is known as land development. It requires the skill of many
professionals, including architects, civil engineers, urban designers, and site planners.
General categories of land development are commercial, industrial, and residential.
Recently in Nepal the Ministry of Housing and Physical Planning has formulated a housing
policy to develop the city fringe area by planning and sub-division of poor urban land. Land
development projects are being run under committees like Town development committees
(TDC) chaired by local authority chief i.e. The Mayor of the municipality. Kathmandu Valley
Urban Development Projects (KVUDP) are going under implementation.

a) Site and Services :

Site and services is an approach to bringing shelter within the economic reach of the poor.
Recognizing that the vast majority of low income families in the world build their own
shelter, which lacks basic hygiene, access and electricity, the strategy, was developed. The
approach first appeared on a large scale in Madras (now Chennai) in 1972. The approach
links the user group’s ability to pay with land prices and costs of rudimentary and
upgradable infrastructures. The fundamental idea is to market plots with essential
infrastructures at market prices, to avoid the resale of subsidized housing, directed at low
income groups. In 1976, His Majesty’s Government formed Kathmandu Valley town
Development Committee (KVTDC). Under this committee, town plan implementation
committees for Kathmandu, Lalitpur and Bhaktapur were established to implement and
enforce the prepared land use plan. Taking into consideration the lack of housing at that
time, the KVTDC selected three locations in Kathmandu for site and services scheme within
the objective framework of Kathmandu Valley physical development plan. The Kuleshwor
site and services started in 1978 with the objective of providing housing to lower level
government employees. Golfutar housing project was initiated in the same year as
Kuleshwor without any specific target group.

Major problems of site and services projects are:

• Inefficient project document due to non-involvement of trained people

• Slow and lengthy process for land acquisition and no time limit for project
• Low land compensation rates
• Land acquired without interest of people
• Plots were sold in the hands of land speculators
• Mismanagement in selling of land plots
• Displaced original landowners
• Weak coordination between different agencies and weak organization structure of
implementing body
• Lack of financial resources

20
b) Guided Land Development

In the case of guided land development, all the owners along its route must agree to provide
land for a road. It is the program where people’s participation is required where the
involvement of community is encouraged for its success. Very difficult problem arise at:

• Junctions with existing roads (the entry points t the new roads), where those who have
access already provided by the existing road see no advantage in giving land to start a
new road
• Very small plots whose owners will be left with too little land to use for themselves if
they give land for a road .
Consequently, to make guided land development work, it is necessary to have power and
resources to:
• Pay compensation in difficult cases
• Force participation at the entry points
• Forcibly acquire land from the few land owners who object to the scheme

Even after they have agreed, owners do not always give up land for road as promised, and
government has no capacity to monitor what happens. Because it is so difficult to organize
agreements to give land for road, roads are planned to only some of the plots. It is then
necessary to propose land pooling to deal with the interior areas where GLD cannot hope to
create roads. However, GLD avoids the delays and negotiations necessary in land pooling to
settle the share of any land price increase to which a tenant is entitled under Nepalese law.
In practice, GLD has been successful only in widening the rights-of-way for existing roads.
Yet, there is little or no money for actual road construction. It is recognized that GLD does
not deal with environmental problems or provide sites for schools or open spaces. One
analyst concludes that it should be used only where there are adequate public and
community facilities nearby, a rare situation in urban Nepal. And in the end, it must be
remembered that GLD does not usually increase the number of plots, but improves
conditions for plots which already exist.

c) Land Pooling

Land pooling is an urban land planning practice in which a group of landowners unite to
carry out a collective planning of their land. They prepare a subdivision layout plan, install
services and redistribute developed plots proportionately amongst themselves. They also
finance the project works by selling some of their sales plots (or reserved plots) set aside for
project has cost recovery. They do this for bringing in services to their land and reap the
benefit of high land price after the project. Landowners’ operatives are very active in Japan
to carry out LP projects, whereas, in Nepal, town planning agency motivates landowners and
implements it. Because of its inherent potential to solve some of the problems of
conventional planning, LP has gained popularity in many Asian cities. This approach does not
apply eminent domain for acquiring land. The land is planned and service plots are returned
to the respective landowners. Thus, there is no clamor of displacement of the original
landowners, no complaints about land acquisition delays and inadequate compensation.
Second, in an anticipation of future land value gains, landowners support the project. Third,
landowners are empowered through their strong representation in the land management
committee; a planning authority’s monopoly on the decision making process is minimized.

21
Finally, project implementation need not depend upon the availability of government
budget, as it is self-financed by landowners (through their reserve plot sales). This also
relieves public funding for infrastructure. Furthermore, the government benefits from the
increased property tax base.

Fig: Land scenario before Land Pooling Fig: Land scenario after Land Pooling

 Advantages of Land Pooling:

This tool is found most effective in Kathmandu to increase the capacity to provide
infrastructure and services in planned ways though it was not so long introduced in Nepal so
far as it has special advantages of cost minimization of the infrastructure and service
provision and eventually to help to improve the urban environment. Land readjustment
technique made it possible to service, even the difficult and dispersed areas in urban fringe.
The technique urge the landowner to act more responsibly to general interest and land
speculation could be minimized so far. The community and municipality could easily control
the process. Land needs to be acquired with the result that the cost of land development is
reduced and development process made more equitable. This is sufficient to own the land
for the purpose of planning and development. While increasing the supply of urban land for
the development in systematic way, land pooling can help:

 To improve the urban environment by:

• Discouraging the sprawl growth
• Conserving environmental resources
• Minimizing the resource use in the provisions of infrastructures and services
• Controlling and designing the living environment within the project area
 To increase access of the people including the poor to land (individual plot) for housing
ensuring social justice and equity
 To recapture the unearned income by different level of government and use the income
for social and economic project
 To better cope with urbanization Implementation process

 General Land Distribution in Land Pooling Project

Fig: Land Division in Land Pooling 22

1.4.5 Advantages of Planned Development:
Urban planning is a valuable force for city leaders
to achieve sustainable development. It is a means
to bring about a difference; Planning helps make
the most out of municipal budgets by informing
infrastructure and services investments, balancing
demands for growth with the need to protect the
environment. It distributes economic
development within a given territory to reach
social objectives and creates a framework for
collaboration between local governments, the
private sector and the public at large.

• A framework for growth

Thriving cities have a vision and follow it through with a framework to develop in an orderly
manner. A framework is not about centralized command and control but a way to anticipate
needs, coordinate efforts, and draw a path to a horizon that is collectively held. Major
efforts to enhance liveability, prosperity and equity have taken place in a number of well-
known cities. Such transformational impact is not a product of spontaneity, instead of
constructive planning.

• A planned city is a well-prepared city

Anticipating the future allows us to be better prepared today. By staying ahead of

challenges, city leaders are ready to see opportunities and manage risks from a vantage
point. With reliable information on the current situation, they will be able to make
connections between the longterm vision and short-term actions. On the other hand, cities
that don’t actively plan for their future will likely be left behind.

• Planning improves impact

Local leaders are elected and appointed to deliver improvement. Given the magnitude of
the challenges cities face, it is unlikely that all desired improvements will happen at once.
Successful cities build momentum by undertaking priority projects that are aligned with the
vision. Planning identifies pressing issues and available resources and makes sure that
initiatives are not redundant or going in different directions.

• An appropriate urban form is very important

Housing, employment, accessibility and safety are key concerns for urban dwellers. These
topics are strongly correlated to urban form. The right policies on density, land use, public
space and the layout of infrastructure and services can make a difference in delivering
quality of life at the right price point. Designing a spatial pattern that addresses citizens’
concerns is a means for delivering a better city.

23
• Urban planning positively affects urban economy

Making sure there are plenty of jobs in a city is a priority for local leaders.
Cities compete to attract investment with a view to generating economic
activity. Planning coordinates the spatial location and distribution of economic
activity and facilitates value capture from public investment and the
transformation of rural to urban land.

• A collectively held plan allows cities to build lasting relationships

City leaders that are able to see opportunity in urbanization would need to engage all
possible contributions toward capturing it. A collectively held framework gives local leaders
a road map to reach out to citizens, energize departments and mobilize partners so that
they become engaged in realizing the vision.

• A broader territorial perspective helps cities attain economies of scale

Cities do not operate in vacuums. Their footprint is associated with a surrounding region
with which they share resources and opportunities. Rather than just looking within
municipal boundaries, cities that plan together can make a competitive advantage out of
cross-municipal coordination. In addition to spatial efficiencies, this would allow them to
draw on economies of scale to boost their negotiation power.

• Continuity generates credibility

Successful cities have ensured continuity of plans through political cycles, realizing that a
stable road map would make them more credible. Investment is a long-term endeavour that
benefits from predictable conditions. Spatial planning is an asset to reduce uncertainties and
thus its continuity contributes to the creation of transparent opportunities for an engaged
society.

• Anticipating is more cost effective than reacting to problems

Local leaders have the opportunity of driving constructive change if they move away from
laissez faire. Cities that plan in sufficient scale would be in a position of anticipating rather
than reacting, hence being able to tackle the root of the problem. Unplanned spatial
patterns are inefficient and require more resources to maintain, and the high cost of bad or
no decisions is likely to make them irreversible.

• A framework gives consistency to messages

Communication is a key asset for cities, but the opportunity to connect and convey a city’s
advantages can be undermined by empty or contradictory messages. Momentum and
support are increased when the local leader can demonstrate substantive, even if
incremental, progress that is consistent with the collective vision and framework for action.

24
2. LITERATURE STUDY

2.1 Land Use/ Land Division

Land-use planning is the process of regulating the use of land in an effort to promote more
desirable social and environmental outcomes as well as a more efficient use of resources.
Goals of land use planning may include environmental conservation, restraint of urban
sprawl, minimization of transport costs, prevention of land use conflicts, and a reduction in
exposure to pollutants.

• The process of planning is started by dividing the entire area into blocks by roads.
• Plots for open spaces, parks, and community facilities are delineated.
• Then other service like hotels, Entertainment catering tourism, market place, parks,
etc. are added to create job opportunities.

In national context, land use ratio is planned in following categories:

Land Division

20%
Residential

6% Open space

4% Service plot
Streets
70%

Remaining Area:
• Residential: 70%
• Open space: 3-5%
• Service plot: 5-7%
• Road links: 20%

 These blocks are further divided into smaller block areas by providing smaller roads.
 These smaller blocks will be subdivided into individual housing plots in such a way that
each plot will have access to road, drainage, water supply, electricity, telephone.
25
2.1.1 Block Size
Block is the space made by the road network.
Its shape and size depend on the road
network.
The block is further divided into plots for the
required units.
The basis for employing block size as a
measure of connectivity is that a block is an
impenetrable area, therefore the larger the
block the greater its obstruction of movement
through the environment.
The three primary block-based connectivity
measures are:
•Block Perimeter Length
•Block Area
•Block Face Length

Standard Context:
-Block size
• Length - 100 to 200 meters.
• Breakage with pedestrian link when blocks are over 130 meters.
• Depth - 40 to 80 meters.

National Context:

-Blocks are divided based on:

• Plot size
• Number of Houses
• Pressure of urbanization and
• Reserve area
-Special emphasis will be given to the following matter to layout block and plots:
• Access to highway and planned roads
• Junction points − Existed buildings and infrastructures
• Natural topography and slopes
• The blocks are generally designed longitudinal direction of main roads and the
distance between two open spaces will be 100-200m.
• The width of road will be at least 7.5 m. with 1.5m setback except the existing houses.
• We can choose range of block size to create diversity.
-Plot size
• The blocks are subdivided to provide access road to each plot and open spaces can be
located
• Centrally and planned clustery in order to have social harmony.

26
2.1.2 Types of Housing
Standards:
 Minimum Size: 80 sq. m.
 Frontage: 6m
 Depths : Varies from 30m to 50m
 Generally, plot depth: 2.2-2.5 X frontage; and not exceeding 3 X frontage

2.1.2.1 Unit Types

A housing unit, or dwelling unit, is a structure or the part of a structure or the space that is
used as a home, residence, or sleeping place by one person or more people who maintain a
common household. It is the layout and development of residential unit in which people can
live in pleasant, peaceful and healthy surroundings with social, cultural and recreational
facilities.
Points to be considered for good housing units:
• It is not enough to just provide structurally stable structure but must be located and
designed that it afford convenience, amenity, and social life to the community.
• It should represent the smaller unit from where the town planning scheme emerges.
• The success and failure of the town planning scheme rests on the effective provision of
housing.
• Houses should be designed in different types and with pleasing elevation.
• Should be planned in harmony with the surroundings like lake, streams, greeneries etc.
• Houses should be properly oriented to get advantages of sun, wind and topography.
• Density of population should be in accordance with the standards specified by the
authority.
• Houses for different income group should be grouped together to build the spirit of
neighborhood.

a) Detached housing
A stand-alone house (also called a single-detached dwelling, detached residence
or detached house) is a free-standing residential building. It is sometimes referred to as
a single-family home, as opposed to a multi-family residential dwelling. It is set on a
separate lot. Includes ownership rights. And there is advantage of addition of some rooms
for the landowner if needed. A single detached dwelling contains only one dwelling unit and
is completely separated by open space on all sides from any other structure, except its own
garage or shed. Most single family homes are built on lots larger than the structure itself,
adding an area surrounding the house.

27
b) Semi – detached housing

A semi-detached house is a single family

duplex dwelling house that shares one
common wall with the next house. The
name distinguishes this style of house from
detached houses, with no shared walls, and
terraced houses, with a shared wall on both
sides. It has separate entrances and often
the plans are mirror images of each other

c) Apartment building

An apartment, or flat, is a self-contained

housing unit that occupies only part of a
building, generally on a single storey. It can
be walking up buildings where upper floors
are served by stairs or elevator buildings.
It can have internal stairways to serve two or
more levels.

d) Row housing
A row of identical houses connected side by
side and shares common wall with the
houses next to it

Unit types Story Units per House area Parking units

hectare (m2)

Detached 1 15 111.48 15 on-site parking

houses

Semi detached 2 40 118.92 40 on-site parking

Row houses 2 45 119.66 55 on-site parking

2.5 60 118.92 55 on-site parking

3 95 123.19 65 on-site parking

Apartment Low rise 90 111.67 25 on each side street

=50
+40 on site
Medium 137 111.67 110 on-site parking
High rise 257 110.37 105 on-site parking
28
2.1.3 Housing Layouts

The important points to be considered in the planning of residential units are as below:
• Houses should be planned in harmony with the surroundings like lake, streams,
greeneries etc.
• Houses should be properly oriented to get maximum advantage of the sun, wind and
topography.
• Density of population should be in accordance with the standards specified by the
authority.
• Houses for different income group should be grouped together to build the spirit of
neighborhood.
• Staggered arrangement of houses ensures proper circulation of air as compared to
grid house.

Densities by residential units:

Type of building FAR Families/ha Families /ha
Net Density Neighborhood
Density

Single family Up to 0.2 Up to 20 Up to 12

Two family detached 0.3 25-30 18

Row houses 0.5 40-60 30

Stacked town houses 0.8 60-100 45

3 Storey walk-up 1.0 100-115 50

apartments

6 storey elevator 1.4 160-190 75

apartments

29
2.2 Physical Infrastructures
Physical infrastructure includes one of the major assets in neighborhood planning in terms
of capital investment. It includes physical object like road, sewerage energy networks, solid
waste management. It is the fundamental basis for development an area, city or a country
which helps to regulate the distribution of population across the nation. It also helps to
distribute population over the urban and rural system in a way that will provide people with
better services. Development should be directed to areas serviced by adequate roads,
water, sewers, and utilities.

2.2.1 Road
Certain physical qualities are required for a great street. Most are directly related to social
and economic criteria having to do with building good cities: accessibility, bringing, people,
together, publicness , livability, comfort, participation, and responsibility. A major objective
of this work is to provide knowledge of the best streets for designers and urban decision
makers, a reference for current work. The connections between what can built on a street
and the socioeconomic criteria for a fine street are not always easy to make.
Every fine street invites leisurely, safe walking. It sounds simple, and basically it is. There
have to be walkways that permit people to walk at varying paces, including most
importantly a leisurely pace, with neither a sense of crowding nor of being alone. They also
must be safe, primarily from vehicles.
The main objective of urban road planning is the best use of scarce resources to achieve
urban areas which are efficient places for the production of goods and services and which
bring the maximum satisfaction to their residents.

Fig: Four representative network types in different regions of the city.

30
There is substantial evidence of the negative impact of air pollution on our health and
wellbeing from vehicles along road corridors notwithstanding the environmental impact of
vehicular travel. There are often opportunities to create a green buffer between vehicles
and pedestrians/cyclists as trees and shrubbery absorb particulates in particular and thereby
help to improve air quality.

 Pedestrian accommodation should be separated from vehicle travel lanes by street trees
and/or on-street parking.
 Sidewalks may use between 10 to 20 % of road’s right of way

In a motorized city,
• 30% of the surface devoted to road
• 20% required for off street parking
• Everyday parking should be within 100 m parking
• Max. parking distant should not exceed 200 m from the store

Residential Collector (with no home fronting on the streets)

31
Type width
1. Fire lanes 20 ft. (6.1m)
2. Curb parking lane 6-8 ft. (2.03 m min.)
3. Parking + Traffic lane 18 ft. (5.49m min.)
4. No parking one way 10 ft. (3.05m min.)
5. No parking two way 16 ft. (4.88m min.)
6. Driveway for 1 car 8 ft. (2.44 m max.)

All of these dimensions are for public streets. Local regulations and standards often specify
similar dimensions for parking lot lanes. The Uniform Fire Code requires that fire lanes are a
minimum of 20 ft. (6.09 m) wide, have a height clearance of at least 13.5 ft. (4.11 m), have a
40 ft. (11.98 m) minimum radius on curves, and a maximum dead end length of 150 ft. (46.3
m).

2.2.1.1 Street Hierarchy:

The street hierarchy is an urban planning technique for

laying out road networks that exclude automobile
through-traffic from developed areas. It is conceived as a
hierarchy of roads that embeds the link importance of
each road type in the network topology (the connectivity
of the nodes to each other). Street hierarchy restricts or
eliminates direct connections between certain types of
links, for example residential streets and arterial roads
and allows connections between similar order streets
(e.g. arterial to arterial) or between street types that are
separated by one level in the hierarchy (e.g. arterial to
highway and collector to arterial.) By contrast, in many
regular, traditional grid plans, as laid out, higher order
roads (e.g. arterials) are connected by through streets of
both lower order levels (e.g. local and collector.) An
ordering of roads and their classification can include
several levels and finer distinctions as, for example,
major and minor arterials or collectors.

Fig :Street hierarchy 32

2.2.1.2 Hierarchy of roads:

The hierarchy of roads categorizes roads according to their functions and capacities. While
sources differ on the exact nomenclature, the basic hierarchy comprises freeways, arterials,
collectors, and local roads. The related concept of access management aims to provide
access to land development, while ensuring traffic flows freely and safely on surrounding
roads.

Classification of urban roads

• Express ways
• Arterial streets
• Sub-arterial streets
• Collector’s streets
• Local streets

Fig: Inter-relationship between different types of road

a) Express ways:

These roads provide largely uninterrupted travel,

often using partial or full access control, and are
designed for high speeds.

• For speedy and heavy traffic.

• Pedestrians not allowed.
• Connect main markets, important places.
• Complete separation of opposite moving traffic
by a divide or median.
• Level crossing, sharp curves, steep gradients
avoided.
• Telephone facility, highway police, servicing
stations, refreshment facilities available at regular
intervals.

33
b) Arterial streets:

Arterials are major through roads that are expected to carry large volumes of traffic. Arterials
are often divided into major and minor arterials, and rural and urban arterials.
• For the heavy or important traffic inside the city.
• Usually along the expressways serving as principal network of traffic flow.
• Join central business district with outside residential areas.
• Parking, loading, unloading prohibited.
• Pedestrians are allowed to cross only at intersections.

Fig: Section of typical arterial road

c) Sub – arterial streets:

These roads are also known as the major roads or secondary roads. They are contained
within city limits and they connect important town centres. • These roads serve slow
moving traffic over short distances . The intersection on these roads are provided with
suitable traffic signals.
• Less traffic than arterial streets
• Pedestrians are allowed to cross only at intersections
• Parking, loading, unloading usually restricted and controlled.

Fig: Section of typical sub arterial road

34
d) Collectors Street
Collectors (not to be confused with collector lanes, which reduce weaving on freeways),
collect traffic from local roads, and distribute it to arterials. Traffic using a collector is
usually going to or coming from somewhere nearby.
• Meant for collecting the traffic from local streets to arterial streets
• Full access allowed from properties alongside.
• Situated In residential, commercial, industrial areas.

Fig: Section of typical collector road

e) Local streets
At the bottom of the hierarchy are local streets and roads. These roads have the lowest
speed limit and carry low volumes of traffic. In some areas, these roads may be unpaved.
• Open access from residents, business or other properties
• Does not carry large volume of traffic

Fig: Section of typical local road

35
2.2.1.3 Types of Road Network:

a) Grid iron pattern

In this pattern, the whole area is divided into rectangular blocks of plots, with streets
intersecting at right angles. The main road which passes through the centre of the area
should be sufficiently wide and other branch roads may be comparatively narrow. The main
road is provided a direct approach to outside the city.

• Streets run at right angles to each other, forming a grid

• Facilitates the movement of people and product throughout the city.

b) Radial network

The centre of radial loop road network is the site with the highest accessibility. Public
service and facilities, commerce, business land and park green land are extremely easy to
form at the centre.

• Based on star layout

• Inner outer ring roads linked by radiating roads
• Core has the business area
• Industrial area interspersed within the residential.

c) Organic layout

• Amoebic layout
• Roads placed wherever necessary.
• Lack of acute pointed angles.
• Parabolic in nature.

Grid Iron Pattern Radial Network Organic Layout

36
2.2.1.4 Street:

A street is a public thoroughfare (usually paved) in a built environment. It is a public

parcel of land adjoining buildings in an urban context, on which people may freely
assemble, interact, and move about. A street can be as simple as a level patch of dirt, but
is more often paved with a hard, durable surface such as concrete, cobblestone or brick.
Portions may also be smoothed with asphalt, embedded with rails, or otherwise
prepared to accommodate non-pedestrian traffic. Circulation, or less broadly,
transportation, is perhaps a street's most visible use, and certainly among the most
important. The unrestricted movement of people and goods within a city is essential to
its commerce and vitality, and streets provide the physical space for this activity. In the
interest of order and efficiency, an effort may be made to segregate different types of
traffic.

The types of street traffic are:

a) Vehicular Traffic:
Despite this, the operator of a motor vehicle may (incompletely) regard a street as
merely a thoroughfare for vehicular travel or parking. As far as concerns the driver, a
street can be one way or two-way: vehicles on one-way streets may travel in only one
direction, while those on two-way streets may travel both ways. One-way streets
typically have signs reading "ONE WAY“ and an arrow showing the direction of allowed
travel. Most two-way streets are wide enough for at least two lanes of traffic.

37
Which lane is for which direction of traffic depends on what country the street is located in.
On broader two-way streets, there is often a centre line marked down the middle of the
street separating those lanes on which vehicular traffic goes in one direction from other
lanes in which traffic goes in the opposite direction. Occasionally, there may be a median
strip separating lanes of opposing traffic. If there is more than one lane going in one
direction on a main street, these lanes may be separated by intermittent lane lines, marked
on the street pavement. Side streets often do not have centre lines or lane lines.

Representation of different traffics on the street

b) Parking for vehicles:

Many streets, especially side streets in residential areas, have an extra lane's width on one
or both sides for parallel parking. Most minor side streets allowing free parallel parking do
not have pavement markings designating the parking lane. Main streets more often have
parking lanes marked. Some streets are too busy or narrow for parking on the side.
Sometimes parking on the sides of streets is allowed only at certain times. Curb side signs
often state regulations about parking. Some streets, particularly in business areas, may
have parking meters into which coins must be paid to allow parking in the adjacent space
for a limited time. Other parking meters work on a credit card and ticket basis or pay and
display. Parking lane markings on the pavement may designate the meter corresponding to
a parking space. Some wide streets with light traffic allow angle parking.

Parking on one side only

38
c) Sidewalk and bicycle traffic
Sidewalks (US usage) or pavements (UK usage) are often located alongside on one or
usually both sides of the street within the public land strips beyond the curbs. Sidewalks
serve a traffic purpose, by making walking easier and more attractive, but they also serve
a social function, allowing neighbours to meet and interact on their walks. They also can
foster economic activity, such as window shopping and sidewalk cafes. Some studies have
found that shops on streets with sidewalks get more customers than similar shops
without sidewalks.

An important element of sidewalk design is accessibility for persons with disabilities.

Features that make sidewalks more accessible include curb ramps, tactile paving and
accessible traffic signals. The Americans with Disabilities Act requires accessibility
improvement on new and reconstructed streets within the US.

In most jurisdictions, bicycles are legally allowed to use streets, and required to follow the
same traffic laws as motor vehicle traffic. Where the volume of bicycle traffic warrants
and available right-of-way allows, provisions may be made to separate cyclists from motor
vehicle traffic. Wider lanes may be provided next to the curb, or shoulders may be
provided. Bicycle lanes may be used on busy streets to provide some separation between
bicycle traffic and motor vehicle traffic. The bicycle lane may be placed between the travel
lanes and the parking lanes, between the parking lanes and the curb, or for increased
safety for cyclists, between curb and sidewalk. These poorer designs can lead to Dooring
incidents and are unsafe for cycling.

39
2.2.1.5 Traffic Calming:

Traffic calming involves physical measures that:

• Reduce the negative effects of motor vehicle use,
• Alter driver behaviour,
• Improve the conditions for non-motorized street users.

Typically, traffic calming slows motorists to a “desired” speed and develops the street(s) in
a context-sensitive way to meet the goals and objectives of the community (e.g.,
homeowners, business owners, etc.) Traffic calming can be accomplished by:

• Retrofitting the existing streets with regularly spaced measures, and/or,

• Rebuilding the streets to include new cross-sections

Traffic calming is becoming an increasingly important part of the effort for cities, towns,
and villages to become safer and increasingly liveable, economically successful, and
sustainable. Traffic calming has a myriad of applications in urban areas but is also an
option for rural towns and villages where the rural highway enters the town and becomes
the main street. Traffic control devices (e.g., signs, signals, and pavement markings), often
support, but do not in themselves,
constitute traffic calming measures. Similarly, with street-scaping elements. Route
modification assures (e.g., street closures, partial closures, one-way streets, and turn
prohibitions) or network reducing measures should never be considered traffic-calming
measures.

Fig: Traffic calming

a) Narrowing:
While there is no definitive published
guideline
relating street width and design speed,
there is
a widespread understanding that narrow
street width reduces speed. The width
between buildings has a similar effect.

40
b) On-Street Parking:
On-street parking slows motor vehicle speeds
by narrowing the travel lanes. This narrowing
is particularly effective because of the height
of the parked cars and the articulation
(irregular appearance) of the enclosure that
the parked cars provide. Further, the
occasional parking manoeuvres of slowing or
stopping cars are a frequent reminder, to
motorists, of the other users of the street.
Beyond its immediate traffic calming effect,
on-street parking greatly improves the
pedestrian qualities of the street, by putting a
barrier of parked cars between the sidewalk
and moving vehicles. Pedestrian benefits are
increased through the use of bulbouts, which
result in more sidewalk space and shorter
crosswalks at intersections. Typical types of
on-street parking include parallel parking and
diagonal parking. These types may be
combined as desired, with parallel and
diagonal patterns on opposite sides of the
street or alternating on the same side of the
street to create or accentuate lateral shifts. A
desirable complement to on-street parking is the intersection bulbout, which defines and
shields the parking, as well as provides a better street corner for pedestrians.

Mid-block bulbouts also define the parking areas, as well as providing pedestrian
crosswalks, transit stops and places for trees. By regularly placing bulbouts, a continuous
street tree appearance can be gained. Parking along the medians. on divided streets is an
inexpensive and effective way to reallocate excess pavement width. If only one parking
lane can be accommodated along the median, it can be alternated along either side of the
median.

Though only one row of trees can be accommodated in the median, the appearance of a
double row of trees can then be created. “Back-in/head-out” diagonal parking is superior
to conventional “head-in/back-out” diagonal parking. Both types of diagonal parking have
common dimensions, but the back-in/head-out is superior for safety reasons due to
better visibility when leaving. This is particularly important on busy streets or where
drivers find their views blocked by large vehicles, tinted windows, etc., in adjacent
vehicles in the case of heading/ back-out angled parking. In other words, drivers do not
back blindly into an active travel lane. The back-in manoeuvre is simpler than a parallel
parking manoeuvre.

Furthermore, with back-in/head-out parking, the open doors of the parked vehicle block
pedestrian access to the travel lane and guide pedestrians to the sidewalk, which is a
safety benefit, particularly for children. Further, back-in/ head-out parking puts most
cargo loading (into trunks, tailgates) on the curb, rather than in the street.

41
c) Bicycle lanes:
Adding the on-street bicycle lane somewhat narrows the travelled way for motor vehicles,
while providing for an otherwise neglected mode of travel. Where parallel parking is
present, the bicycle lane is striped between the parking lane and the motor vehicle lane.
When a bicycle lane is adjacent to diagonal parking, it is preferable to use back-in/head-out
angled parking for safety reasons. In this way, exiting motorists do not back blindly into the
bicycle lane, but rather back up while entering the parking stall with far greater viability. A
much more sophisticated way of accommodating the bicycle lane is the protected bicycle
lane with the bicycle lane adjacent to the sidewalk. Patterned after widespread European
experience, this design locates a one-way bicycle lane (in the direction of motor vehicular
traffic) adjacent to the sidewalk, at the same level as the sidewalk. At intersection
approaches and departures, where parking is prohibited anyway, the bicycle lane transitions
horizontally to the side of the curb, and vertically down to street pavement level. Through
the intersection, the bike lane is adjacent to the motor vehicular through lane as in a
conventional in-street bicycle lane. On the far side of the intersection, the pattern is
reversed, with the bicycle lane again transitioning horizontally to adjacent to the sidewalk,
and vertically to the same grade as the sidewalk. The paving material for the bicycle lane is
usually red in colour or marked to distinguish it from the rest of the street. Clearly, this
arrangement narrows most of the street, while providing separate facilities for cyclists.
Furthermore, the street is effectively wider at the intersections for the turning needs of
larger vehicles. With the possible exception of expert riders, the needs of the majority of
cyclists are helped by protected bicycle lanes when compared to the conventional,
completely in-street bike lane. Vulnerable cyclists feel safer. There are far less, or no, car
door-opening problems, Cyclists can access shops, bicycle parking, etc. without having to
manoeuvre between parked cars. In-line skaters and other non-motorized, wheeled street
users, increasingly expected to operate as cyclists, are well served by the protected bicycle
lane.

42
Paths for cyclists can be shared with people walking
(shared paths) or bicycle only paths. Paths need to be
built wide enough to cater for the current and future
number of users. The accepted minimum width for
shared paths is 2.5m, with paths expecting commuter
traffic at least 3.0m wide. Paths with heavy commuter
and recreational traffic should be at least 3.5m wide or
provide separate paths for cycling and walking.

Provide dedicated on or off-street bike lanes or multi-

use trails that can accommodate recreational and
commuter traffic.

2.2.1.6 Pedestrian friendly street:

Achieving a aesthetic for comfort, character and use of the street. The pedestrian friendly
street shows the relation between building and the street. Pedestrian Friendly Street relies
on how public space is defined by a building. Building enclosure is defined by ratio of
building separation to building height. Walkability of street relies on comfort and safety.
Ratio between the building and the street goes from 1:1 to 4:1. Good pedestrian facilities
(such as wide footpaths and well designed crossings) also make walking a more convenient
and pleasurable experience that will further encourage pedestrian activity. These four
characteristics represent the basic measures that should be established in order to create
people friendly streets that facilitate more sustainable neighbourhoods.

43
2.2.1.7 Road standards of Nepal:

• Road joining planning areas should be 7 meters wide

• The road joining the blocks should be 7 m wide
• Road joining the plots should be 4 m wide

44
2.2.1.8 Terms of Road used in context of Nepal.

a) Path:
• 4 or more separate lanes for mass-transit
buses, other motorized vehicles, bicycles
and pedestrian.
• Typically ,Maitighar - Surya Vinayak
section of Araniko Highway has
characteristics of Path.
• On the other hand Kantipath would be
Path only when bicycle track are laid
along the road.
• Provision of foot path , cycle stand , verge
for non-motorized traffic.

b) Sadak:
• Minimum of 16m wide road is required.
• The pavement shall normally be 2 lane wide
with an additional exclusive lane if a mass-
transit system is to be accommodated.
• Provision of Cycle track if not in case of two
lane pavement, the buses have to share the
pavement with other.

c) Marg:
• A Marg is an Access Road by function.
• Pedestrian and non-motorized traffic shall
have priority along these roads.
• Motorized traffic of only the local
inhabitants shall be allowed with
restriction to speed, sound, high beam
and emission.
• The width of pavement of marg is in
between 5.5-6m without walkways and if
walkways is provided it raised up to 4m.

45
2.2.1.9 Signage:

Traffic signs or road signs are signs erected at the side of roads to provide information to
road users.

Some colour schemes:

• red with white for stop signs, yield, and forbidden actions (such as No Parking)
• green with white letters for informational signs, such as directions, distances, and
places .
• brown with white for signs to parks, historic sites, ski areas, forests, and camp grounds

2.2.1.10 Width of footpath:

1. Single Lane : 3.75 m
2. Two lanes (without raised Krebs) : 7m
3. Two lanes (with raised Krebs) : 7.50m
4. Multi-lane pavements : 3.50m per lan

2.2.1.11 Roads Intersections:

Junctions are where one road flows into
another; crossroads are where two roads
cross each other at their point of
intersection. Roundabouts are form of
intersections popular in some countries.
They offer several advantages: reduced
risk of serious accidents; traffic lights are
rarely necessary; there is less noise
generated and energy is conserved.

46
2.2.1.12 Street and layout:

Fig: more desirable street layout Fig: more desirable street

intersection

Fig: more desirable corner lot Fig: undesirable lot layout

47
 Fig: Undesirable offset street

Fig: Provision for future street expansion

Fig: Street and Layout 48

 Fig: Cul-de-sac
Fig: The straight street-improved design

Fig: A group around a green Fig: Loop Fig: T-junction improved

design
2.2.1.13 Turning:
The type, size and shape of a turning place in a road depends on the road use in that
particular area. It also has to be suitable for the needs of the road user a user and must
meet town planning requirements.

2.2.1.14 Parking and Circulation:

Traffic calming is becoming an increasingly important part of the effort for cities, towns,
and villages to become safer and increasingly liveable, economically successful, and
sustainable. Traffic calming involves physical measures that:
• reduce the negative effects of motor vehicle use,
• alter driver behaviour,
• improve the conditions for no motorized street users.
Traffic control devices (e.g., signs, signals, and pavement markings), often support, but do
not in themselves, constitute traffic calming measures. Similarly, with street escaping
elements. Route modification measures (e.g., street closures, partial closures, one way
streets, and turn prohibitions) or network reducing measures should never be considered
Traffic-calming measures.
49
2.2.2 Water Supply and Drainage
It is one of the major utility that is needed for the city to establish, as we know that water
is the essential part of life. Water supply is the provision of water by public utilities,
commercial, organization, community, endeavours on by individuals usually via a system of
pumps and pipe, irrigation.
Water supply mains may be located under the sidewalk, in the planting strip, or under the
street. Minimum design requirements will locate them at least 10 ft from the nearest
sewer or gas main and above the highest sewer or gas main. Some engineers place water
mains on the north side of the east-West Street, and on the east side of a north-South
Street, so that the rays of the sun will be more effective in preventing freezing. Wells are
used; they should be located sufficiently distant from septic tanks, sewers, cesspools, and
drainage fields. The usual recommended minimum distances are 50 ft from septic tanks
and sewers, 100 ft from drainage fields, and 150 ft from cesspools.
Water supply mains may be located:
• Under the side walk
• In the planning strip
• Under the street
 Domestic Demand

 Commercial and Institutional Demand

Fig: Water supply on town planning 50

a) Supply Methods::
• Gravity system
• Pumping system
• Dual system

Fig: Central Water supply

Fig: Parallel Water supply
b) Pipe Position:
All underground pipework except for pipes laid under a building should be laid at a
depth of no less than 750mm from the finished ground level and no more than
1,350mm.

Fig: Pipe position

c) Pipe Diameter:
• The main pipe line = 4’’
• Sub pipe line:
• Generally =1/2’’ (residence)
• According to the customer’s requirement = 1’’ or 2’’
diameter
• General pipe line of main water supply =20 to 25m
• In every 6m connection fixtures are required.

Fig: Water supply 51

2.2.2.1 Sewerage and Drainage:

Sewage should be collected and conveyed in enclosed conduits which should normally be
placed underground. Storm water may be collected and conveyed either in enclosed drains
or open channels. When choosing the alignment of drainage channels, account should be
taken to minimize disruption to adjacent communities and minimize land resumption.
Sewerage systems can be classified into combined sewerage and separate sewerage.
Combined sewerage carries both storm water and wastewater, while separate sewerage
carries storm water or wastewater separately.
Types of Sewerage system :
• Separate system
• Combined system
• Partially combined system
• Centralized wastewater management
• Decentralized wastewater management

Sanitary Sewer:
The sanitary sewer mains are generally located on the centreline of the road. The
line is a clay tile pipe. If it were located in the planting strip, the roots of the trees
might cause breaks in the pipes. The centreline location also locates the pipe
equidistant from building lines on both sides of the street. The sewer line should be
located below the water supply mains.

Storm Sewer:
Storm sewers are generally located one-third the distance from the curb line to the
centreline of street. It is always located on the opposite side of the street from the
waterline. This is to prevent any possible contamination.

Fig: Sewer lines 52

 Combined sewerage(carries both surface Separated sewerage(carries surface
runoff and waste water together) runoff and waste water separately)
Fig: Combined and separated Sewer

• Size of pipe is 200mm (8”) for mains.

• Laterals and 150mm (6”) pipe for house branches.
• Manholes are placed not more than 100-150m apart.
• The minimum diameter of a sewer that drains a street is 300mm.
• Sewer lines are laid below the water mains.
• The minimum diameter for water mains is 150mm (6”).

53
2.2.2.2 Connection of Sewer Line and Water Supply Line:
• Water supply pipe should be min 1m above the sewer system.
• Sewer line and water line should be more than 3 m apart.

Fig: Distance between the supply lines

Fig: Cross section of road

2.2.2.3 Norms and standards for Drainage, Sanitary and Water
Supply Lines

• In no case shall a sanitary sewer be placed above a water main.

• A minimum depth of 2 to 2.5m below ground level is sufficient for sanitary sewer in parts
of the city where basements are frequent.
• A depth of 1.25m of sanitary sewer line may be sufficient to provide protection against
superimposed loads.
• Manholes of drainage system are required wherever a drain changes size, slope or
alignment also where a tributary drain joins a main line; and at intervals of not more than
150 m along a line.
• Fire hydrants should not be more than 150 m apart to avoid excessive head loss in small
diameter hose.
• Minimum design requirement to locate water supply lines is 3 m from the nearest sewer
or gas main.
• Water wells are recommended to be at minimum distances of 15 m from septic tanks
and sewers, 30 m from drainage fields, and 45 m from cesspools.
• Storm sewers should generally be located at one-third the distance from the curb line to
the centre line of the streets. 54
2.2.3 Electricity:

Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and flow of
electric charge.

Figure : Schematic diagram of electric flow

a) Clearances and distances :

• Head clearance of a street light from street surface should be a minimum of

6.85m.
• Location of the post (or place) to which the street light is fixed should be a
minimum of 0.5m from the edge of the street or the outer of the adjoining
pedestrian walking, should the width of the walking be within 2m.
• Where major electricity cables are not laid underground, head clearance of all
overhead electricity lines from street level should be a minimum of 5m.
• The location of a pole (or post) carrying overhead electricity lines should be a
minimum of 2m from the edge of the street.
• 9.9 meter high on local roads,10.7 meters high on collector road and 12.5 meter
high on arterial road.
• Minimum distance between the poles is
• 16.5 m distance for 9.9 m to 10.7 m high poles
• 20 m distance for 12.5 m high poles.

Figure : Clearance of street lights 55

 The supply or intake cable may enter building in two ways:
• Overhead supply
• Underground supply

2.2.3.1 Overhead Supply:

An overhead power line is a structure used

in electrical power transmission and
distribution to transmit electrical along large
distances. It consists of one or more
conductors (commonly multiples of three)
suspended by tower or poles. Since most of
the insulation is provided by air, overhead
power lines are generally the lowest cost Fig: Alignment of poles
method of power transmission for large
quality of electrical energy.

a) Pole Placement:

• Maximum number of customer services: in order to minimize costs, poles should be

positioned so as to maximize the number of customers serviced from one pole.
• Street lighting: Distribution poles are used to carry streetlights. Therefore, they should be
positioned to take into account street lighting design requirements.
• Driveway crossovers: Poles and stays should not be located within 1m of an existing or
planned driveway crossover.

Height of pole for:

• High or local roads-9.9m
• Collector road -10.7m
• Arterial road-12.5m
• Distance between the poles for 9.9m to
10.7m high pole -16.5m
• For 12.5m high poles-20m

56
2.2.3.2 Underground Supply:

The underground system of electrical distribution of power in large cities in increasingly

being adopted, although it is costly system of distribution as compared to overhead
system. An underground cable consists of one or more conductors covered with some
suitable insulating material and surrounded by a protecting cover. The cable is laid
underground to transmit electrical power. It ensures the continuity of supply apart from
the following advantages:
• It ensures non – interrupted continuity of supply.
• Its maintenance is less.
• It has a long life.
• Its appearance is good.
• It eliminates hazards of electrocution due to breakage of overhead conductors.

Fig: Conceal Wiring

57
2.2.4 Telephone and Gas:
Similar to electric power, telephone lines can be located either above or below ground. In
the past almost all lines were above ground and either utilized the electric line poles or set
up an additional line.

In either case, they are unsightly and subject to disruption by the weather. Telephone
lines, TV cables, and other special lines should all be located underground. Some attempts
have been made to combine all electrical, telephone, and TV cables into a common
underground trench that would simplify additional installations and maintenance. These
lines may also be located at the rear-lot easement, if necessary.

Gas mains are generally located under the sidewalk or in the planting strip. They nor not
have any special requirements.

58
2.2.5 Solid Waste Management:
Solid waste management is the collecting, treating and disposing of solid material that is
discarded. Waste management or waste disposal are all the activities and actions required
to manage waste from its inception to its final disposal.[1] This includes amongst other
things collection, transport, treatment and disposal of waste together with monitoring and
regulation. It also encompasses the legal and regulatory framework that relates to waste
management encompassing guidance on recycling. Waste can take any form that is solid,
liquid, or gas and each have different methods of disposal and management. Waste
management normally deals with all types of waste such as:
• Industrial
• Biological
• Household
• Hazardous Waste

• Waste Hierarchy
The waste hierarchy refers to the "3 Rs" reduce, reuse and recycle, which classifies waste
management strategies according to their desirability in terms of waste minimization. The
aim of the waste hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical benefits from products and
to generate the minimum amount of end waste.

59
• Developed country (Europe and USA) = 2 kg/capita/day
• Developing country = 0.3 to 1 kg/capita/day
• Kathmandu = 0.8 kg/capita/day
• Nepal = 317 gm/capita/day

2.2.5.1 Collection, Removal and Transport :

The frequency of collection of refuse depends upon the quantity of the refuse and the
season.

2.2.5.2 Household Refuse Collection point :

• In low density residential areas with maximum of 30 to 88 persons per hectare, distance
from one bin to another should not exceed 360m (1200ft). Capacity of bin should be 10m3
/ 12m3.
• In medium density residential areas with 89 to 175 persons per hectare, distance
between two bins should not exceed 270m (900ft). Capacity of bin should be 14m3.
• In high density residential areas with over 175 people per hectare, distance between two

 Life cycle of a product:

The life cycle begins with design, and then proceeds through manufacture, distribution, and
primary use and then follows through the waste hierarchy's stages of reduce, reuse and
recycle.
60
 Resource efficiency:
Resource efficiency is the reduction of the environmental impact from the production and
consumption of these goods, from final raw material extraction to last use and disposal. This
process of resource efficiency can address sustainability.

 Polluter pays principle:

The polluter-pays principle mandates that the polluting party pays for the impact to the
environment. With respect to waste management, this generally refers to the requirement
for a waste generator to pay for appropriate disposal of the unrecoverable material.

Refuse Depot (Final disposal point)

2.2.5.3 Methods of solid waste disposal:

• Controlled tipping: The method consists of tipping the refuse in hollows to a depth of 1-
2m. These tips are covered with soil, so as to provide a seal under which bacterial
decomposition take place.
• Land filling: Dumping of garbage is done in layers of 1-2m, and each layer is covered
with0.2m thickness of good earth. A rest of 2-3 weeks is given before dumping second
layer.
• Trenching: Trench size of 4-10m log, 2-3 m wide and 1-2m deep @ spacing of 2m is made.
On the top layer 10 cm layer of good earth or other non - combustible material is spread
to act as a seal so that flies do not get access and wind doesn’t blow the refuse off.
• Dumping into the sea: Solid waste can also be dumped in the sea. Given that the depth
should be greater than 30 m.
• Pulverization: Dry refuse is pulverized into powder form; it can be used as low quality
manure or else disposed of by land filling.
• Incineration: Burning the refuse in the incinerator plant.

61
 Figure : Methods of solid waste disposal

2.2.5.4 Disposal at household level:

a) Composting:
It is a method in which putrescible organic matter in the solid waste is digested anaerobic
process and converted into humus. The humus content is rich in nitrogen and is used as
manure. Due to composting volume of refuse is reduced and resulting material can be
safely handled since it is free of pathogens.

b) Biogas generation:
Any gas fuel derived from the decay of organic matter, as the mixture of methane and
carbon dioxide produced by the bacterial decomposition of sewage, manure, garbage or
plant crops.

Figure : Methods of solid waste disposal Figure : Biogas generation

62
2.2.5.5 Waste Collection:

Waste Collection Management in Madhyapur Thimi Municipality

The Municipality estimates that it collects approximately 3.6 tons of waste per day.
Assuming that the total amount of waste generated in Thimi is 7.6 tons per day, the city is
collecting about 47 percent of the total waste generated.

Collection methods:
• Sweepers who sweep about 3 km of road on daily basis.
• Vans, rickshaws and handcarts for waste collection.
• Two modes of collection system
 Door-to-door collection
 Roadside pick-up service in other wards
The door-to-door collection system is undertaken by different private organizations involved
in waste management.

2.2.5.6 Waste Disposal:

Types of waste disposal methods that can be realized in the urban centres are incineration,
sanitary landfill, open dumping, and recycling.
Methods of solid waste disposal and management are as below:

63
2.2.5.7 Solid Waste Management in Nepal: Status and Challenges:

A survey conducted in all 58 municipalities of Nepal in 2012 found that the average
municipal solid waste generation was 317 grams per capita per day. This translates into
1,435 tons per day or 524,000 tons per year of municipal solid waste generation in Nepal.

Source: Planning Norms and Standards 2013

Many of these technically and financially constrained municipalities are still practicing
roadside waste pickup from open piles and open dumping, creating major health
risks.Challenges in waste management in:
• Human resources
• Economic resources
• Site management
• Transportations facilities
• Low Priority

64
2.3 SOCIO-ECONOMIC INFRASTRUCTURES:
Community service can be defined as those facilities which provide services to the members
of a community, who live in a geographically congruous area and share the major portion of
daily transactions of sustain needs.

The provision of public facilities is an important aspect that needs to be considered in order
to create a quality neighborhood area that can lead to increase in quality of life of the
residents. The provision of sufficient public facilities and good accessibility is important to
create an educated, healthy, productive, unified and prosperous community. Extensive
distribution of public facilities in the urban area also plays an important role in increasing
the residents’ satisfaction towards the provision of the public facilities in their neighborhood
area.

In general,

S.N. POPULATION PROVISIONS TO BE MADE AREA REQUIRED

(HA)

1 UPTO 1000 TOTLOTS(SMALL 0.02

PLAYGROUND) 0.2
NURSERY SCHOOL
2 UPTO 3500-5000 PRIMARY SCHOOL 1.21
PLAYGROUND 0.81

3 UPTO 12000- HIGH SCHOOL 2.02

15000 COMMUNITY HALL 0.81
SHOPPING CENTER 1.21
PARKS 4.40

4 UPTO 40000- LIBRARY 0.4

50000 SHOPPING MALLS 4.04
HEALTH CENTRE 2.02
POST OFFICE 1.21
PETROL PUMP 0.2
FIRE 0.81
RELIGIOUS 0.81
POLICE STATION 0.81

65
2.3.1 Proximity:
Each facility has a different radius of influence, according to its scale of service. The distance
from each point of the neighborhood to the different facilities is expressed in meters or
minutes walking. Facilities with the smallest radius of influence are nursery school and
playground (250 m – 5 min), from 500 to 600 meters distance (10 minutes walking) have to
be located facilities at hyper-block level (primary school, kids center, old age center) and the
rest of facilities possess a radius of influence between 600 and 800 meters(12-16 minutes).

Neighborhood level facilities are divided in two groups: daily use facilities, from 600 to 700
meters distance (e.g., market, secondary school, religious center) and not daily use
facilities, between 700 and 800 meters (e.g., sport camp, municipal office, police station).
Finally, city level facilities can be located at more than 1.000 m distance from each point of
the neighborhood, as they serve the neighbourhood.

66
67
2.3.2 Educational facilities:
This category includes pre-school and formal school services. In general, the
neighborhood components will include a child-care center, nursery schools, and
kindergartens in the pre-school group, and elementary schools in the latter group.

2.3.2.1 Schools:
These facilities must be within safe
walking distance. Ideally, the children
should have walking access without
having to cross any vehicular streets.
The maximum distance should not
exceed ½ mile. NURSERY ELEMENTARY
SCHOOL SCHOOL
Space Required
• Approximately 0.2 ha per 1000 pupils RESIDENTIAL
AREAS
• Playground of 2 ha.
• Distance between two school must be
at least 300m
NEIGHBOURHOOD BOUNDARY
Types
• Pre-primary Nursery
• Kindergarten
• Primary
• Secondary

2.3.2.2 Tertiary facilities:

Adult learning centers are not usually

provided as stand-alone facilities and
generally “double up” with some
other form of facility (i.e. a
community center, hall, school etc.).
No figures have therefore been given
as the most efficient provision is
through doubling up where existing
space is adapted for adult learning
classes.

68
DETAILS OF SCHOOLS
LEVEL OF SPACE CATCHMEN SERVED LOCATION
EDUCATIO REQUIRED T AREA POPULATIO
N N
Pre-primary 70-175 ≤ 400m 1000-2500 • Within kindergartens
Nursery sq.m and near working
places
• Maximum travel time:
10 minutes (whether
by foot or vehicle).

Kindergart 500-3000 ≤ 1 km 1000-2500 • Within residential area

en sq.m • 100m from dumpster,
noise pollutants,
health facilities, etc.
• Maximum travel time:
10-15 minutes
(whether by foot or
vehicle).
Primary 15000- ≤ 3 km 5000- • Along main collector
26000 15000 roads
• Maximum travel time:
sq.m
20 minutes (whether
by foot, bicycle or by
vehicle).
• 100m far from market
areas, traffic
congestion, dumpster,
noise of industrial
activities and health
facilities
• Should ideally be
accessible by foot,
bicycle and vehicle.

69
 TYPICAL ZONING OF SCHOOL

2.3.3 Health Facilities:

Mobile clinic facilities move from community to community – therefore, there is no fixed
location.
Must be accessible by foot. Maximum walking distance: 1 km. These are self-contained
units. Space is, however, required to park and operate the clinic: this can be done from a
local park, community center, church, etc. A mobile facility will serve a population of about 5
000 people.

2.3.3.1 Clinics:
• Clinics should be accessible to the greatest number of
people and as such should be located close to public
transport stops.
• Maximum walking distance: 2 km. Where it is not possible
for the facility to be placed within walking distance, it must
be easily reached via public transport, with a maximum walk
of 5 minutes from the public transport stop to the facility.
Maximum travel time of 30 minutes to reach the facility.
• The size of the clinic will vary according to the number of
people the clinic will serve
• The following guidelines are suggested:
- 0,1 ha per 5 000 people
- 0,2 ha per 10 000 people
-0,5 ha per 20 000 people
-1 ha per 40 000 people
-1.5 ha per 60 - 80 000 people
70
2.3.3.2 Hospitals:
LEVEL AREA CATCHMEN SERVED LOCATION
SERVICES T AREA POPULATIO
N
Health post 0.11 ha <1km 5000-7000 • Within residential
area; near
intersection of
residential roads
• Far from noisy
activities
Health 0.45-0.6 <2km 25000 • Within the serviced
centers ha area
• Accessible along
collector roads
• Far from dumpster
and noisy area
District 2 ha Districts 250000 • Within walking
hospital level distance from mass
transport system
along collector
roads
Regional 1-1.5 ha Regional 1000000 • Within walking
hospital level distance from mass
transport system
along collector
roads

Referral Variable Variable National • Within walking

hospital distance from mass
transport system
along collector
roads

HOSPITAL ZONE

71
2.3.4 Open Spaces and Recreational Spaces:
The recreational activities occurring within the project are directly controlled by the open space
concept. The size, shape, method of containment and ground plane treatment set the stage for
most outdoor activities.
Open spaces should be accessible, safe, welcoming, appealing, distinctive and well connected.
Equal opportunities obligations should be taken into account when planning for open space and
physical activity. Functional open space enhances circulation within a site and contributes to
the site’s aesthetic qualities.

Open Space can be classified as:

• Private or semiprivate Spaces:
Each family is entitled to its own outdoor space. The space shall be minimum of 12ft deep and
extend the width of the unit. Complete enclosure is desirable. However the wooden fences or
free standing walls should be located to either side of the space. The ground plane should
include a 100ft2 paved patio. The remaining area may be lawn or ground cover. The end of the
space opposite the face of building may be contained with a planting screen.

• Activity Space:
Generous expanses of lawn area are desirable and will provide a setting for a virtually limitless
number of informal games and other activities. Simultaneously, a feeling of openness is
experienced. These areas may be visually accessible to the general public, but are only to be
used by the project’s residents. In general, minimum dimensions for these spaces should be
40X90 ft. They should be varied in size and shape and should be woven into the overall open
space concept.

The individual play courts dispersed throughout the project should be located away from
private or semiprivate spaces. Planting, grading or architectural elements may also be used to
buffer these two zones. There should be one play court for every 100 bedrooms.

Each of the play courts must have a minimum of five separate activities. A partial list of
elements of recreation for activity space and their area are as follows:

ELEMENTS FOR RECREATION:

72
• Social Space
Opportunity for social contact should be encouraged but not forced. Social contact occurs in
entrance courts, play courts and other places within the overall walkway system. These
spaces might include benches and canopy trees for shade and interest. This provides the
occupant with a place to relax and converse with neighbors.

• Neighborhood Space
These areas include outdoor facilities clustered about the neighborhood center and the
various play courts located throughout the development. The major emphasis in the
development of outdoor facilities included at the neighborhood center should be to provide
a spectrum of activities which can accommodate all age groups. The facilities and activities
should be arranged in a manner which keeps user conflict to a minimum. The minimum area
for a neighborhood park should be 5acres and maximum area should be 10arces where
2acres area is needed for 1000 population.

Open space standards:

• 0.5 hectare for 1000 people (age group 6-12)
• 10 ropanies (only for children playground)
• Enclosed area for play lots based on a ruin of 10 sq. ft. per child equivalent to 21 sq. ft. per
family.
• Minimum enclosed area of approx. 2000 sq. ft. will serve 30 preschool (about 100
families)
• For 100 families 30 preschool is required.

Designs which is strongly for either ‘social’ or ‘private’ approach may not satisfy the majority
of occupants. Dwellings opening directly onto busy public spaces and access decks designed
to encourage social contact and neighborliness may also suffer intolerable intrusion, while
screening designed to provide ‘defensible space’ may result in roads and footpaths bounded
by blank walls and fences.
The balance obviously varies according to individual character, temperament and age so no
perfect solution is possible, but good layout will at least allow some degree of individual
choice.

Either approach is likely to lead to feelings of insecurity and dissatisfaction amongst

residents. In high-density layouts, in particular, user satisfaction is likely to be enhanced, and
the incidence of vandalism reduced, by sub-division of large anonymous public areas into
smaller spaces related to identifiable groups of dwellings. For houses, a public access road
may lead to a mixed-use pedestrian /vehicle court, with psychologically restricted entry,
related to a group of 20 or so houses and then to a further transition zone provided by a
front garden to each individual house.
73
• Common areas:
It should be accessible from all buildings and connected by a comprehensive, onsite
pedestrian circulation system. Public open space recreation areas, plazas and courtyards
should be located and landscaped to take advantage of solar orientation, provide protection
from prevailing wind, and to afford summer shade and winter sunshine. Mechanical units
should be screened from view.

• Private usable open space:

It should be directly accessible from the individual dwelling and be of such size as to offer a
reasonable outdoor living opportunity. The placement of air conditioning equipment should
not render private open space unusable.

74
2.3.4.1 Visibility:

Public plazas are required to be completely visible when viewed from any adjacent street
frontage. However, to maintain design flexibility for certain public plazas that are located on
corners where streets do not meet at 90 degree angles, the visibility requirements only
require complete visibility from one street frontage and at least 50% visibility from the other
street frontage, as shown in the diagram below.

Plaza area is fully visible when viewed perpendicular from each street frontage. Plaza area is
fully visible when viewed perpendicular from one street frontage and more than 50% is
visible when viewed from the other street frontage

75
2.3.4.2 Recreational Spaces:

Recreation is one of the important parts which contribute to the general health and
wellbeing of the community. It brings enjoyment of living, encourages relaxation, and helps
to utilize the leisurely hour of all the age group young and old alike into the desirable
activities thus making the people to live a richer and contented life. In absence of
wholesome public recreations, the children are likely to spend time in undesirable activities
which finally drag then towards the delinquency. Hence the town planning authorities
should make provision of a variety of wholesome public recreations. It must be
remembered that no town planning scheme is complete without the provision of parks,
playground or such other recreation system.
a) Open Recreational Areas:
Various forms of recreation amenities:
• Children’s parks
• Neighborhood parks and gardens
• Town parks
• Reservation
• Botanical parks
• Zoological parks
• National parks
 Preschoolers:
Preschoolers require continual visual supervision. So, they are mostly confined to playing
right outside the kitchen door. lots should be located where parents can observe the
children. As it is not possible to provide numerous of tot lots, they should be located within
clusters of units.

 Children Ages 6 to 13:

Older children require larger play spaces and like to play without supervision, some distance
from their homes. Since the children are generally quite active and noisy, their play areas
should be removed from dwelling areas and separated by dense plantings.

 Teenagers:
Teenagers have two distinct recreation needs, informal gathering places where they can
socialize and be away from their homes. They also engage in very active group games that
require a hard court or a field. E.g.: basketball, football, etc.

 Elderly:
Sittings area for socializing and passive activities is important. They should be located
separately from intrusion and noise and well shaded. They should be convenient to the
dwelling units of most elderly residents.

STANDARDS OF OPEN SPACE 76

b) Built Recreational Spaces(Community Centers):
Standards for community centers:
• Walking distance: 1.5 km – 2.25 km
• 5 minutes walking distance of a public transport stop
• Maximum travel time: 20 – 30 minutes
• Estimated minimum size: 2500 m2 per 5000 people

By their nature community buildings must serve a variety of functions among which are:
• Meetings Child care (day nursery, pre-school playgroup)
• Childrens’ activities (scouts, guides)
• Concerts and plays
• Dances
• Parties receptions
• Exhibitions Sporting
• leisure activities, and
• Adult education.

c) Multipurpose Area:
Accommodate such activities as general meetings, social recreation, games, dancing,
dramatics, concerts and banquets.
• The area of the room should be approx. 2000-3000 sq ft.
• 12 sq ft per person.
• Minimum width of 40 ft.
• The floor should be non-skid surface to prevent many common accidents.
• The floor should also be level in order to be used for multiple purposes

2.3.4.3 Park:
A park is an area of open space provided for recreational use. It can be in its natural or
seminatural state, or planted, and is set aside for human enjoyment or for the protection of
wildlife or natural habitats. It may consist of rocks, soil, water, flora and fauna and grass
areas, but may also contain buildings and other artifacts such as play grounds. Many natural
parks are protected by law. An aesthetic of landscape design began in these stately home
parks where the natural landscape was enhanced.

77
2.3.4.4 Urban Plaza:

The public plaza can become an example of a courtyard on a grander scale. In many cities,
arcades on the front facades of buildings only occur around the central plaza. Thus, the
presence of a plaza can be anticipated from some distance, as an open sidewalk becomes an
arcade, several blocks ahead. The more unique the value of the plaza, the more unique
should be its characteristics.

a) The street plaza:

The street plaza is a small portion of public open space immediately adjacent to the
sidewalk and closely connected to the street. It sometimes is a widening of the sidewalk
itself or an extension of it under an arcade. Such spaces are generally used for brief periods
of sitting, waiting, and watching.
• The seating edge: A seating height wall of stepped edge to a sidewalk
• The widened sidewalk: A widened portion of the sidewalk that is furnished with seating
blocks, steps, or bollards, Used primarily for viewing passersby.
• The bus waiting place: A portion of the sidewalk at a bus stop, furnished with a bench,
shelter, kiosk, or litter container.
• The pedestrian link: An outdoor passage or alley that connects two blocks or, sometimes,
two plazas.

b) The urban oasis

The urban oasis is a type of plaza that is more heavily planted, has a garden or park image,
and is partially secluded from the street. Its location and design deliberately set this place
apart from the noise and activity of the city. It is often popular for lunchtime eating, reading,
socializing, and it is the one category that tends to attract more women than men, or at
least equal proportions of each.

78
c) The grand public place:
The grand public space also known to be the heart of the city are spaces close to the old-
world town square or piazza. When located near a diversity of land uses (office, retail,
warehouse, and transit) it tends to attract users from a greater distance and in greater
variety than do other plazas. Such a plaza is often big and flexible enough to host brown-bag
lunch crowds; outdoor cafes; passers through; and the occasional concerts, art shows,
exhibits, and rallies.

d) The city square:

A centrally located, often historic place where major thoroughfares intersect. Unlike many
other kinds of plazas, it is not attached to a particular building; rather, it often encompasses
one or more complete city blocks and is usually bounded by streets.

 Design consideration for urban plaza :

Location:
The best location is the area that can attract all variety of users and may be both active and
passive. It may function as visual setback for a building, transition zone, lunchtime
relaxation, bus waiting, side walk café, display of exhibits and performances etc.
79
Visual complexity:
The design should incorporate a wide variety of forms, colors, and textures— fountains,
sculptures different places to sit, nooks and corners, plants and shrubs, changes in level

Uses and activities:

To encourage people to stop and linger in the plaza, it should have dense furnishings,
attractive focal elements, and defined edges.

Microclimate:
Comfortable outdoor conditions can be modified by bioclimatic design, including shading,
planting and evaporative cooling in summer and solar exposure and wind protection in
winter. Easy indoor/outdoor access to and from conditioned indoor public spaces should
also be considered for greater variability. The plaza should be sited to receive maximum,
year-round sunshine,

Boundaries:
A plaza should be perceived as a distinct place, and yet must be visible and functionally
accessible to passersby. Exposure to adjacent sidewalks is essential; a successful plaza has
one of preferably two sides exposed to public rights-of-way, the more likely that they are to
feel invited into it; thus, an extension of plaza planting onto the sidewalk may imply to
passersby that they are already in the plaza.

Subspaces:
Plazas must be designed for large public gatherings, markets, or rallies, large plazas should
be divided into subspaces, that is, smaller and recognizable units, to encourage use.
Subspaces separated from one another without creating a sense of isolation for users.

Circulation:
Plaza design is predicts the route by which people will flow in and out of a building, to
ensure an unimpeded path for their movement. It is designed to mesh with, or enhance,
existing downtown circulation patterns. Plaza layout also allow easy access to a café, bank,
or retail establishment peripheral to the plaza; access to seating or viewing areas; and
opportunities for shortcuts or pleasant walkthroughs is a need or desire to guide pedestrian
flows, have physical barriers such as walls, planters, bollards, or distinct changes in level or
texture been used to do so, rather than color or pattern changes in paving.

Planting:
The variety and quality of textural, color, massing, aural, and olfactory effects created by a
careful planting plan can add immeasurable to the plaza‘s use.

Seating:
William Whyte‘s study of Manhattan plazas, reported: ―After three months of checking our
various factors—such as sun angles, size of spaces, nearness to transit— we came to a
spectacular conclusion: people sit most where there are places to sit. Other things matter
too, food, fountains, tables, sunlight, shade, trees—but this simplest of amenities, a place to
sit, is far and away the most important element in plaza use.

80
2.3.5 Landscape:

Landscape is vital, as it plays an important part in making an environment friendly and

pleasant. When it is designed well the landscape becomes an important component of the
road network.

• It is one of the key elements that contribute to the character of an area – the combination
of landscape and built form helps provide a unique sense of place of value to the community.
• It helps integrate or fit the road into its setting.
• It provides structure and a three dimensional scale to the road corridor.
• It makes (a garden or other area of ground) more attractive by altering the existing design,
adding ornamental features, and planting trees and shrubs.
• It helps unify the road corridor environment, providing interest and a milestone to users as
well as helping create a simple, strong and intuitive driving experience.
• It can be a valuable ecological asset in an area, especially when adjacent land is over-
developed or when existing habitats and ecological corridors need to be augmented and
connected.
• It provides shade for pedestrian areas and buildings and a setting to take a break from
driving in rest areas along the road network.
• It screens undesirable views of roads and traffic, helps filter air and water pollutants,
suppresses weed growth, helps reconnect habitat, and can help recover threatened species.
• It also minimizes the carbon ‘footprint’ of road works – for at least the lifetime of the
landscape.
• It can contribute to a safer road, for example, by screening headlight glare, slowing errant
vehicles and helping create an intuitive, self-explaining driving experience.
• It helps stabilize slopes and minimize erosion.

Landscape must be safe to construct and maintain and safe for road users and pedestrians. It
should be designed to help improve road safety and where possible encourage safer driver
behavior.

BUILDING WITHOUT LANDSCAPE BUILDING WITH LANDSCAPE

81
2.3.6 Commercial complex:

a) Retail Outlets
A retail shop is one that is designed to merchandise in addition to looking good. Retail
shops initiates the sale, and the interior consummates it. The storefront and the design of
the façade must be attractive in order to catch the shoppers attention and to draw the
customers in from the street. As determined by the real estate value and merchandising,
structure, fixture, and aisle space requirement, shops with one customer aisle only usually
12 to 15 feet wide by 50 to 60 feet long. These dimensions apply particularly to shops in
100% retail districts. Ground floor are preferably approximately 12 feet high if no mezzanine
is included.

b) Supermarkets
The supermarket is a large scale
emporium of merchandise that doesn‘t
have to shout to be noticed. Basic
dimensional guidelines give the
minimum height of spaces in storage
facilities:
• Up to 400m2 retail floor space 3.00m
• Over 400m2 retail floor space 3.30m
• Over 1500m2 retail floor space 3.50m

POPULATION FLOOR AREA CUSTOMER CIRCULATION MAXIMUM

SERVED REQUIRED PARKING (25%) WALKING
AREA DISTANCE

800 Families 20 sq ft/family 32,000 sq ft 12,000 sq ft ¼ mile

2500 persons =16,000 sq ft

1600 Families 18 sq ft/family 57,600 sq ft 36, 400 sq ft ½ mile

5000 persons =28,800 sq ft

c) Regional shopping center

• Site should be selected within the trade area.
• Location should be easily accessible to at least one existing or shorty to be constructed
major highways.
• Adequate size and suitable shape to permit proper planning of the merchandising area
and a proper number of parking spaces.

In conclusion,
Area required for 1000 population = 0.12 ha
82
Services details:
LEVEL OF SPACE PROXIMITY LOCATION
SERVICES REQUIREMENT

Level One or 0.25 – 0.5ha 0.5-1km • inside residential

Local Market area.
• Near intersection
of residential
roads.
Level two or 1-25ha 1-2km • Inside the center
Local Market of the
neighborhood
• Near the
intersection of
collector roads
• In or around sub
centers
Level three or 1.2-6ha 2.6-7km • In or around
Secondary subcenters
Market • A long major
roads and near
mass transport
system
• In central place of
the if a city if
urban center

83
2.3.7 Restaurants:
A restaurant is a business which prepares and serves food and drink to customers in return
for money, either paid before the meal, after the meal, or with an open account. Meals are
generally served and eaten on premises, but many restaurants also offer take-out and food
delivery services. Restaurants vary greatly in appearance and offerings, including a wide
variety of the main chef's cuisines and service models. Need of Restaurants in the
Community In present context, living in communities are defined, not by common
acquaintance, knowledge and culture but rather by geography and economics. Thus, to
create an environment where people can interact and build communities that can reflect
and embrace the diversity of ethnicity, race and culture, restaurants can be considered as a
node where people with common interest can interact or people interacting can develop
common interests and goals.

Restaurants are among one of the integral pasts of a neighbourhood. For 1000 population
Basic dimensional guidelines give the minimum height of spaces in shops and storage
facilities as:
•Area of sales room: 400m2
•Area of trolley: 0.9mx0.6m= 0.54m2x12=6.48 m2
•Checkout desk: 1.3mx2.7m=3.51m2x3=10.53m2
•Free standing shelves area: 1.25mx0.9m=1.125m2x15=16.875m2
•Wall shelves area: 1.25mx0.45m=0.56m2x12=6.75m2
•Freezer area: 1.98mx1.17m=3.366m2x5=16.83m2
•Storage: 15% of sales area=60m2
•Toilets for men [ 2 WC, 3 urinals, 2WB]:12m2
•Toilet for women [ 3WC, 2WB]: 9.8m2
•Width of corridor: 1.5m
•Circulation: 20% of sales area=80m2
In conclusion,
Area required for per 1000 population = 540 sq.m

84
a) Standard Dining Table:
The standard height of a dining table is between 28" to 30" above the floor.

b) Outdoor bar:
To extend the business from non-diners the outdoor bar may have an external entrance. A
fairly long bar counter supported by bar store with ice making machine and bottle cooler
should be provided. The means to shut all bars securely during non-opening hours must be
included, either by grill or shutter at the bar counter or by closing the room. The former has
the advantage of allowing the room to be used as a lounge when the bar is closed. It should
be possible to service bars without passing through public rooms. Space allowance for bars
excluding counter:
• Cocktail lounge (comfortable) 1.8-2.0m2/person
• General bar (some standing and on stools) 1.3-1.7m2/person

85
2.3.8 Library:

Library performs a range of functions in society. Academic libraries obtain, collect and store
literature for education and research purposes and are generally open to the general public.
Public libraries provide communities with a wide choice of more general literature and
other media, with as much as possible displayed on open shelves. The functions of
academics and public libraries are often combined in a single library in large town. It is also
very effective and convenient for public. In academic libraries, reference rooms are
provided, counters for the loan from the close stacks, free access to the open shelves of the
magazines, books or separately presented educational materials in reading rooms.

For the classrooms of 32 peoples 65-70m2

Reading room areas, with space for reading and working should be easily accessible and
therefore situated on as few levels as possible.
• Circulation routes should be greater than 1.2m wide and
• clear spaces between shelves at least 1.3-1.4 wide.
• Avoid crossings and overlapping of routes for users, staff and book transport.

86
The provision of work spaces in college libraries depends on the number of students and the
distribution of individual subject groups.
Work spaces should preferably be in daylight areas.
The area required for a simple reading/work place is 2.5 m2
for a PC or individual work place, greater than 4.0 m2 is needed.

Security is also vitally important in uses areas. Fire precautions must comply and the
installation of a book security system will prevent theft, and optimal security of unsupervised
escape exists is achieved with automatic electronic lock-up when an alarm is triggered.
Following figures shows the spaces and distances required between the individual
workstation, minimum distance between the tables, individual study booths. The design
should include large, open, extendible multipurpose areas which are roughly square and
organized horizontally rather than vertically and an inviting entrance.
• Areas for adult users can have five or six shelf levels (max. reach 1.80m);
• in the children's area there should be four shelf levels with a reach height of around
1.20m.
• Shelf aisles should not be more than 3m long and can also be used to produce niches and
exhibition stands. Library should be located in or near community center and at street
level if possible.

87
2.3.9 Exhibition Space:

Exhibition is a formal space for displaying various items of art and craft. Spaces provided can
be for permanent, semi-permanent or special exhibits that are held from time to time. Care
should be taken while fixing devices and furniture in walls, floors and ceilings so that
maximum space is left vacant.
For planning and designing of a gallery or an exhibition hall, following considerations have to
be made:
• A clear idea of what would be exhibited.
• Number of exhibits planned per year.
• Change in the kind of exhibits.
• Number of pieces in view in case of permanent exhibits.
• Scale of displays.
• 3-d objects to be displayed in cases or pedestal.
• Planning depends on type of collection and the lighting needed for the same.
• Size and height of room> nature and the dimensions of the objects.
• Large sculptures -14 to 20 feet.

2.3.10 Police and Security:

• 0.1 ha per market center.
• Police station – 1 for 90,000 population.
• Police post -1 for 0.4 to 0.5 lakh population.
• District office and battalion-1 for 10 lakh.

2.3.11 Vegetable Market:

Open vegetable markets within a distance of
500m is regarded as desirable. Markets may
be set up in streets, squares and open
spaces. Stands comprise erected stalls and
fitted-out vans and trailers setout in line
along curbs or back to back between aisles.
Key considerations are:
• Vehicle parking and loading (near stalls)
• Traffic control
• Garbage storage and collection
• Washing facilities
• Protection of exposed food
88
Source: NBC 2005, TCPO Draft Indian Standard for Development Planning

89
2.4 DISASTER MANAGEMENT :
Disaster Management can be defined as
the organization and management of
resources and responsibilities for
dealing with all humanitarian aspects of
emergencies, in
particular preparedness, response and
recovery in order to lessen the impact
of disasters.

2.4.1 FIRE PROTECTION:

Fire is source of energy is saves from Fig: Process of disaster management
cold, wild animals etc. yet it comes with
boon and Ben. Instead of its benefit it
has capability of being cause for death of
people and loss of property and money.
Fire protection is the study and practice of mitigating the unwanted effects of
potentially destructive fires. Buildings must be constructed in accordance with the version of
the building code that is in effect when an application for a building permit is made. Thus
safety measures has to be taken from fire, which reads as follows:-

• A community of 10000 populations has a required fire flow of 10000 gal/min.

• All other residential buildings requires 1000 gal/min for two hours.
• Hydrants at each street intersections of 150m.

2.4.1.1 Fire hydrant:

Spacing is based on the distance between hydrants along an approved access road.
• Fire hydrant shall be provided at spacing not to exceed 1000 ft to provide for
transportation hazard.
• Fire hydrant shall be installed no closer than 50ft and no further than 150 ft travelled
path distance to the dwelling.
• Water mains for fire hydrant shall be installed in accordance with National Fire Protection
Association and shall be a minimum of 6 inches in diameter.
• Fire hydrant shall be required on both side of the roadway wherever :

 Roadway easement width are greater than 6o ft.

 A center median strip exist.
 The roadway has four or more traffic lanes.

2.4.2 EARTHQUAKE PREVENTION:

It is not possible to prevent earthquakes or change the likelihood of an earthquake

occurring. However, we can greatly increase our chances of safety and survival, by being
aware and prepared. Since knowledge and preparation are keys to your survival during and
after an earthquake, you should take steps to become informed. 90
2.4.2.1 Earthquake Resistant Materials

In the first half of the 20th century it was believed the heavier a building was, the safer it
would be in the face of an earthquake; however, recent architectural studies have found
that buildings made out of materials like concrete or bricks are actually at a
disadvantage when experiencing an earthquake.
As the earth moves, the weight of the building slams against the structural pieces from side
to side. Therefore, the heavier the building, the more force it exerts on these structural
elements, and the more likely it is to come crashing down.
However, buildings consisting primarily of steel or other metals are much better at resisting
earthquakes. Steel is much lighter than concrete, but it still brings a great deal of durability
to construction projects. More flexible than concrete and other building materials, steel is
more likely to bend instead of break when experiencing seismic force.
Because of these attributes, buildings constructed primarily from steel require less
earthquake proofing than those made from other materials. This means that it’s easier to
pass seismic tests and meet building codes in earthquake-prone communities when your
construction projects involve steel. Additionally, steel buildings require fewer repairs after
earthquakes, lowering maintenance and insurance costs for your project.

To make the city more disaster resilient, we need to follow some things as follows:

• Put in place organization and coordination to understand and reduce disaster risk, based
on participation of citizen groups and civil society. Build local alliances. Ensure that all
departments understand their role in disaster risk reduction and preparedness.
• Assign a budget for disaster risk reduction and provide incentives for homeowners, low
income families, communities, businesses and the public sector to invest in reducing the
risks they face.
• Maintain up to date data on hazards and vulnerabilities. Prepare risk assessments and
use these as the basis for urban development plans and decisions, ensure that this
information and the plans for your city’s resilience are readily available to the public and
fully discussed with them.
• Invest in and maintain critical infrastructure that reduces risk, such as flood drainage,
adjusted where needed to cope with climate change.
• Assess the safety of all schools and health facilities and upgrade these as necessary.
• Apply and enforce realistic, risk compliant building regulations and land use-planning
principles. Identify safe land for low-income citizens and upgrade informal settlements,
wherever feasible.
• Ensure that education programs and training on disaster risk reduction are in place in
schools and local communities.
• Protect ecosystems and natural buffers to mitigate floods, storm surges and other
hazards to which your city may be vulnerable. Adapt to climate change by building on
good risk reduction practices.
• Install early warning systems and emergency management capacities in your city and
hold regular public preparedness drills.
• After any disaster, ensure that the needs of the affected population are placed at the
center of reconstruction, with support for them and their community organizations to
design and help implement responses, including rebuilding homes and livelihoods.

91
2.5 SUSTAINABILITY:
Sustainable design seeks to reduce negative impacts on the environment, and the health
and comfort of building occupants, thereby improving building performance. The basic
objectives of sustainability are to reduce consumption of non-renewable resources,
minimize waste, and create healthy, productive environments.

2.5.1 Theory:
The intention of sustainable design is to "eliminate
negative environmental impact completely through
skillful, sensitive design". Manifestations of sustainable
design require renewable resources, impact the
environment minimally, and connect people with the
natural environment.
Beyond the "elimination of negative environmental impact", sustainable design must create
projects that are meaningful innovations that can shift behavior. A dynamic balance
between economy and society, intended to generate long-term relationships between user
and object/service and finally to be respectful and mindful of the environmental and social
differences.

2.5.2 How to ensure the sustainability of a city ?

Sustainability of the city depends on the various aspects :
2.5.2.1 Land Use:
Land use planning is defined as the process of protecting and improving the living,
production and recreation in environment in a city through the proper use and development
of land. In other land use planning tries to maximize the potentials of the environment for
the use and enjoyment of everyone through decisions and actions on equitable use of land
resources.

2.5.2.2 Passive Solar Design :

Passive solar design is central to achieving a sustainable urban form. Generally, the idea of
this design is to reduce the demand for energy and to provide the best use of passive energy
in sustainable ways through specific design measures. This design affects the form of the
built environment through, for example, the orientation of buildings and urban densities. It
is assumed that design, sitting, orientation, layout, and landscaping can make the optimum
use of solar gain and microclimatic conditions to minimize the need for space heating or
cooling of buildings by conventional energy sources.

92
2.5.2.3 Greenery :

Greening of the city, or green urbanism,

appears to be an important design concept
for the sustainable urban form. Green space
has the ability to contribute positively to
some key agendas in urban areas, including
sustainability. Greening seeks to embrace
nature as integral to the city itself and to
bring nature into the life of city dwellers
through a diversity of open landscapes.
Greening of the city makes urban and
suburban places appealing, pleasant, and
more sustainable

2.5.2.4 Waste Management :

Waste management is very necessary in

order to maintain a clean and healthy
environment. Organic waste should be
collected and dumped far away whereas
others may be collected separately and
recycled

2.5.2.5 Renewable energy:

Popular techniques, such as solar, wind, bio-gas and bio-mass power are all achievable in
existing cities willing to invest in the technologies.
Barcelona requires solar panels to be fitted to every large building in order to try and heat
60% of the city’s water through renewable energy.

2.5.2.6 Urban agriculture:

Producing food within or near a city reduces the distance the food has to travel before it
reaches the consumer.
New York City is now home to indoor fish farms and rooftop gardens, and vegetables are
grown in every available flowerbed and plot of land in the town of Todmorden, West
Yorkshire.

2.5.2.7 No air-conditioning:
Air conditioning uses lots of energy, but it's used because urban areas are artificially
warmer.
Instead, taking steps to reduce the temperature of a settlement by planting trees and
lightening the colours of buildings to increase albedo, can counter the "urban heat island"
effect.

2.5.2.8 Public transport:

Improving the standard and availability of public transport reduces car emissions, but
requires a fully integrated approach to town planning to reduce the impact on businesses to
keep the scheme viable. 93

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2.5.2.9 Materials in Site :

Using materials that are readily available in the site helps to keep it economical and
sustainable. If damages occurs or the need to renovate is seen, the materials will be easily
available locally. Promoting the use of the materials in site helps to keep it more
environment friendly. Creating and conserving planted areas is one technique, as is limiting
the amount of paved area. For those areas that must be paved, there are systems that allow
water to penetrate and be absorbed into the soil. These include porous paving and
permeable paving systems.

Fig : Sustainable eco city

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2.6 Resilient Design
Resilient design is the intentional design of buildings, landscapes, communities, and regions
in order to respond to natural and manmade disasters and disturbances—as well as long-
term changes resulting from climate change—including sea level rise, increased frequency
of heat waves, and regional drought.

2.6.1 Principles to make resilient neighborhood design :

Planning to effectively meet the conditions and realities of a Post Carbon, Climate
Responsible world will require a shift in our current understanding of what constitutes good
urban design and planning . To address the changes in urban design and planning, we are
putting forward the following principles for resilient urban planning and design in a post-
carbon, climate-responsive building environment.

2.6.1.1 Density, Diversity and Mix:

Resilient Cities and neighbourhoods will need to

embrace density, diversity and mix of uses, users,
building types, and public spaces.
Creating resiliency and reducing the carbon footprint of
urban development requires us to maximize the active
use of space and land. A single use low density
residential neighbourhood or suburban business parks,
are typically underutilized during long periods of time.
A vibrant and sufficiently densely populated urban environment, by contrast, is well used
round-the-clock, all days of the week, and during all seasons. This results from a closely knit
mix of uses (e.g. offices, residences, coffee shops etc.), with sufficient density, and which are
accessible to a diversity of users (e.g. children, youth, seniors, high-income, low-
income,etc.).

2.6.1.2 Pedestrians First

Resilient cities and neighbourhoods will prioritize walking as the preferred mode of travel,
and as a defining component of a healthy quality of life.
Reducing car-dependency is a key objective and imperative. Luckily, the alternative modes of
transportation – namely walking, cycling, and transit – result in more sustainable urban
environments, and in an improved quality of life. It are the cities and neighbourhoods that
have prioritized walking, that have created desirable locations to live, work, play, and invest
in. (The term pedestrian, as used in these principles, includes persons with disabilities.)
2.6.1.3 Transit Supportive :

After walking and cycling, transit is the most sustainable mode of transportation. Resilient
cities will need to re-orient their way of thinking, by shifting from car oriented urban
patterns (e.g. cul-de-sacs and expressways) to transit oriented urban patterns and
developments (e.g. mobility hubs, intensified corridors, and TODs). Not only will pedestrian,
and mass transportation friendly planning increase the quality of life of a cities, as fuel prices
rise after Peak Oil, only cities that are viable without heavy dependence on the car will have
the best chances of economic and social success. 95
2.6.1.4 Place-Making:

Resilient cities and neighbourhoods will focus energy and resources on conserving,
enhancing, and creating strong, vibrant places, which are a significant component of the
neighbourhood’s structure and of the community’s identity.
All successful cities and successful neighbourhoods include vibrant places, with a strong
sense of identity, which are integral to community life and the public realm: parks, plazas,
courtyards, civic buildings, public streets, etc.
A resilient post-carbon community, which reorients city-life to the pedestrian scale (a 500 m
radius), must focus its efforts to creating a number of local destinations, which attract a
critical-mass of users and activities. Sprawl, for example, has very little place-making.
Heritage resources – buildings, structures, and landscapes – represents a significant
opportunity for place-making (i.e. through their cultural significance and identity), as well as
a significant environmental investment (i.e. through their embedded energy) that should be
conserved and leveraged.

The Place Diagram is one of the tools Project for Public Spaces has developed to help
communities evaluate places. The inner ring represents a place's key attributes, the middle
ring its intangible qualities, and the outer ring its measurable data.

2.6.1.5 Complete Communities:

Resilient neighbourhoods will provide the needs of daily living, within walking distance (a
500 m radius).
Resilient communities, will reduce their carbon footprint by ensuring people opt to walk or
cycle, instead of using a car. To achieve this, destinations must be accessible within a
pleasant walking distance – people should be able and willing to walk from home to work,
to school, to shop, to recreate, and to engage the activities of their everyday life..
Connectivity is central to making an area pedestrian oriented. Streets and pedestrian
walkways must be enjoyable to walk, must link key destinations, and must operate at a fine
scale. 96
2.6.1 6 Integrated Natural Systems:
Resilient cities and neighbourhoods will conserve and enhance the health of natural systems
(including climate) and areas of environmental significance, and manage the impacts of
climate change.
Our individual and collective health is intricately tied to the health of air, water, land, and
climate. Cities and neighbourhoods need to develop in a way that conserves and enhances
the quality of the water flow and supply, likewise for the quality of air and land. Protecting
existing biodiversity, indigenous or endangered species, wetlands, the tree canopy,
connectivity, are all a necessary aspect of securing healthy natural systems.

2.6.1.7 Integrated Technical and Industrial Systems:

Resilient Cities and neighbourhoods will enhance the effectiveness, efficiency and safety of
their technical and industrial systems and processes, including their manufacturing,
transportation, communications and construction infrastructure and systems to increase
their energy efficiency, and reduce their environmental footprint.

2.6.1 8 Local Sources

Resilient regions, cities, and neighbourhoods should grow and produce the resources they
need, in close proximity (200 kilometre radius).

2.6.1.9 Engaged Communities

The development of resilient cities and neighbourhoods will require the active participation
of community members, at all scales.
From the seemingly trivial activities of everyday life (e.g. using a plastic bag) to the overtly
transformational (e.g. growing the city), citizens have a role to play and a responsibility. It is
only through the sum total of individual choices, of individual actions, that change will come
about.

2.6.1.10 Redundant and Durable Life Safety and Critical Infrastructure

Systems:
Resilient Cities and neighbourhoods will plan and design for redundancy and durability of
their life safety and critical infrastructure systems. Planning and design of these systems will
aim for levels of redundancy and durability that are commensurate with the increasing
environmental, social, and economic stresses associated with the impacts of climate change
and peak oil.
Key infrastructure systems such as drinking water supply, electrical power, and residential
heating in winter, and key life safety systems, such as police, fire, and emergency response
services and their support systems, must be planned and designed for a level of redundancy
and durability that will allow them to be durable enough to resist present and future
environmental stresses, as well as to have enough redundancy built into their design to
allow the system as a whole to remain sufficiently functional and intact that if one or
more constituant parts of the system is compromised, the system as a whole will
nevertheless remain operational and able to provide the necessary outputs or services.

2.6.1.11 Resilient Operations

Resilient cities and neighbourhoods will develop building types and urban forms with
reduced servicing costs, and reduced environmental footprints.
services exist: infill). 97
2.7 SAFETY AND SECURITY :
Safe neighborhoods are a sign that people care about their community and are
interested in keeping it crime-free . These are usually groups of people in
the neighborhood or community who take it upon themselves to report
suspicious behavior and keep an eye on who's coming in and out of the area.

2.7.1 Comfort and Security:

• Physical comfort/ safety Safe: Attractive and secure pathways and links between centers,
landmarks and neighborhoods Improved accessibility to public services and facilities.
Places a high priority on walking, cycling and public transport. Emphasis on universal
design.
• Environmental comfort/ safety : Along with microclimate - and its modulation by
topography (as, say, in night-time temperature inversion), width and orientation of
spaces, degree of shading and admission of sun and so urn determines comfort . Proper
shading, street lights, pavements and furniture's desired.
• Psychological comfort/ safety: Treating streets and other thoroughfares as positive
spaces with multiple functions. Providing formal and informal opportunities for social
and cultural interaction. Sympathetic mix of activities within a neighborhood.

2.7.1.1 Theories of Crime Prevention:

a. Social Control :
Social control refers to the safety measures that can be taken in a social level. This involves
the creation of spaces that can provide direct or indirect supervision to the areas where
crime may occur such as alleys, narrow pathways, etc. These places can be made safe by
creating functions in these dead spaces such as small market areas or an interesting artwork
can be made which may gather people. Based on the work of Jane Jacobs (1961) this
approach suggests that streets are populated by strangers and that natural or passive
surveillance (unconscious social control) will result from diversity of use. Business
establishments provide people with a proprietary interest in the street directly in front of
them, and shops give people a reason for using the streets. Jacob’s view of the role of
commercial facilities reversed the notion that these intensely public areas attracted crime.
Jacobs argued that it was best to intermingle these functions in the same locality,
stimulating continuous activity. Related to this Jacobs introduced the principle of eyes on
the street. Encouraging plenty of people to use the city at different hours provides
informal social control that enhances public safety.

b. Enclose/ Access :
Control Enclose control generally refers to making the periphery of the neighborhood safer
and more crime free . This is the traditional target hardening approach to security design.
The theory is that if good security provided at the perimeter of a community or multi-
occupancy dwelling, the potential for live social interaction with the community increases
and thus the likelihood of a stranger gaining access and committing a crime diminishes. The
environment can be designed to discourage, even prevent, criminal access (e.g. airports are
designed with security checks in order to prevent weapons being taken on board).
Unfortunately even elaborate measures are not always certain to succeed. In the domestic
environment smaller scale measures are suggested which range from residential door
intercoms to complex alarm systems. However, in order for these to work, the community
around which these security measures are implemented needs to be homogeneous. 98
c. Criminal Justice :
This approach focuses on the presence of a
security force as a primary deterrent to crime. This
may mean crime prevention through the presence
of a high police profile or, as in parts of Northern
Ireland, the use of a military presence. The design
of housing is focused on the provision of through
roads giving optimum access for security patrols.
Streets are laid out on a grid in order to provide
clear unambiguous access allowing the opportunity
for patrol cars to pass through all areas. Culs-de-sac
are not used since these are viewed as dead ends
and, in some cases, potential traps. Stollard (1984)
gives an interesting example of one Catholic
housing estate in Belfast where the Protestant
rubbish collectors refused to make their rounds in
the cul-de-sac for this very reason.

d. Defensible Space :
This approach suggests that crime is less likely
when potential anti-social acts are framed in a
physical space that is under surveillance. The effect
of surveillance as a mechanism of social control
increases when observers know each other or
when they are linked by some common territorial
marker. This theory goes on to suggest that
potential criminals are more reluctant to commit
crimes in the areas which are perceived to be
under the technical influences of a surrounding
community..
Research shows on average individuals are likely to
be a victim of robbery (thefts or attempted thefts Fig: Natural Survillence
involving threats or actual force) once in every 200 years, of theft from the person (without
threats or actual force) once in every 100 years and of wounding once in every 70 years.
Households are likely to experience burglary (with loss) only once every 37 years, theft of
vehicles once every 50 years, theft from motor vehicles once in every 9 years and vandalism
once in every 6 years. Most crime is non-violent and involves property offences.

99
2.8 ROLE OF PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SPACES:
The third key principle is closely related to the concept of neighborhood and concerns the
importance of distinguishing between public and private space. It has already been noted
that Newman’s initial approach (1972) to security design was based on a complex hierarchy
of public, semi-public, semi-private and private space. Other approaches to security design
advocate alternative ways of organizing space. Whatever the approach adopted towards
dwelling grouping and orientation, a general consensus exists over the importance of strict
differentiation between public and private space. Part of Hillier’s argument on neighborhood
concerns the tendency in modern design layouts to make public space increasingly more
private. Instead of creating neighborliness as intended, such designs ensure that this
privatized public space is in fact an ‘urban desert’, an area no one uses and no one cares
about, and this leads to a higher incidence of crime. Hillier suggests that old, ‘successful’
towns are comprised of an interconnected network of public spaces. Visual links give both a
sense of scale and help to differentiate between the public and the private areas. These
visual links enable people to relate each particular space to the whole town. He believes
that the concept of very private dormitory estates located on the periphery of towns has
extended the idea of privacy too far creating ‘urban deserts’ and that such unused private
spaces should be made public again.

Fig: Plaza space as interactive zone

100
2.9 UNIVERSAL DESIGN (UD)
People of all ages and physical capabilities, making it possible for all to have access to and
fully enjoy their homes, neighborhoods, work places, and other community destinations,
can define universal Design (UD) as the process of creating buildings, products, and
environments that are usable. Universal design is based on the recognition that all people,
regardless of ability, should be valued equally. Universal Design is highly relevant to planning
officials, planning directors, and planners seeking to improve the quality of life in their
communities by providing residents with better choices of where to work, live, and play.

The Center for Universal Design at North Carolina State University offers seven principles of
universal design:

• Equitable use: The design is useful and accessible to people with diverse abilities.
• Flexibility in use: The design accommodates a wide range of individual preferences and
abilities.
• Simple and intuitive use: Use of the design is easy to understand, regardless of the user‘s
experience, knowledge, language skills or current concentration level.
• Perceptible information: The design communicates necessary information effectively to
the user, regardless of ambient condition or the user‘s sensory abilities.
• Tolerance for error: The design minimizes hazards and the adverse consequences of
accidental or unintended actions.
• Low physical effort: The design can be used efficiently and comfortably and with a
minimum of fatigue.
• Size and space for approach and use: Appropriate size and space is provided for
approach, reach, manipulation and use, regardless of user‘s body size, posture or
mobility.

 Importance of Universal Design:

Universal Design is a philosophy as much as a design code. It is a way of thinking, a mindset

that is fully inclusive of all aspects of what the Planning and Development Act 2000 refers to
as ‘proper planning and sustainable development’. It involves a considered approach to
place making based on an integrated assessment and understanding of the context and user
needs. Universal Design permeates the principles that underpin our national and regional
planning priorities and can therefore add value at all levels in our planning system creating
responsive, functional, inclusive and sustainable cities and towns.

2.9.1 Universal Design Requirements:

a) Typical requirements:

The clear space required for a wheelchair to make a 360-degree turn is 1830 mm (72 in.) in
diameter. For a scooter to make a 360- degree turn a clear space of 2440 mm (96 in.)
diameter is required. Although providing for the 360- degree scooter turning radius is
preferred, the 360-degree wheelchair radius is acceptable.
The minimum clear floor or ground space required to accommodate a single, stationary
wheelchair or scooter and occupant shall be 760 mm (30 in.) x 1370 mm (54 in.)
101
b) Protruding and Overhead Objects:
The minimum clear headroom in pedestrian areas, such as walkways, halls, corridors,
passageways, or aisles and along multiuse pathways, shall be a minimum of
• 2500 mm (98 1/2 in.) for items such as trees, awnings and business signs, etc.
• 2400 mm for traffic signal heads; and
• 2100 mm (82-3/4 in.) for transit and traffic control signs.

102
c) Accessible routes and corridors:

The minimum clear width of accessible routes shall be 1100 mm (43-1/4 in.) except;
• For public exterior routes, it shall be 1500 mm (59 in.);
• Walkways to buildings can be reduced to 1200 mm (47 in.);
• Where additional maneuvering space is required at doorways;
• At U-turns around obstacles less than 1220 mm (48 in.) wide, it shall be 1220 mm
(48in.);
• Where space is required for two wheelchairs to pass, it shall be 1830 mm (72 in.).
Accessible routes shall
• have a longitudinal grade not steeper than 1:20 (5%); and
• have minimal cross slope, but never steeper than 1:50 (2%). Where technically not
feasible to achieve 2%, maximum shall never exceed 1:30 (3.3%).
• All portions of accessible routes shall be equipped to provide a level of illumination of
at least 50 lux (4.6 ft.-candles). Exception: Outdoor park settings where routes are not
normally illuminated.

d) Gates and openings:

Where gates or openings are provided through fences or screens to public use areas, such
openings shall be accessible (i.e., a minimum of 915 mm (36 in.) wide, to allow free passage
of a person in a wheelchair.

103
e) Ramps:

The surfaces of ramps and landings shall •

• have a surface that is slip resistant; •
• have a color contrast to demarcate the leading edge of the landing, as well as the
beginning and end of a ramp.
The ramp slope shall be between 1:15 (6.7%) and 1:20 (5%). In a retrofit situation where it is
technically not feasible to provide a ramp with a ramp slope between 1:15 (6.7%) and 1:20
(5%), a ramp slope not steeper than 1:12 (8.3%) may be used. However, more gradual slopes
are preferred. The maximum horizontal length between landings shall not exceed 9 m (29 ft.
- 6 in.).

f) Landings shall:

• have a minimum size not less than 2440 x 2440 mm (96 x 96 in.) if located at the top or
bottom of a ramp or if served by a doorway. (In a retrofit situation where creating a
suitably sized landing is technically not feasible, the required landing size may be reduced
to 1670 x 1670 mm. (65-3/4 x 65- 3/4 in.));
• On an intermediate landing of a U-shaped ramp have a length not less than 1670mm (65-
3/4 in.) And a width not less than 2440 mm (96 in.) as per Figure 1.1.5. In a retrofit
situation where creating a suitably sized landing is technically not feasible, the required
landing width may be reduced to 2120 mm (84in);
• On an intermediate landing at the corner of an L-shaped ramp have a length and width
not less than 1670 mm (65- 3/4 in.)And
• On an intermediate landing at a straight ramp have a length not less than 1670 mm (65-
3/4in.)

104
g) Signage:
Letters and numbers on signs shall :
• be sans serif fonts;
• have Arabic numbers;
• have a width-to-height ratio between
3:5 and 1:1; and
• have a stroke-width-to-height ratio
between 1:5 and 1:10.

The minimum level of illumination on signs

shall be 200 lux (18.4 candles).

h) Street Design (Road and Footpath Layout)

Road and footpath layout makes an important contribution to the creation of universally
designed environments. In considering the approach to their design, reference should be
made to the Manual for Streets (Department of Transport, UK, 2007), which recommends
the consideration of:
• a user hierarchy which focuses on the needs of pedestrians
• the needs of people of all ages and abilities
• desire lines within movement networks
• the use of quality audits systems which demonstrate how designs meet objectives for
the area.
During the analysis of movement patterns within existing urban areas, provision for
pedestrian users as part of this hierarchy should include:
• reducing traffic volumes
• traffic speed reduction
• re-allocation of road space to pedestrians
• provision of direct access at grade crossings (e.g. Dished footpaths)
• improved pedestrian routes on existing desire lines
• new pedestrian alignment or grade separation .

The provision of appropriate footpath widths is particularly important in meeting needs of

pedestrian users. The recommended design parameters for footpaths and the provision of a
minimum unobstructed width of two meters, from Manual for streets (UK). Additional space
should be considered where there is heavily trafficked streets, adjacent uses such as schools
and shops and areas of high pedestrian flow.

Fig: Footpaths and Pedestrian Areas

105
The quality of pedestrian routes can also be improved by maintaining pedestrian desire lines
at side-road junctions. The size of corner radii can either help or hinder pedestrian
movement in this regard. In the case of smaller corner radii, these can help to minimize the
need for pedestrians to deviate from their desire line and shorten the journey to cross the
road. For crossings, designers should avoid curved sections of curbing as this can make it
difficult for people with visual difficulties to orientate themselves before crossing. Matched
dished curb at crossing points should be located at the opposite side of the road to enable
users to cross the road efficiently and safely. The timing of pedestrian lights are important as
some lights change immediately making it impossible for older people or people with
mobility difficulties to cross the road safely.

Fig: Effects of corner radii on pedestrians

i) Car Parking and Set down Spaces

Provision of adequate and nearby car parking and set-down spaces is essential to ensuring
accessibility to residential developments, town centers, recreational areas and other visitor
locations. Within schemes, dedicated accessible car parking should ideally be located within
50 meters (Inclusive Design, Department of Transport (UK), 2005) of the facilities served by
the car park or with reference to distance standards. For designated accessible car parking
spaces arranged either in a perpendicular or parallel layout to the path or pavement,
sufficient space for a person to alight from a car and move safely around parked vehicles to
an accessible pedestrian route should also be included. 106
A review of car parking standards in a sample of development plans spanning 2010 was
undertaken to illustrate the application of standards in development plans. The survey found
that the requirement for the provision of accessible car parking spaces ranged from 2% to
10%. A majority of the surveyed plans calculated the requirement as a percentage of the
total car parking provision with additional policies relating to the location of spaces for
people with disabilities. The Galway County Development Plan has incorporated the NDA
recommended standard for accessible car parking.

Just like the normal parking, the universal design parking also is similar in nature. They
should be provided with extra space in between the cars known as the accessible aisle with
a bollard on the middle to prevent the any traffic from entering that area. We can also give
larger parking spaces in order for the same purpose as well.

107
2.10 Norms And Standards: Nepal

108
109
110
3. CASE STUDIES
3.1 NATIONAL CASE STUDY : PEPSICOLA TOWN PLANNING
3.1.1 Introduction:

LOCATION: Beginning of Bhaktapur

road, eastern Kathmandu, Nepal
AREA : 0.464 sq. km
POPULATION : 27200 persons
POPULATION DENSITY: 534/ha
PLANNING CONCEPT: Land Pooling
NO. OF PLOTS: 1272 plots in (Phase
A) + 51 plots in (Phase B)

Phase 1 Phase 2

Pepsicola town planning is among the best and earliest land pooling project of the country
which comprises of all the basic facilities required for a basic and healthy living, with the
growing population. The concept for town planning was developed in 2053B.S. while the
planning implementation startedin2058B.S.
The planning was developed in two phases. In the first Phase A, 1272 plots were developed
while in the second phase B, 51 plots were developed. The 1st phase covers 687 ropani while
the 2nd phase covers 226 ropani. The block depths varies from 45-55ft.

3.1.2 Objectives of Pepsicola Town Planning:

 This town planning was done targeting people from all background, for the
population of about 27200.
 For planned, systematic development of the place.
 To keep the town planning environment healthy.
 To guide the development and management of physical, social and economic
 Infrastructure services in a planned manner.
111
3.1.3 Infrastructure
Infrastructure is the set of fundamental facilities and systems serving a country, city, or other
area, including the services and facilities necessary for its economy to function.
The condition of its roads, road access, vehicular access, drainage system, footpath, water
supply, energy use, architectural aspects, and various kind of spaces was studied. Most of
them are described on topics below:

3.1.3.1 Physical aspects:

a) Land Use
The 68.44% of land is used for residential
plot, 20.30% of land is used for streets,
5.3% for open spaces and 7% for service
plot.

b) Road Network

Arterial road

Collector road

Local road

The N-S and E-W road network divides

the land in a grid iron pattern.
 Arterial road: 8m
 Collector road: 8m
 Local road: 4m and 6m
 0.5m to 1m width on each side of
road for drainage pipe and electric
pole, etc.
 The main road was for both private
and public vehicles.

• While other roads except main road were only accessed for
private vehicles, vehicles such as school buses, vans, cars,
etc. were also allowed.
•No separate footpath was given for pedestrians.
•Vehicles were parked on the side of the road for which no
space was provided. This made the road space less.
•Pepsicola didn’t have such parking areas. Most residence
itself was allocated with a parking area for private parking.
Some parking were done in unused open plots.

112
c) Water Supply

There is no access of water supply from government. So people have given provision of well
in individual area. People store water in their underground tanks which are supplied by
water tankers. Almost everyone is dependent on the water jars. Thus increase the expense
for the people in that area. So, many used rain water using rain water harvesting method.

d) Solid Waste Management

Landfill
• They utilize the organic waste in their kitchen
garden.
• This is the easy and inexpensive method for
disposal.
• Also they use it as manure for the crops.
Municipality vehicle
• Solid waste collection is done from municipal
vehicle 3 to 4 times a week.
• Municipality charge amount of Rs.300 per
month per house.
Incineration
• This method is also used. But it causes
unhygienic residue and pollutes both land and
air.
3.1.3.5 Drainage system
• The concealed drainage system was provided of about 8”.
• The drainage system was lead and dumped into the Manoharari
River causing pollution.
• Sewers were managed by the government.
• Openings inlets are seen which are provided for storm water on
the roadsides.
• Manholes are also provided place to place.
• The manholes were not in proper manner. Pic : Inlet for storm water
113
3.1.3.2 Sectors
a) Health centers in the Pepsicola Planning:
• There are sufficient numbers of local health
services found in the Pepsicola town planning.
• Pharmacies and clinics are found almost in
every other corner of the planning.
• The names and location of some health
services in the planning are given below:

Motherland Hospital @ 549m

Mega Holistic Health Enterprises @ 246m

Harissidhi Clinic and Pathology Center @ 92m

Sahara Clinic @ 109 m
Harisiddhi pharmacy @ 252m
Sumaya Health Center @ 1.68 km

• The Motherland hospital consisting of the 25 beds is serving about 27200 people.
• The health facilities are found in the proximity up the range of 80m to 2km.

b) Educational centers in the Pepsicola Planning:

Nexus Public School

Pritima School
Neo Montessori
Lyceum Secondary School
Liberty Public School
Bhim Phedi School

Greenwich Academy
Global Public School

There was no space allocated for educational

purposes initially. So, later the residential
buildings were converted into educational
purposes.
And this caused problems for the spaces required in a well-planned school, colleges, etc.
This caused lack of space for parking, open space/ playground for the students, etc. Some
even rented space near the institutes for the purpose of parking where available. So this was
one of the major drawbacks.
114
3.1.5 Social aspects
People with different culture resided in this
planning. At the center of the planning, an open
football ground also served for the public
interaction. The football ground also served for
the medical camps, election center, as a
community space, etc. Some stalls around the
ground also increased the liveliness of the place.
The locals involved in cleaning the ground every
Saturday. Majority of Hindu resided here as
many small temples are available. Along with the
football ground, other two parks Manohar Park
and Suryamukhi Park are located on the north
and eastside of the planning respectively. These
two parks were established with the effort of
Department of Forests and local members.
These parks are also managed by the locals.
Both have area of about 4500 sq. feet each.

Pic : open football ground

Pic : Manohar park

3.1.6 Economical aspects
People from different economic background are present here.
There is at least one shop on ground floor of almost every house.
The most interactive space, junctions has lots of shops. Small
shops like grocery, clothes, beauty salon, liquor shops, pharmacy,
etc. are present. Many people use the ground floor and sometimes
first floor of their house for commercial purpose and upper floors
as residential. Other than that, this place is also popular for a fast
food area. Many restaurant are available in every nook and corner
of the planning. Along with that party palace and banquets are
available in the planning with some banks and cooperatives.

115
 Some commercial place found in this town planning are:

• Momo Rus @ 396.52m

• Papa’s Pizza @ 313m
• Cakemandu Bakery @155m
• Linsha Restro @ 90m
• AFC Family Café @ 320m
• Parisha Bakery @ 477m
• Street Kitchen & Restaurant @ 993m
• Chiya Junction @ 1 km
• Numba Sekuwa Corner @ 950m
• Om Shiva Sai petrol station @ 360m
• Kathmandu party venue @ 300m
• Splash swimming pool @ 428m
• New tri Shakti Party Palace @ 327m
• Pepsicola factory @ 413m

3.1.6 Types of Housing

Pic: Detached house Pic: duplex house

Types of Housing
•Detached housing
•Duplex housing
•There are some row houses in the Junctions and prominent surroundings.
•Majority of the houses are 3 storied.
The buildings are of modern and contemporary architectural style

116
3.1.7 Analysis

Positive aspects of the town planning:

 It has a variety of functional zones that contribute to a resident's day-to-day living (i.e.

residential, commercial, or mixed-uses).

 The grid system of planning remarkably eases the complex road networking system.

 Public spaces which encourage public interaction and social activities are available.

 Presence of football ground in the center of the planning that acts as a central

recreational zone.

 Public Transportation route around the boundary.

Negative aspects of town planning:

 There is no specific administration office inside the planning.

 There are many local pharmacies and clinics and hospital but there is lack of hospital

with full required facilities.

 There is lack of pre-designed school areas resulting in residence turned schools and

lack of playground and parking spaces.

 Pollution caused by Pepsi-Cola Factory placed near the residence zone.

 Direct flow of drainage into Manohara River without pre-treatment is polluting the

river.

 There is lack of sufficient buffer zone between road and residence.

117
3.2 INTERNATIONAL CASE STUDY 1 : GANDHINAGAR TOWN
PLANNING
3.2.1 INTRODUCTION :
LOCATION : GUJRAT , WESTERN INDIA

AREA : 43 sq.km

PLANNED FOR : 150,000 (can

accommodate double the population )

DENSITY/sq.km : 3490/sq.km

NO. OF RESIDENTIAL UNITS : 42,471

PLANNING APPROACH : Town planning

IMPLEMENTATION AGENCIES : Prakash

m. Apte and H.k mewada,
Fig : masterplan of Gandhinagar town planning

3.2.2 BACKGROUND :
Gandhinagar is the capital of the state of Gujarat in western India. It is located in the west
central point of the industrial corridor between Delhi, the political capital of India, and
Mumbai, the financial capital of India. Gujarat, being the birthplace of Mahatma Gandhi,
there was determination to make Gandhinagar a completely Indian enterprise. It is located
at the bank of river Sabarmati. Gandhinagar has seen rapid growth and development in
eighties. The administrative centre is slowly turning into a trade centre. It has not only made
its presence felt in terms of overall development nut also in its many eco drives for a
sustainable future. Gandhinagar has been approved by the Ministry of New and Renewable
Energy to be developed as a solar city. It is the second planned city in india after
Chandigardh.

Fig :Swarnim park (central vista )

Fig : Akshardham temple 118

Fig : Salt mount
3.2.3 OBJECTIVE OF CASE STUDY
The main objective of the study of Gandhinagar town planning is to analyze and evaluate
more about the planning , land use , infrastrutures and green and sustainable city
development . Since Gandhinagar town planning is planned in the concept of neighborhood
planning so it might help us to know more about the outline and detail on planning.

3.2.4 PLANNING:
The character of a plan for a new city is influenced by various factors, such as the regional
setting, site conditions, dominant function ,etc. Initially, the principal employer in the city
would be the state government and as such, the design population was based on the
government employment structure. In 1965, the city was planned for a population of
150,000 but can accommodate double that population with increase in the floor space ratio
from 1:2 in the areas reserved for private development in all residential sectors. The total
area of the site is about 5,738 hectares (14,180 acres) including and divided by the river. The
area under river is about 800 hectares. The new city is planned on the western bank on
4,290 hectares (10,600 acres) of land. Out of these, about 700 hectares (1,700 acres) along
the river front (which is eroded land- ravines) are left out for river side development. The
area of the land in the eastern side of the river, not proposed for immediate use, is about
650 hectares (1,600 acres). The planning is done in Grid iron pattern and organic pattern
and is considered as sector model.
The main work areas in the city are:
1. Capital complex and government offices.
2. Industrial areas.
3. City Centre.
4. Public institutions area.
5. Shopping, commercial and warehousing area.
6. Government housings
7. Private housings

5%
1%
14%, 9%
RESIDENTIAL (PVT)
8%
RESIDENTIAL(GOVT)
25%, 4%
2%
15% COMMERCIAL

INDUSTRIAL
17%
INSTITUTIONAL AND
AMENITIES
OPEN SPACE AND
Fig : Land use plan for GUDA RECREATIONAL
VACANT LAND

119
3.2.5 LAND USE OF PLANNED
TOWN :
The land use zoning for the city is done as
shown in the figure. The city is developed in
a coarse pattern with large blocks divided
into smaller plots. The blocks and plots are
divided by placing road networks in proper
grid. The distribution of road network is
shown in the figure there are altogether 30
sectors, each having an area of
approximately 75 hectares . Each of these
sectors accommodates a residential
community planned for population of about
7000 persons with the necessary facilities
like schools, shopping, playgrounds, and
parks. The land use of overall town is in the
form of neighborhood planning.
They are planned on the neighborhood Fig : Land use plan for planned sectors
concept in two phases:
a) First Phase - The basic amenities were
constructed.

b) Second phase - constructions of capital

complex, sports complex, town halls,
research institution, cinemas, cultural
centers, residential bungalows etc. Residential

Commercial

6%
8% Institutional and
26%
public amenities
Transportation and
1% roads

15% Green space

44%
Vacant Land

Fig : Land use plan for planned sectors

120
3.2.6 UNIT TYPES :
Almost 26% of the total site was covered by the household units. Eight categories of
residential plots, ranging from a minimum of 135 sq. m. To a maximum of 1600 sq. M are
made available for people in general. Each residential community has hierarchy of about
four categories of private plots and government quarters to achieve a balanced social and
economic structure.

Fig : existing plots and dwelling units

3.2.7 Households
According to ownership, there are three types of households in Gandhinagar: government
housing, private housing and ghb ( Gujarat housing board) housing. Gandhinagar is
considered a ‘government town’ as it is the capital of Gujarat and all the important
government offices are located here. The ownership was initially more of the government
employees but the land was later sold to other people. Currently, private housings are more
than government and ghb housings as seen from the table below:

Ownership type No.of households In %

Govt. 16405 38.6

Private 21975 51.7
Ghb 109 9.6
Total 42471 100
121
According to building type, households of Gandhinagar can be divide into 5 types:
Semi detached
Row house
Government quarters
Bunglow
Apartments
The amount of these different types of housings are shown through the pie chart below:

7%
9%

16%
62%
6%

Semi detached Row house

Govt.quarters Bunglow
Apartment

3.2.7.1 Age group and Family size :

3.2.7.2 Block sizes :

122
3.2.8 Redevelopment strategies:

In order to accommodate the growing population of the city, redevelopment proposals for
coming two decades have been made, based on the principles of affordability and
sustainability. The old government housings are to be converted into lig (low income group)
housings through amalgamation, providing 8000 affordable households for the low income
group. The existing blocks, built form and the proposed forms are shown in the figure below:

123
3.2.9 INFRASTRUCTURES AND SERVICES :
3.2.9.1 PHYSICAL

a) ROAD AND TRANSPORTATION

The pattern of the main city roads is generally rectangular forming a grid 1 km X ¾ km. The
roads have been oriented to form 30º north of west and 60º north of east to avoid direct
facing of morning and evening sun during journeys to and from work places. The total road
area is about 23.19% .

 Road hierarchy :
• National highway : NH-(8-8C ) , SH 71
• Arterial road : GH road ,CH road, Road 7
• Sub-arterial road : Road no .(1,2,3,4,5,6) , KH road, G road , CHH road
• Collector road
• Local road
• Pedestrian lane : 88% of the study network has footpaths, while 12% is deprived of it,
but faces a major issue of discontinuity despite its availability. Pedestrian facilities like
zebra crossings are present but no FoB/Subway is present, even on stretches where
average speeds observed are > 55kmph.

124
Total Road Network =441 km (excluding local roads153.46km)
 Traffic and transportation

Ahmedabad Gandhinagar has largest share of passenger trips. At present the major means
of transport between two cities is the subsidized bus service. Gandhinagar has very weak rail
linkage. There is an existing broad guage line on which daily a three coach local passenger
train comes twice and supports only 10-15 percent of the total population.

 Road Network and dimensions:

Road length (in kms) :

Where;

BSSL – Below standard single Lane-clear carriageway of width less than 3.75m.
SSL – Standard single Lane – clear carriage way of width 3.75m to 7m.
SDL – Standard double Lane – clear carriageway of width 7m to 10.5m.
SML – Standard Multi Lane- clear carriageway of width 10.5m and more.

Access roads to the city center are 65 m wide. Road to the government offices from south –
west to north – west and the crescent road are 100 m wide. Rests of the roads are 45 m
wide.
• No proper use of traffic lights and signals but traffic roundabouts placed in most of the
junctions that manages and slows down the traffic.
• brick paved cycle tracks were a part of the original 1965 plan. However, the space has
been encroached by roads for motorized traffic

125
 Road section of local road and CHH road :

Local road

CHH road

Incorporating green street network with cycle and pedestrian lanes is a part of revised
development plan-2024.

Fig. visualization of street for redevelopment.

The it has proper mass transportation system through local buses and metro rails. Gujarat
state Road transport corporation (gsrtc) buses provide transport in and outside the state.
Main gsrtc bus depot is situated at sector-11 (pathikashram). Intercity buses between
Ahmedabad and Gandhinagar is also operated by gsrtc. Gandhinagar got its own city bus
service in august 2009. In the first phase of city based transportation service, a total of
eleven buses running on compressed natural gas (cng) have been allotted. Cng auto-
rickshaws are available for local transport. Gandhinagar capital railway station (gnc ) is
located in sector 14, providing connections to many major cities of India. The city does not
have an airport of it’s own but sardar vallabhbhai patel international airport is situated
18km away in Ahemdabad, providing domestic flights to other cities and many international
flights too. The mega i.e. Metro link express between gandhinagar and ahmedabad. It will
have four lines. It was conceived in 2003 with an estimated cost of rupees 45 billion. The
Delhi metro rail corporation conducted a feasibility study for it in 2005-6.
126
b) WATER SUPPLY AND DRAINAGE :

The main sources of water for the city is the sabarmati river and ground water. The water
for industrial purpose is supplied by three major sources : Gujarat water supply and
sewerage board, irrigation canal and Sarda Sarovar project, Narmada canal from Nabhoi
pumping station through Gujarat Water Supply and Sewage Board. The pipeline are laid in
grid iron pattern along the grid of the roads.

Fig : Sources of water

 Ground Water Exploration :

The Ground Water Exploration was first taken up during 1971-74 under UNDP project and
thereafter under various programmes of Central Ground Water Board. During UNDP Project
two boreholes were drilled at Sardhav (Sardhao) in the north-western part of the district.
These were converted into piezometers. Subsequently, during 1985-86, three piezometers,
tapping different aquifers zones were constructed in the Sachivalay complex by CGWB
under its Piezometer Construction Programme. Two Deposit wells, down to 200 m depth,
were also constructed at Palej Agriculture Farm during 1981. Under Hydrology project five
Piezometers one each at Nardipur and Mansa and three at Kalol were constructed. One
artificial recharge well and one recharge well cum piezometer was constructed at IFFCO
Kalol.

 Drainage :

The entire district is a part of North Gujarat Alluvial plain with neither hill features nor any
prominent natural water bodies. The Sabarmati, the Khari and the Meshwo are important
rivers of the district. One of the most important feature of the drainage of the district is lack
of any definite drainage system in the western part and other is artificial drainage i.e. The
Narmada Canal System. The Sabarmati River, which flows through the district in north-
south direction, is the principal river of the district. The Sabarmati flows through the central
part of Gandhinagar taluka. The Sabarmati was once a perennial river, however, after
construction of dam near Dharoi, it is generally dry during lean periods except for a small
channel of flow due to water released from Dharoi dam. Recently water from Narmada
canal is being fed to the river and the river retains water downstream of Narmada canal.

127
c) Sewerage and Drainage :
As per the information of Capital Project Division, Gandhinagar, the current water supply in
the city is 75 MLD. Sewerage system was designed and constructed in 1970 in the city. The
whole wastewater from city is taken by underground pipes and collected in Sargasan
drainage pumping station . From this pumping system wastewater is pumped and
transferred to Jaspur wastewater treatment plant through rising main and Sargasan STP. But
Sargasan STP utilizes 50 % of its total capacity .

d) Solid Waste Management :

The solid waste is collected from the government and private sectors in containers and
trucks. The government does not have enough vehicles and mechanized equipments for
proper management of solid waste. It has provided two types of dustbins ( blue and green)
for degradable and non-degradable wastes. However they are being mixed at the dumping
site which is located in sector 30, near the Sabarmati River. If the proposal for using solid
waste for thermal power generation is successful, it will be a great step for proper
development.

e) Electricity and Communication :

Gandhinagar enjoys uninterrupted 24 hrs power supply. The main power station is located
within gandhinagar: a 4000 kv service station, two 220 kv stations and one 132 kv station is
located for power supply throughout the district. The power stations are located on sector
30, on the outskirt of the city. It is buffered from other areas by road and 2000 ft wide green
belts. The gandhinagar thermal power station is a coal fired power station in gandhinagar.

Proposals have been made to utilize the solid

waste generated in the city for thermal power
generation. This will be a smart way to manage
solid waste as well as power generation

Fig : thermal power station

128
3.2.9.2 SOCIO-ECONOMIC

a) HEALTH FACILITIES :
Only one major hospital was planned with other
numerous dispensaries in each sector. This was
enough for the population that it was planned for
but the population has almost doubled. A hector
or two had been earmarked in original plan for
future extention of amenities. The development
of health facilities in those areas has been
proposed in the redevelopment plan 2024. The
existing single civil hospital is located near the
center of the city, in sector 12 as shown in the
figure. There are in total 18 dispensaries and one
hospital in the area. A dispensary caters a single
or two sectors.

Table : Health Infrastructure In GNA in 1997

b) EDUCATION FACILITIES :
The major institutional institutes: universities
and colleges were planned to be placed near
the core governmental sectors of the city as
shown in the figure . The universities have
however been developed not just in these
parts but they are located in different sectors
and has acted as a point of growth for the
sectors. The schools up to the higher
secondary level were planned to be located
in each sector. Land was earmarked for future
development of these facilities. Completely
institutional sector to be developed,
mirroring the existing sectors. Iit ( indian
institute of technology is already located
there that acts as a development point for
this addition.

129
c) GREEN AND OPEN SPACES :
Gandhinagar town is considered one of the greenest city in India . There are many parks
and open spaces as well as recreational spaces designed in gandhinagar town planning. But
the recreational spaces were less in gandhinagar while planning . Children parks , zoos ,
green belt , central vista , amusement parks , town hall parks , various stadiums ,etc were
planned . Every sector is provide with small to medium amount of green open space . Every
roads are surrounded by trees and vegetations which makes the city green city .

Fig : Children’s park Fig : central vista(Swarnim park)

Fig : sector 28 garden , lake Fig : roads surrounded by Green

Fig : cambay golf ground 130

3.2.10 Analysis of Section 21 :
Sector 21 is studied to understand the
planning of individual sector. It is in the
north- east part of the planning . Sector 21
is surrounded by sector 30 ,22,20,10B.
Roads that falls in sector 21 are :CH road
,CHH road , road no 5 and road no 6 and
other local and collector roads. The sector
is in organic pattern so the plot sizes varies
in sizes.

The sector covers total area of 75.70 hectare with ground coverage 13.08 hectare ( 16.65%
of total sector area) and open area of 59.28 hectare ( 78.30%). A green belt on all sides
buffers different areas inside the sector from the major roads. The land use plan for it is as
shown in the figure below. The different zones are for residences, commercial, amenities,
religious and institutional.

131
3.2.10.1 Land use plan of sector 21 :

3.2.10.2 Building type and building area :

132
3.2.10.3 Road network in sector 21:

The overall planning in sector 21 is in organic

pattern.
Primary road area : 9.82 hectare (excluding
from sector area )
Secondary road area : 3.12 hectare ( 4.12%
of the total area )

The roads that connects sector 21 are :

• Arterial road : CH road
• Sub arterial road : CHH road
• Collector roads
• Local roads and
• Pedestrian roads

3.2.10.4 Solar PV arrays at sector 21

3.2.11 LEARNINGS:
• Learned about the sector model and its functions
• Various spaces to be incorporated.
• Place making techniques
• Land use division techniques
• Planning techniques
• Various aspects of the neighborhood planning
• Importance of green belts

133
3.3 INTERNATIONAL CASE STUDY 2 : KHUDA KI BASTI, KKB-III
3.3,1 Introduction
• LOCATION: Taiser Town at Northern end
of Karachi, Pakistan
• AREA : 40.8 acres (0.1651 sq.km), (16.31
hectare)
• NO.OF RESIDENTIAL UNITS:1,237 plots
for all
• PLANNED FOR:8,283 people
• DENSITY (sq.km):50166.03/ sq.km Fig: KKB-III location map
• PLANNING APPROACH: Experiment of low income housing using low cost technologies
and cost effective manner.
• IMPLEMENTATION AGENCIES: Mohammad Azar Khan and Mohammad Imran

Khuda ki Basti 3 is a suburban low income incremental housing scheme of Karachi basis.
KKB clearly establishes the concept of incremental development of housing and the services
in an affordable cost-effective manner. KKB encourages the people to undertake immediate
construction of houses and then develop other infrastructure on an incremental basis: this
is an important distinguishing element of the project. People – Land-Housing .Infrastructure
was the approach. Given security of tenure, the families build their houses and provide
infrastructure incrementally, as resources become available. The incremental development
scheme is entirely self-financing. The density of the settlement is 203 people per acre (501
people per hectare) with 1237 units. 55.6% of the land is planned as built up plots, 35.6% as
streets and roads and 7.24% as open spaces, such as parks, playgrounds and small open
spaces in the streets.

3.3.2 Background:
• KKB-III started in later half of 2006.
• Khuda ki basti meaning “God’s colony”, represents
a pioneering attempt to solve the housing
problems of the low stratum of urban poor.
• There are all over 4 KKB in Pakistan.
• KKB was first experimented in Hyderabad that as a
successful model solving urban poor problems.
• KKB Hyderabad also received prestigious award
“Aga Khan Award of Architecture”.
• 37 % of population of Karachi lived in squatter
settlement.
• KKB-III is found to be another success story for
efficiency providing housing facility to target
group without compromising on policies.

134
3.3.3 Objectives
‘Almost everywhere in the world squatter settlements tend to be located in the areas of
second choice, e.g. in riverbeds, and at the periphery of the cities. High infant mortality
rates and widespread disease are characteristics of people with bad living conditions
throughout the world. The main motive of this project are:
• To help the shelter less acquire legal titles to residential lots, with a minimum affordable
down payment, where families can immediately construct their houses.
• To understand to what extent densities for new plot townships can be increased without
adversely affecting environmental conditions and the socio-economic requirements of the
residents.
• To establish the concept of incremental development of housing and the services in an
affordable cost-effective manner.

3.3.4 Planning:
Khuda ki Basti 3 is a suburban low income incremental housing scheme of Karachi. Khuda ki
Basti-3 was planned as a low rise low density housing scheme. Khuda ki Basti is spread over
40.8 acres (16.31 hectares). In KKB there are planned 47.4% residential plots, out of which
40.27% have remained purely residential while the remaining 7.14% have converted into
residential cum commercial / industrial units due to a trend of self employment. About
1.85% purely commercial plots planned are not developed as yet, as these have been
retained by SAIBAN for future speculation. 13.75% of the site is allocated for amenities
including; schools, medical clinics, parks and religious buildings. An analysis of space
utilization patterns reveals that the percentage of residential units in future KKBs could be
higher taking some of the land allocated for amenities and parks, as the given 13.75% of the
developed amenities are under or not utilized. 55.6% of the land is planned as built up plots,
35.6% as streets and roads and 7.24% as open spaces, such as parks, playgrounds and small
open spaces in the streets. Together the circulation and open spaces form 42.84% of the
developed land.

135
 7%
2%
7%

49%

Residential plots
35%
Streets and roads
Open spaces
Commercial plots
Amenities
Fig: Pie chart of Land division at KKB-III

SCHEDULE OF LEGENDS
RESIDENTIAL 40.27
RESIDENTIAL +COMMERCIAL %
7.14%
RESIDENTIAL + INDUSTRIAL
1.85%
COMMERCIAL 1.85%
EMPTY PLOTS

AMENITIES
SCHOOLS (FORMAL) 3.19%
SCHOOLS (INFORMAL)
MEDICAL FACILITIES 2.06%
RELIGIOUS
PLANNED GREEN SPACES 7.24%
CIRCULATION
PEDESTRIANCIRCULATION 19.1%
VEHICULAR CIRCULATION
VEHICULAR+PUBLIC 16.5%
TRANSPORT

TOTAL 100%
136
Fig: Land division at KKB-III
3.3.5 BUILT UP DENSITY AT
KKB-III:
The total built up density of KKB-III was
55.62%where most of them are only of
one story which tends to 40% and have
16.32 acres in area.10% of people in KKB-III
have Ground+1 floor house which is 4.08
acres and 5.62% of buildings have Ground
+2 floors which are generally schools,
religious temples, and some of the
residential plots. Therefore, the total built
up area is 22.69 acres.

Fig: Built up density at KKB-III

Fig: Housing layouts and first floor extension

% BUILT UP DENSITY AREA IN ACRES

GROUND 40% 16.32

GROUND +1 10% 4.08
GROUND+2 5.62% 2.29

TOTAL BUILT UP DENSITY IN CASE 55.62% 22.69

STUDY

137
3.3.6 HOUSES OF KKB-III:
All houses have a plot area of 80 sq. yards (67
sq. meters). The sizes of the plots are of 02
types: 24’x30’ (7.3 m x 9.1 m) and 20’x36’ (6.0
m x 10.9 m). The sizes of plots were intended by
the planners/architects to optimize ventilation,
thereby improving the internal environment.
Residents have attempted to minimize on
construction cost by using boundary walls as
rooms walls. However ventilation benefits have
been assured in such cases where the
orientation of the plot is favourable Despite the
resource constraints faced by a sizable number
of households the plinth is constructed as high
as 2.0 feet (0.60 m) and is of cement concrete
block masonry. The residents apparently develop
these high plinths based on the popular
consideration that after external development
work, if the road level rises it can cause rain
water to enter their .A sizable number of the
houses have boundary walls. The reasons to
construct boundary wall were several. 85% of
people use their front space of their house for
economic activities and social living. Fig: The extents of KKB-III
Residents wished to procure a definite enclosure to define their dwelling. It also provided a
basic measure of privacy. For this point, in a few cases, the boundary walls were raised to 6
feet (1.82 m) and more. In some cases, the internal room/enclosure was built using
boundary wall as a common/sharing surface boundary. It also gave identity to an individual
house. In other words, boundary walls act as an elevation to the individual dwellings. The
doors/gates installed in the boundary wall are normally of G.I. sheets and other metal
sections. In cases where a shop or commercial space is provisioned, the boundary wall
accommodates the opening of the shop. House open to sky is found in KKB which gives
natural cooling system and maintains house temperature and save energy bills. Construction
of rooms has several problems. Leakage in roofs, poor day light due to improper positioning
of windows, absence of ventilators to let off the warm air.

Fig: Different open/built arrangements in KKB-III 138

3.3.7 ROADS OF KKB-III:
The streets have been planned both to accommodate circulation and outdoor activities.
These are arranged as clusters around a central amenity. The longitudinal central circulation
and amenity spine running through the site is planned in conjunction with the natural
depression and also acts as a run off for rain water which drains along it.
• Average street width=24 ft (7.3m).
• It has Grid-like planned layout.
• Streets acts as interface between private
and public space.
• The streets are used for parking of
vehicles like :bikes, donkey, rickshaw
,taxi etc. Fig: Parking of vehicles belonging to the residents
• Street are served as semi private zone
having children play area ,sitting area ,
landscaping and space for holding for
marriage & funerals.
• Street are mostly ground or ground plus
one structure.
• Due to the hot humid weather of
Karachi, and wide street, there is lack of Fig: Street activity-Children play area
shade, the street usage during the day
as a semi-private /semi-public space
remains limited.
• Despite this the people do not want
narrow streets as being an upwardly
mobile society; people wish to have
broad streets for vehicular access as
they may later own cars.
Fig:Street activity – commercial activities and
casual sitting

• Lyari Basti Road(Expressway) is a connecting road in the outskirts of KKB that goes to main city.
• It has width of 10 m with two lanes.
• Oriented toward east west direction.
139
3.3.8 OPEN SPACES
• Open spaces, such as parks, playgrounds, recreational place and small open spaces in
the streets covers 7.24 % of KKB-III.
• Master plan of KKB-III includes a hierarchy of open space which is placed in the central
strip easily accessible by all neighborhood.
• One open ground is developed as a plants nursery with a sewerage treatment plant
while another as a cricket ground.
• The rest are in excess and are large, underutilized grounds hardly used or maintained by
the people and mostly serve as garbage dumping areas.
• .It seems probable keeping in view the low density and the under or non utilized open
spaces and amenities that the percentage of built up plots could be higher and the
circulation spaces could double for open space.
• Each public open space is surrounded by a block of about 100 houses. This forms a
Mohalla (neighbourhood) system, in which representatives of these 100 houses have
formed a Mohalla committee for the maintenance and up gradation of their area, its
municipal services and its public grounds according to the needs of the residents.

Children playground The central cricket playground

Parda Bagh for families only

Area level play ground

Garbage dump in open space

140
3.3.9 AMENITIES
• 13.75 % of the site is allocated for amenities including schools, medical clinics, parks
and religious building.
• Commonly found commercial activities at KKB are :ice manufacturing, food catering,
real estate agencies, private schools, tuition centers, clinics and small grocery stores.
• Infrastructure conditions at KKB are good with sewerage, water supply, gas and
electricity lines in place.
• All infrastructures have been developed according to plan.
• Formal and Informal Educational institution are provided in KKB where formal
institution are held by organization and informal as private boarding.
• All the service amenities are provided on walking distance of up to half a mile
SCHOOLS HOSPITALS SECURITY
 TCF Secondary  Fehmi Health  Khuda ki Basti
School(700 m) Care(418m) Police(754m)
 Amal-e Danish  Ishaq Barqui
 Police Choki Industrial
School(545m) clinic(115m)
Area(428m)
 Saadi Public  Hcmd Phc(357m)
School.(180m)

Fig:Local health, education and literacy clinic

Fig: Computer Lab

Fig :TCF Secondary School

Fig: Baqal Medical Complex Fig: Class room 141

3.3.10 SUSTAINABILITY
A sizable number of houses have un-plastered walls made of cement concrete blocks with
roofs constructed of prefabricated cement concrete beams and tiles. Few houses have
plastered walls. This factor indicates that initially the house occupants could only afford the
minimum for their respective houses due to an overall low income and affordability status.
Savings and loans constituted the main sources of housing finance in KKB. However it must
also be noted that once people have decided to live in KKB, households have continued to
invest in their houses since it is a revered asset and one of the prime necessities of life.

• Sky light in every house.

• Using materials that are readily available in sites to keep it economical and sustainable.
• 39% of total housing stock are from kaccha (local material like mud, bamboo, reeds,
thatch etc.) house, 40 % semi pukka and 21 % pukka(substantial material like stone,
brick cement concrete or timber).

Fig:Use of Local Materials Fig: House made of substantial material

Fig: Sky light 142

3.3.11 WATER SUPPLY AND DRAINAGE
• Each gap of 4 houses is served by septic tank linked in pumping station.
• In KKB4 ground water is available for every house; however, for better quality drinking
water, there is a plan to drill down and supply households through pipelines soon.

Fig: Ground water through hand pump Fig: Water purification filter plant

143
3.3.12 GENERAL HOUSING LAYOUT
• itchens are usually kept attached to the open courtyards as these generate heat, fumes
and smell. Kerosene oil stoves or gas cylinders are used for cooking.
• Toilets are built either close to the front boundary wall or backyard.
• Toilets are built on a raised platform of varying dimensions. Almost all the toilets are
squat type low cost structures.
• Courtyards and the threshold space known commonly as “gallery” are probably the
most utilized space. Womenfolk spent most part of the day in courtyards, busy in
cooking and washing.
• In the absence of electricity, it is extensively used for sitting out, sleeping and playing.
• The courtyard also includes underground water tanks of the house..

Fig : Living room Fig : Bed room

Fig : Courtyard Fig : Kitchen

144
3.3.13 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
One of the biggest issues in the basti that was left unresolved was the large amounts of
trash gene-rated and left unattended everyday at the basti. Once the population in KKB-3
began to increase, there were many attempts by the administration to lobby the local
municipal services to management trash in the basti. Unfortunately, after 3 years, there was
no regular support from the local municipal services to manage the waste for the basti. The
lack of resources available to the local government made it impossible to deliver these
critical services to the KKB-3 citizens. The residents had created 16 mini-disposal sites
(kachra kundis) in the neighbourhood for disposal. Some residents were also employing
sweepers to collect the trash and deposit in the self-designated areas.

• Step 1:Sweeper teams leaves on carts to collect trash from homes.

• Step 2: The team approaches homes, by knocking on doors to notify that they are in the
neighbourhood.
• Step 3 :Resident gives trash to sweeper.
• Step-4:Sweeper is disposing the trash in the waste bin, located on the cart.
• Step 5:The cart is continuing the round through a neighbourhood lane.
• Step 6:The trash collected from neighbourhoods is taken and sorted at the plant.
• Step 7:Organic waste is being taken to the compost boxes.
• Step 8:A staff member is turning the waste to allow oxygen in pile.
• Step 9:Compost box is filled with organic waste from households.
• Step 10:View of the composite boxes as a visitor enters the plant. The "holes' allow for
oxygen to enter the compost.
• Step 11:Non-biodegredablr trash is loaded on the van and taken to landfill/disposing
site outside.
• Step 12:Plant is washed and cleaned after operations everyday.

1 2 3

6 5 4

7 8 9

12 11 10 145
3.4 SUSTAINABILITY STUDY: VIKAS COMMUNITY

Type of Building Special Feature

Residence complex
Natural Lighting
Year of completion
• Large windows for light and ventilation
1998 for the last building
Cost effective features
Number of units
• Earth building technologies & ferrocement
23
used
• Soil from the site excavation used for CSEB
Type of unit
block
Studios, 1 BHK, & 2 BHK
Water efficiency
Net floor area
• Landscaping incorporates rainwater catchment
1448 m²
systems and
• Decentralized wastewater treatment systems
Organisation
(DEWATS)
Auroville Building Centre / Earth Unit
Passive heating/cooling
Architect
• Windows with sunshades and overhangs
Satprem Maïni
• A solar chimney that creates a natural stack
effect draft inside the apartments

Design Approach

Site integtration:
• The natural layout
maintaining existing greenery
and topography.

Building design
• The buildings were designed
to respond to environmental
factors

• Built in several periods from 1992 to 1998.

• First project in Auroville which used stabilised earth from foundations to roof.
• Was a finalist for the World Habitat Award 2000.

146
3.4.1 Introduction
The creation of this community was based on a particular spirit, life style and appropriate
architectural design. It was related to Sri Aurobindo’s integral yoga and Auroville’s ideal. The
extensive use of environmentally sound materials, appropriate building technologies, (earth
and ferrocement), renewable energies (solar and wind) and ecological water management
(watershed harvesting and biological waste water treatment), were the basis of its material
implementation. Individual apartments, a few individual houses and common facilities were
built.

This project was the first development in Auroville, which used stabilised earth right from
foundations to roof. To date, Vikas community still represents the most synthetic holistic
development, which has been materialised in Auroville.

The community was built in several steps, from 1992 to 1998, and the third block of thirteen
apartments was built on four floors: a basement floor with three floors above it. The
concept of this building was such that it should be self-sufficient for its soil needs. The soil
was dug from the basement floor (1.20m below the original ground level) to produce
compressed stabilised earth blocks for building the structure of 819 m2, carpet area, on 4
floors.

The foundations were done with stabilised rammed earth and the 13.40m high walls were
done with CSEB of 24 cm thick. All floors and roofs were made of very flat vaults and domes
for the living rooms. These vaults and domes were built with CSEB, by using the “Free-
spanning” technique. All stabilisation used 5 % cement by weight.

147
 • Firstly, a common kitchen for 50,a reservoir and wind pump and a block with 4
apartments were developed.
• In the second development, block of 13 apartments was built on four floors.

Excavation of the basement floor of the Excavation of the basement floor – 1.2
third building m below ground level

• The soil was dug from the basement floor (1.20m below the original ground level)
to produce compressed stabilised earth blocks for building the structure of 819
m2, carpet area, on 4 floors.
• The foundations were done with stabilised rammed earth and the 13.40m high
walls were done with CSEB of 24 cm thick.

• Green street for motor free

vehicles
• Major and minor roads for
bicycle provided
• Motor vehicles to be parked at
the parking area only
• Entrance for service motor
vehicles only
Green street

The extensive use of environmentally Appropriate architecture design:

sound materials: • Sun protection with sunshades and a
• appropriate building technologies, proper orientation of the building
(earth and ferro-cement), • Natural cross ventilation with a proper
• renewable energies (solar and wind) orientation of the building, and solar
• ecological water management chimney to create a natural draft
(watershed harvesting and biological • Integration to the land according to the
waste water treatment) existing vegetation
148
3.4.2 UNIQUE FEATURES OF THE THIRD BUILDING

Earth was used, from the first developments of Vikas, in all parts of the buildings, from
foundations to roof. The proper management of earth resources was always the first
priority. The quarries where the soil was taken from were always planned first. This
procedure allowed a perfect integration of the excavations with the buildings and landscape.

The first and second developments of the collective kitchen and 10 apartments on two
floors could integrate the quarries as a garden reservoir and for wastewater treatment. The
soil needs for these developments were already exceeding the outcome of excavations, and
some soil had to be supplied from elsewhere.

The soil requirement for the third

building, which had four floors, was
tremendous and the development of
Vikas did not require any hole. Thus it was
not possible to integrate any earth
excavation in the project and therefore
this building was planned with a
basement floor, which was half
underground (1.20m below the original
ground level).

The volume of this basement floor was equivalent to the volume of soil, which was needed
to produce the blocks and all the various works of the third building. Thus, the amount of
soil generated by the basement was enough to build 819 m2, carpet area, on 4 floors.

SECTION OF THIRD BUILDING

149
To protect the basement from the inflow of rainwater a particular landscape was designed.
The immediate surrounding has been shaped like a shallow crater to drain rainwater into a
percolation pit. This landscape design generated even more soil than needed for the
building sites at Vikas. It was given to other projects in Auroville, which could not implement
the concept of a basement floor.

Excavation of the basement floor of the third Excavation of the basement floor – 1.2 m
building below ground level

150
3.4.3 LAND CONSERVATION AND RAINWATER HARVESTING
3.4.3.1 Tree plantation and landscaping

The development concept was a “green” one, where buildings would be integrated in
vegetation and landscape of various densities. The initial planning foresaw buildings, which
could play with the existing nature and built up areas, and create a rhythm with it. One
corner of the land had already a few trees and it was decided to increase its density, so as
to create a very shady park. With the construction of the collective kitchen more than 100
trees of indigenous species, and many more bushes and plants were planted. Existent
nature had always been inviting for a building to come. However, the latter would integrate
itself with the surrounding natural environment.

3.4.3.2 Protection against water erosion

Auroville is situated in a tropical climate, where monsoons violently erode a bare land. Only
200 years ago dry tropical evergreen forests existed in this area. But those were cut down
and when the first pioneers arrived to Auroville in 1968 they found a bare plateau of eroded
red soil instead of forests. For years they had only one occupation: to give life again to the
land by planting trees and by blocking rainwater run off to the sea. This was done by doing
some bunds to slow down or catch the water. They used a slogan: “Zero run-off!”, meaning
that every cm² of land should percolate rainwater.

This type of land conservation became very effective, but it was adapted to green works
and not for developing a city. Therefore, the development of Vikas tried to integrate these
principles into town planning. The typical bunds to retain rainwater were transformed into
smooth landscape. Gentles slopes with shallow depressions collected rainwater and top
edges, where the pedestrian paths were located, retained water. The lowest part was
sometimes flooded and allowed the percolation. The top part was always accessible
without paddling. They were as effective as the original developments but totally integrated
in the landscape.

151
3.4.3.3 Landscaped percolation pits

A percolation pit is just a hole or a depression where rainwater can accumulate for
sometimes and allow percolation into the ground. The effectiveness of such a system
depends on two parameters: the water catchment’s volume and the percolation area, which
should be covered with grass and landscaped with bushes. For example, a deep hole with
vertical walls will not be as effective as a shallow depression of identical volume because
the vertical walls of the deep hole cannot be covered with vegetation.

The percolation effectiveness is increased tremendously with vegetation. It is essential to

cover the percolation system with grass and to plant bushes. Their roots drain rainwater
much faster in the ground. The biological systems with microorganisms, which are present in
humus, aerate the ground and increase also tremendously the percolation. This was shown
by the first percolation system created for the park near the collective kitchen. The
percolation system had just been shaped when a heavy summer storm occurred. No grass
cover and landscaping had been done yet. The depression was flooded and rainwater took
nearly a week to percolate through the topsoil, which had no humus. Once vegetation
completed the system, the heaviest rainfall during monsoon would take one or two days to
percolate.

Percolation system

152
3.4.4 BIOLOGICAL WASTE WATER TREATMENT BY LAGOONING
This system consists of two distinct phases: an anaerobic decantation-digestion, followed by
a macrophyte water treatment and the progressive re-establishment of aerobic conditions.
The anaerobic treatment takes place in a watertight pit called the “decanter-digester”, which
is open at the top, and which gets covered by the accumulated floating matter.

The macrophyte water treatment is covered with diverse species of floating aquatic plants.
The first 2/3 of the watertight pit is fully covered and the plant covering in the last third is
restricted to 20 % of the surface to promote more re-oxygenation and photosynthesis. The
aquatic plants were at the beginning water hyacinths and duckweeds. This wastewater
treatment worked well but it is a fragile system, which requires a lot of maintenance.

Wastewater treatment integrated with the

buildings and nature
Further toxic products, such as bleach,
house hold products with caustic soda, etc.
should not be used and it happened twice
that people thrown such thing in the toilets.
Therefore, the biological system died for
sometimes: it started to smell, fishes died
and the area was infested by mosquitoes.
Once normal wastewater goes into the
system, the latter require a few weeks to
function again properly.

The lagooning system was finally changed for another system which more resistant and
needs less maintenance: a baffle reactor system.

Along with an ecological approach for this biological wastewater treatment, the idea was to
fulfil technical requirements with a sense of integration, harmonization with the buildings &
surrounding nature.

Therefore, buildings nearby invited the lagooning system. It tried to propose an agreeable
place, where people can walk, sit and stay for a while, so as to enjoy a pleasant pond, which
is treated as a lake.

153
3.4.5 CSEB BLOCKS
3.4.5.1 What Are CSEBs?

• A compressed earth block (CEB), also known as a pressed earth block or a compressed
soil block, is a building material made primarily from damp soil compressed at high
pressure to form blocks.
• If the blocks are stabilized with a chemical binder such as Portland cement they are
called compressed stabilized earth block (CSEB) or stabilized earth block (SEB).

3.4.5.2 ADVANTAGES

1. Inexpensive And Energy Efficient

CSEBs are made in-situ, reducing the carbon-footprint. This also reduces the cost of
manufacturing. CSEBs are about 40% cheaper than conventional materials such as clay
bricks Due to their thermal mass quality, CSEBs can save anywhere between 10-15% on
cooling and heating costs.
2. Structural Strength
CSEBs are approved construction material and widely popular in many countries like France,
UK, Germany etc. The testing of these blocks proved that their structural strength is more
than that of adobe-earth which makes it a safe material that could be used for construction.
3. Top Of Form Toxin Free
No chemicals are used in the making of these blocks therefore CSEBs release no harmful or
toxic gases. CSEBs can be left exposed without any coating of paints and plaster which is an
added advantage.
4. Bio Degradable
If demolished and disposed-off properly in soil, the humus can break CSEBs down and thus
giving back soil to the earth.
5. Sound Proof And Resistant To Fire And Pests
CSEBs cut down sound transmission and you don’t need to spend much on sound-proofing
materials. The lack of cellulose does not allow mold-growth and the density of the blocks
discourages pests and insects to make their way through!
6. Reducing Deforestration
Most of the fired clay bricks are fired using timber. CSEBs do not require fire for their
manufacturing. This can reduce the large number of trees being cut down.
8. Responsibility Towards Society
CSEB manufacturing can provide employment opportunities to people while inculcating
social values in them.

3.4.5.3 DISADVANTAGES

1. Not suitable for high-rise buildings and wide-spans

2. Proper soil identification required
3. Skilled labour required
4. Requires quality check at every stage of manufacturing to avoid low-quality products

154
3.4.5.4 Durability of CSEB

• Studies have shown that the block will remain stabilised under fairly wet conditions also
for long exposure times.
• Problems could arise first if the block reaches saturation level for a long time. CSEB could
have a somewhat reduced strength in wet conditions (Riza, Rahman, & Zaidi, 2010).
• Humus in the soil should be removed since it can cause problems with stabilisation.
• The amount of unstabilised material in the block has a considerable impact on the
durability of the block.
• Freeze and thaw has shown to cause no damage to CSEB (Maïni, Earthquake Resistant
Buildings With Hollow Interlocking Blocks, 2005).

3.4.5.5 TYPES OF CSEB BLOCKS

• Solid blocks
These are mainly prismatic in shape. They fulfil very
widely differing functions.
.

• Hollow blocks
Generally the voids of hollow blocks account for a total of
5 to 10%, and up to 30% using sophisticated techniques.
Voids can improve the adherence of the mortar and
reduce the weight of the block. Certain hollow blocks can
be used to build ring-beams (lost formwork).

• Perforated blocks
These are light but require fairly sophisticated moulds and
greater compressive force. They are suitable for
reinforced masonry (in earthquake areas

• Interlocking blocks
These can be assembled without mortar, but they require
sophisticated moulds and high compressive force. They
are often used for non-loadbearing structures.

155
3.4.5.6 CSEB CONSTRUCTION
• Civil work of CSEB is economical than fired bricks
• It is 10% cheaper than fired brick
• Civil work of CSEB cost-1600 per square feet

CSEB a green approach. CSEB does

not use any energy. It is climate
responsive, environment friendly,
earthquake safe and cost effective
too. At the same time, being labor
intensive technique, it offers the
possibility of creating employment
for thousands of masons and skilled
labor. Therefore, it involves
community participation, create
employment and empowerment

156
3.4.5.7 IN CONTEXT OF NEPAL

Center of Resilient Development (CoRD) has been advocating on this technology and had
built 16 school buildings made up of CSEB before April 2015 Nepal Earthquake. Among them
four school buildings has been built at Dolakha. Those school buildings at Dolakha have
withstood the stroke of April 2015.
At present, CoRD in collaboration with UNDP established Technological Demonstration
Center (TDC) at Gorkha to disseminate information on CSEB.

Compressed bricks are preferred as reconstruction material in Nuwakot, Rasuwa, Kavre and
other earthquake districts also because they are three times stronger than fired bricks and
provide better insulation.

Since the blocks are self-aligning, the construction period is also much shorter and needs a
minimum amount of mortar, bringing down the total building cost by up to 40%.

A new technology being tested in earthquake-affected areas of Central Nepal

could drastically reduce air pollution in Kathmandu Valley, lower the cost of buildings and
make them more seismic-resistant.

Manufactured from sand, clay and cement mixed in a 5:4:1 ratio to be compacted and
sold, Compressed Stabilised Earth Bricks (CSEB) are more eco-friendly and cheaper than kiln-
baked bricks. The interlocking ability of the blocks, when reinforced with iron rods, can also
make structures earthquake resistant.

“Earth Bricks are the long-term solution to Kathmandu’s pollution, and they can also
improve earthquake safety, making it a sustainable and appropriate technology,” says
Aashish Shrivasta, an engineer at Build Up Nepal, which promotes the technology in
earthquake areas.

The group Practical Action is promoting Earth Bricks as an alternative reconstruction

material in Nuwakot and Rasuwa

The group has rebuilt 75 houses in the two districts using CSEBs and set up 19 new brick
businesses.

A new plant has been set up in Bhaktapur. It will produce 3,000 green bricks a day from
March.

3.4.6 Rammed Earth:

The many advantages of building with rammed earth include
• superior thermal mass,
• temperature and noise control,
• strength and durability,
• low maintenance,
• fire proofing,
• load bearing and pest deterrence, as well as its beauty
• the pleasure of building with a natural and environmentally sound material 157
3.4.7 STACK EFFECT:
• Stack effect or chimney effect is the movement of air into and out of buildings,
chimneys, flue-gas stacks, or other containers, resulting from air buoyancy.
• The stack effect helps drive natural ventilation, air infiltration, and fires

3.4.7 VAULTS:
a roof in the form of an arch or a series of arches

158
3.4.9 DOME
A dome (from Latin: domus) is an architectural element similar to the hollow
upper half of a sphere;

3.4.10 Terms used

MACROPHYTES:
• Macrophytes plays important role in balancing Lake Ecosystem.
• They have capacity to improve the water quality by absorbing nutrients, with
their effective root system.
• At the same time death & decay of the macrophytes increases nutrient
concentration, this leads to eutrophication.
ANAEROBIC DECANTATION DIGESTION:
• Anaerobic sludge digestion is a process typically employed at many wastewater
treatment plants to treat (or stabilize), the various primary and secondary sludges
produced.
• As the name implies, stabilization of sludges occur in the absence of oxygen
BAFFLE REACTOR SYSTEM:
• The Anaerobic Baffle Reactor (ABR) is an improved septic tank, built with
alternating baffles, which directs the wastewater to flow under and over it as
the water moves from inlet to outlet.
• Its design ensures increased contact time of the wastewater with the sludge and
hence increases the efficiency.

3.4.11 Learnings:
• We can use CSEB blocks for some of the small buildings.
• Use of percolation system can be done.
• Biological waste water treatment using some aquatic plants.
• Treated water used in agricultural land.
• Buildings can be designed in such a way stack effect is created for cooling.
• Use of rammed earth where possible.

159
4. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS

INTRODUCTION
NATIONAL CASE STUDY INTERNATIONAL CASE STUDY I INTERNATIONAL CASE STUDY II
PEPSICOLA TOWN PLANNING GANDHINAGAR TOWN KHUDA KI BASTI (KKB)
PLANNING

Location : Beginning of Location : Gujrat, Western Location: Taiser Town, at

Bhaktapur road, eastern India Northern end of Karachi,
Kathmandu, Nepal Area : 43 sq. km Pakistan
Planning Approach : Town
Area : 0.464 sq. km planning Area: (0.1651 sq.km), 40.8 acres
Targeted group :
Planning Approach : Land (mixed use) Planning Approach :Low-cost
pooling LIG – 13% housing for squatter settlement
MIG – 77% Targeted group: Squatter
Targeted group : Mixed HIG – 10% settlement(Low income housing
standard people people)

160
 LAND DISTRIBUTION SCHEME
LITERATURE NATIONAL CASE INTERNATIONA INTERNATIONAL CASE
STUDY L CASE STUDY I STUDY II KHUDA KI
PEPSICOLA TOWN GANDHINAGAR BASTI (KKB)
PLANNING TOWN
PLANNING
a) Density
• Low- 50 PPHA Design density : Design density : Design density :
• Medium- 100 500 PPHA 34.9 PPHA 501PPHA
PPHA
• High- 150
PPHA
Ktm valley- 200-205
PPHA according to
KVTDC
https://unhabitat.or
g/sites/default/files
/download-
manager- (UN
Habitat)
b) Block Dimension
BLOCK SIZE Varying Block sizes; Varying in block BLOCK SIZE
Length: 100-200 BLOCK SIZE size Block
meters Block length: 60m BLOCK SIZE Length:Minimum120-
Mid-block break to 120m Block Depth : 25 150m
when blocks are Block depth: 45m m – 70 m Block depth: Minimum
over 130 meters to 80m 66-80 m
Depth: 40-80
meters

161
 LITERATURE NATIONAL INTERNATIONAL INTERNATIONAL
CASE STUDY CASE STUDY I CASE STUDY II
PEPSICOLA GANDHINAGAR KHUDA KI BASTI
TOWN TOWN (KKB)
PLANNING PLANNING
c) Land Use
Fig A Fig B Fig C Fig D

d) Types of
Housings
Fig E • Detached Fig F
housing
• Duplex
housing
• Row
housing

Residential
residential use
8%
6% Commercial
5% commercial use
15% 26% Institutional and
50% industrial use
10% 1% public amenities
public and semi
Transportation
44% and roads
8% public use 15%
open space- parks Green space
10% 2%
and playground
Fig A road and linkages Vacant Land

2% 7% Fig C
7%

49%
35%

Fig D
Residential plot
Service plot Residential plots Streets and Roads Open Spaces
Fig B Open space
Commercial Plots Amenities
Streets
Semi detached
9%7% Row house
Fig E 16%
62% Govt.quarters
6%
Bunglow
Fig F 162
Apartment
LITERATURE NATIONAL CASE INTERNATIONAL INTERNATIONAL
STUDY CASE STUDY I CASE STUDY II
PEPSICOLA TOWN GANDHINAGAR KHUDA KI BASTI
PLANNING TOWN (KKB)
PLANNING

e) Plot size
Minimum Size: Ranging from 128 sq. A minimum of i)24’x30’(7.3mx9.1
80m2 m to 494 sq. m 135 sq. m. To a m)
Plot depth: maximum of
(66.43 sq. m.)
2.2-2.5 x 1600 sq.m
frontage and ≤
3 x frontage
ii)20’x36’(6.0mx10.
9m)

f) Morphology

• Grid iron Grid pattern (Planned in Grid Iron Pattern

pattern Sector model)
• Linear Grid iron pattern
pattern Organic pattern
• Star
• Branch
• Radial
• Satellite,
etc.

163
INFERENCES : Types of housing :
Land use :
• Detached housing
• Semi detached housing
Residential • Row housing
10% • Apartments
Commercial
3%
8% Target group:
institutional
50% space • Mixed use types
25% Road networks

open space
2%
2% Recreational
space

DENSITY:
• Mix-use preferred
• 300 PPHA, will be easy to maintain quality of life of residents and avoids congestion.
BLOCK DIMENSIONS:
Block Depth: 25m-60m
Block length: 100m -200m

PLOT SIZE:
• Proportion: 1:2 preferred
MORPHOLOGY :
• Varies according to the site and designs
• Grid pattern gives the lesser amount of negative space.

164
ROADS
LITERATURE NATIONAL CASE INTERNATIONAL INTERNATIONAL
STUDY CASE STUDY I CASE STUDY II
PEPSICOLA TOWN GANDHINAGAR KHUDA KI BASTI
PLANNING TOWN PLANNING (KKB)

a) Width

• Arterial road : Arterial road: Arterial road: Arterial road:

30m-40m 8m 20 m – 25 m 10m
• Collector road
Collector road: Collector road: Collector road:
: 20m Local
8m 10 m to 12 m 7.3m
Roads- 10m
• Pedestrian : Local road: 4 m- Local road: 5m - Local road:3-4m
I. Single lane : 6m 8m 19.1%
3.75m
II. Two lane : PEDESTRAIN: PEDESTRAIN: pedestrian
7m circulation
Not provided • 88% of the
III. Bicycle lane :
2.5m min. network has
• PARKING footpaths
On street • Future
facilities proposal
(2024) for
bicycle lane
and on street
parking

165
INFERENCES :
ROAD WIDTH:
• Road width according to bye laws,
• Pedestrian lane – 2m -2.5 m
• provision of bicycle lane to reduce carbon footprint and encourage environment
friendly streets.
• Parking: On-street parking to accommodate 2-3 cars so as to manage the traffic.

LITERATURE NATIONAL CASE INTERNATIONAL CASE INTERNATIONAL

STUDY STUDY I CASE STUDY II
PEPSICOLA GANDHINAGAR TOWN KHUDA KI BASTI
TOWN PLANNING (KKB)
PLANNING

c) Orientation

• Arterial N-S and E-W 30 deg N-W ,60deg N- E-W and N-S
Road: oriented E direction
North-
South (Fig A) (Fig B) (Fig C)
orientati
on

d) Road % and
intersections

Street Space: Covers 17% roads 35% streets and

20.30% 4-5 intersection per roads.
100m

166
 Arterial street : 8m
Fig A Collector street : 8m
Local street : 4m &
6m

Fig B

INFERENCES : Fig C

ORIENTATION:
• Main Arterial road: North-South preferable and other roads
perpendicular to main road for lesser ir regulations .

ROADS AND INTERSECTIONS:

• Street Space: 25-30 %
• 5-7 intersections per 100m can be suitable.
167
SERVICES

LITERATURE NATIONAL CASE INTERNATIONAL INTERNATIONAL

STUDY CASE STUDY I CASE STUDY II
PEPSICOLA GANDHINAGAR KHUDA KI BASTI
TOWN PLANNING TOWN PLANNING (KKB)

a) Water supply
and drainage

• Water wells • Deep boring • Main source

• Ground water
recommended • Water storage Sabarmati
through hand
to be at • Tankers and river
minimum jars pump.
distances : • ground
• Local taps
I. 15 m from water
through
septic tanks
• Wells (radial pipelines.
and sewers,
collector ,
II. 30 m from • 70% of houses
drainage intake )
have individual
fields. • Narmada water
canal from connection.
Nabhoi
pumping
station
through
Gujarat
Water Supply
and Sewage
Board.
• pipeline are
laid in grid
iron pattern
along the
grid of the
roads.

168
LITERATURE NATIONAL CASE INTERNATIONAL INTERNATIONAL
STUDY CASE STUDY I CASE STUDY II
PEPSICOLA TOWN GANDHINAGAR KHUDA KI BASTI
PLANNING TOWN PLANNING (KKB)

b) Sewerage and
drainage

• On site septic • Concealed • The Narmada • Each gap of 4

tank provision . drainage of 8” Canal System houses is served
diameter. • underground by septic tank
• Storm sewers pipes linked in
location: 1/3rd • Storm water • collected in pumping
the distance from collected Sargasan station.
the curb line to through inlets drainage • Central
the centerline of to the waste pumping station circulation of
the streets. water sewer . the site is
• A minimum • pumped and planned in
depth of 2 to transferred to conjunction
2.5m below Jaspur with the natural
ground level. wastewater depression and
treatment plant also acts as a
through rising run off for rain
main and water which
Sargasan STP drains along it.

c)Electricity
communication

 Overhead  Overhead • Thermal • Overhead

supply supply power station supply

 Underground  Supplied from • Kalpataru

supply NEA to power station
Pepsicola
substation to • Overhead
transformers supply
on the
electric poles

169
LITERATURE NATIONAL CASE INTERNATIONAL INTERNATIONAL
STUDY CASE STUDY I CASE STUDY II
PEPSICOLA TOWN GANDHINAGAR KHUDA KI BASTI
PLANNING TOWN PLANNING (KKB)

d) Waste
management

• Recycling of • Solid waste • solid waste • Solid waste is

waste collection from collected from collected from
• On- site municipal the the
disposal vehicle 3 to 4 government neighborhood.
• Utilisation of times a week. and private • Organic and
organic waste • Utilized the sectors in Non-
• Waste storage organic waste in biodegradable
containers and
facilities their kitchen waste are
trucks.
garden. separated.
 Waste disposal • Incineration • two types of • Organic waste is
method: dustbins ( blue taken to
• Incineration and green) for composite
• Sanitary degradable permeable box.
landfill • Non-
and non-
• Recycling. biodegradable
degradable
waste are taken
wastes.
to
• dumping site landfill/disposin
in sector 30, g site outside.
near the
Sabarmati
River.
• Proposal of
solid waste
conversion to
generate
electricity.

170
INFERENCES:
WATER SUPPLY:
• To be positioned 1m below the road level
DRAINAGE:
• To be positioned 2-2.5m below road level
• Not intersect with water pipe as much as possible
• Storm water drainage separated from the sewerage pipes that can be further used
for ground water recharge

Waste management :
• Conversion of solid waste into energy
• Utilization of organic waste
• Utilization of grey water for agriculture purposes

Table: Inferences for water supply, sewerage and

drainage

171
PROXIMITY
LITERATURE NATIONAL CASE INTERNATIONAL INTERNATIONA
STUDY CASE STUDY I L CASE STUDY II
PEPSICOLA TOWN GANDHINAGAR KHUDA KI BASTI
PLANNING TOWN PLANNING (KKB)
5) PROXIMITY (Education
institutions)

• Elementary school: • Elementary • Elementary  Formal

400m (1/4miles) school: 100m- school: 400-500 School(he
radius 600 m m ld by
Organizati
• Primary / secondary:
on)-700m
800- 900m
• Primary / • Primary /  Informal
(1/2miles) radius
secondary: secondary: 1km School(Pri
• Universities: 1200m 100m – 700m vate
radius (1/2 – 1miles) Boarding)
• Universities: -(180-
• Colleges: 100m within 4km 600)m
– 1km

Health institutions
(within - 1 mile)
Located along major • Pharmacies and 2-3 clinics within 3 km • 4 clinics
route clinics available within 500m.
in almost every 1 main hospital in • 1 Main
Maximum distance of
100m overall planning hospital
3/4hr (45 min) through
• Some hospitals within 400m.
vehicle
within the range
NEPAL STANDARD of 80m to 2km

Health post: 1 per 5000

population

Public transportation

• Public Available within half • Within half a mile

transportation – ½ a mile. from every sectors
mile

172
INFERENCES:
PROXIMITY:
• All the service amenities should be walking distance of up to half a mile
EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS:
• 1 per 7500 population at a distance of 30min in public transportation
HEALTH INSTITUTIONS:
• 1 per 20000 population (5- 15 beds) 0.25 ha per site

6) COMMERCIAL INSTITUTIONS

LITERATURE NATIONAL CASE INTERNATI INTERNATION INFERENCE

STUDY ONAL CASE AL CASE
PEPSICOLA STUDY I STUDY II
TOWN GANDHINA KHUDA KI
PLANNING GAR TOWN BASTI (KKB)
PLANNING
• For 5000- Shops in • Market • 2% of total • 5% of
20000 available in the areas area is total area
population ground floor of ,service served with as is
• General almost every stores, Market enough to
shops-35 other house. commerci areas, serve 5000
• Fruits and al service population
vegetables- complex, stores.
6 gym ,
• Services library
and repairs- within
13 each
sectors.
• Covers
2% for
5000
popn

173
OPEN SPACE
LITERATURE NATIONAL INTERNATIONAL INTERNATION INFERENCE
CASE STUDY CASE STUDY I AL CASE
PEPSICOLA GANDHINAGAR STUDY II
TOWN TOWN PLANNING KHUDA KI
PLANNING BASTI (KKB)
• 15-20% of • 5.30% for • 14% area for • 7.24% of • 6 % of total
total area open open spaces area is area to
• In Nepal, 5% spaces. • Parks, water served with promote
of total area • Parks and bodies , activity open spaces. open area
• Green football areas, etc. • Hierarchy of and social
spaces ground, open space interactions
important etc. • Placed in that is
the central provided
strip easily with
accessible by supporting
all facilities
neighborhoo • 0.4 ha per
d. site for 1 @
 Plant 800
nursery population
treatment
plant.
 Cricket
ground.
 Rest are
underutili
zed.

174
SUSTAINABILITY
LITERATURE NATIONAL INTERNATION INTERNATIO INFERENCE
CASE STUDY AL CASE NAL CASE
PEPSICOLA STUDY I STUDY II
TOWN GANDHINAGA KHUDA KI
PLANNING R TOWN BASTI (KKB)
PLANNING

• Focus on land • Not • Land use • Use of low • A

use plan mentioned focusing cost neighborho
• Passive solar on materials. od should
design greenery • Open to have long
• Materials in • Solar sky houses term
site panels in sustainabilit
• Greenery public y plan to
and prevent its
private early decay.
areas
• Proposal • In our case,
2024 for we can
the adopt
energy passive
generatio solar
n from design,
solid greenery.
waste

9)SOCIAL
SUSTAINABILITY

Religious places Availability of Religious • 2 mosque

Maximum small temples. places in each within
distance: 1.5 Open parks sectors. 350m.
km(15 to 20 min) and Within 1 km
playground.
Open spaces,
parks, plazas
add to create
social spaces.

175
5. SITE ANALYSIS

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Site: Harisiddhi
Ward No.: 29
Province no.: 13
Orientation : East facing the main road
Site area : 502 ropanis ( 25.5 hectare)

The site is located at Harisiddhi which is a municipality in Lalitpur District in the Bagmati Zone
of central Nepal. According to 2011 Nepal census it had a population of 10,736. Central
Region's capital Kathmandu is approximately 13.6 km / 8.4 mi away from Harisiddhi (from car).
The site has few amenities within the vicinity. It covers an area of 3 SQ.KM. It lies to the north
of site. The width of the black-topped main road connecting Harisiddhi is 12 feet. More than
35 buses and micro buses serve the public in this area
Population Distribution
Population
According to the 2011 census the number
of local population of Harisiddhi is 5666. Male
50.78% 49.22%
Average household size 3.92 Female

5.2 ORIENTATION

176
Fig: Sun path and wind diagram
5.3 PROXIMITY

Damaitar lower
secondary school
KU ,school of
education
Nepal
Kshitiz
autism care
secondary
Harisiddhi school
Harisidhhi Harisiddhi
temple health post cancer hospital
Shiloh
pharmacy 0.5 k.m. 1 k.m. 1.5 k.m. 2 k.m.

Shanti Jeevan
church Hareram
Dev mandir
brikchhaya Bloom
Montessori Nepal
Ektata pathshala school

Kantipur engineer
college

Harisiddhi health post @ 600m

Harisiddhi cancer hospital
Shanti Jeevan church @ 1.98m
@1.45km
Harisiddhi temple @ 989m
Shiloh pharmacy @105.8m
Hareram Mandir @426.5m
Nepal autism care @1300m
Chautara temple @ 127m
Shiddhi Binayak Mandir @496M Others
Shree Krishna Mandir @218m
Jal rent car and transport @ 215m
Overhead tank @258m
Ghana laxmi electronics store @390m
Standard fashion @240m
Kshitiz secondary school (733 m) Gyanlaxmi store @363m
Bloom Nepal school (1.81 km) Jabish store @332m
Damaitar lower secondary school MKS store @330m
(1.56 km) Manamaya store @208.2m
Ektata pathshala (862 m) Jaleshwor mahadev hardware center
Kantipur engineer college (1.3 @69m
km) Krishna kirana store @550m
KU ,school of education (2km) Nepal bank limited (369 m)
Dev brikchhaya Montessori Scenic housing (1.39km)
(1.9km) Nb colony (275 km )
177
5.4 TOPOGRAPHY

Fig: Figure section at X-X

Fig: Figure section at Y-Y

178
5.5 CLIMATIC CONDITION
In the summer (June, July, August), temperatures have a range from 20-29°C. The summer is
also called the rainy monsoon season, which has an average rainfall of between 20-37 cm. In
the winter (November till February), it can be cold. Temperatures are ranging from 3°C till
15°C. In the spring (March to April) and autumn (October to November) temperatures are
around 14°C till 25°C.

4.6. ROAD HIERARCHY

Fig: Temperature chart Fig: Weather chart

Fig: Road types 179

5.6 BUS STOP
There are two bus stops but since the main road is a busy road the access to local vehicles
is easy.

1. Thaiba Bus Stop

– 1 km from site
2. Satdobato Bus stop
– 4km from site
3. Lagankhel Bus stop
– 4.5km from site

Fig: Transportation means

5.7 ETHNICITY AND SOCIO- CULTURE

Most of the area is surrounded by

3% Ethnicity
Newars.. But due to diversity the 8% 2%
number of churches near the area
are 5 and mosques 2. So, diversity 12% Hindu
in culture still exists around the Buddhist
site.
Christian
75%
Islam
Other

Fig: Pie chart

Since there are more newars

‘Harisiddhi Jatra' is celebrated
every year which falls on the day
of Holi Purnima. This jatra is also
known as "Jalan Pyakha" by local
language.

Fig: Harisiddhi naach

180
 Fig: Harisiddhi temple Fig: Living Baptist house

5.8 OCCUPATION
3%

12%

25%
60%

Agriculture Job holder Business Other

Fig: Pie chart

5.9 ELECTRICITY
All household have been using electricity from NEA.

Fig: Electric poles in the area 181

5.10 HEALTH SERVICES

Jhakri (0.17%) Health post (4.15%)

Hospital (94.02%) Others (1.66%)

Fig: Harisiddhi health post Fig: Pie chart for health facilities

5.11SEWAGE MANAGEMENT

There is no provision of sewage from the government. There houses constructed later uses
septic tank.

5.12 DRAINAGE

The gutter for storm water is also not well maintained.

5.13 Water Supply 5%

2%

93%

Public tap (93%) Tube well (1.49%)

Dhungedhara(0.05%) Others(5.23%)
182
Fig: Pie chart for water supply
5.14 Education
There are 8 secondary schools, 1 primary school, 4 intermediate schools and 3 higher
secondary schools in this area.

1000
900
800
No. of students
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Primary Secondary Higher
secondary
Education type
Fig: Bar diagram
5.15. SWOT ANALYSIS
5.15.1. Physical Aspect
Strength
• Bus stops nearby.
• Black topped road present.
• Basic electricity service present
• Mild climate suitable for residential area
• Complemented by old settlement
Weakness
• No drainage system
• Brick factory nearby causes air pollution and visual pollution
• Size of existing road is narrow
• Lack of public transportation
Opportunity
• Since it is not an urbanized land, so proper urban planning can be done from scratch
• .Ample amount of fertile land so good for landscaping.
• Alternative source of energy can be generated as the site gains good amount of sunlight.
• Further expansion is possible due to ample space.

Threat
• Loss of precious fertile land.
• lack of security
• Can destroy flora and fauna if not kept in check
183
• Poorly managed road
5.15.2. Socio-Cultural and socio-economic aspect

Strength
• Various religious places of different religion are present nearby.
• Agro based industry promotes local economy
• Mixed use residences like in traditional settlement promotes economy, socialization and
safety.

Weakness
• No authenticity of the area with respect to local culture.
• Market area is not in proximity

Opportunity
• Can incorporate neighborhood design that is heterogeneous, harmonious and tolerant
society with people with different background.

Threat
• Possibility of uncontrolled industrialization.
• Agricultural land may be lost

5.15.3. Environmental aspect

Strength
• Fresh and healthy environment
• Enough open spaces and green belt in and around the site.

Weakness
• No proper solid waste and sewage management.
• Pollution caused by nearby brick factory

Opportunity
• A neighborhood with ample open spaces.
• Energy efficient neighborhood can be developed.

Threat
Unplanned neighborhood may lead to reduction in ground water table and lack of open
spaces.
184
6. PROGRAMME FORMULATION
SITE INFORMATION:

• The Total Site Area=502 Ropanis(25.54Ha approx.)

• Setback from main road = m.
• Average household size= 4.6 annual household survey 2015-16 and 6.6(source:
Lalitpur District Factsheet) let’s consider 5
• Number of families to be included= 5000

DENSITY:

• Design density: 250people/ ha

• No. of household:1000
• Total population: 5500
• Land area: 20 ha (393 ropanis)

TARGETED GROUP:

• Tentative land cost around site per anna: Rs. 250000

• Min cost per sq. ft.: Rs. 2500(Reddit Nepal)
• Min plot size: 2.8 annas(THE KATHMANDU POST)
• Min. footage of a building required: 80 sq.m(THE KATHMANDU POST)
ALSO,
• 1 BHK= 80 sq.m
• 2 BHK=80-120 sq.m
• 4BHK=160-200 sq.m (URDPFI)

• Lower class salary: Rs. 8,000- Rs. 10,000 monthly

• Lower-middle-class salary: Rs. 15,000-Rs. 30,000 monthly
• Upper-middle-class salary: Rs. 30,000-Rs. 60,000 monthly
• Rich class salary: Rs. 60,000-Rs. 100,000 monthly
• Affluent class salary: Rs. 100,000 monthly and above

Targeted group Percentage

Lower Class 10
Lower Middle Class 33

Upper Middle Class 30

High Class 15
Affluent Class 12

185
PROGRAMME FORMULATION
Land Distribution:
SPACES AREA FEATURES

Residental 50% apartments , detached , semi-detached ,row

housing,(for mixed group )
Road Networks 25% includes collector road , local roads ,
periphery arterial road, bicycle lane,
pedestrian lane

Open Space 8% parks , agriculture belts, vacant land ,

common parking, space for sports

Recreational & Social 10% pools, gym , library, banquet , cafe, etc.

Institutional 2% schools, colleges ,clinics, pharmacy

Commercial 2% shopping centers, office space, atm lounge,

Others 3% Agriculture, water bodies etc

TOTAL 100%

Land Use Division

2%3%
2%
10%
8%
50%

25%

Residential Road networks Open space

Recreational and social Institutional Commercial
Others

186
PROGRAMME FORMULATION
INFRASTRUCTURES:

INFRASTRUCTURES FEATURES REASONING

Water Supply overhead water tank on the for vegetation

site, well ,underground
water supply

Sewerage

Sewer & Waste Water grey water treatment

Storm Water collection of storm water for sustainability

from the opening inlets
leading to the water
treatment plant through the
gutter system, rain water
harvesting
Solid Waste organic - on site disposal,
inorganic - recycling,
incineration
Electricity & Communication solar panels , underground
system

187
PROGRAMME FORMULATION
Educational institutions:
Type: Daycare and School

Level: Daycare, Nursery and Elementary

Tentative area: 1000sq.m, 1000sq.m, 1200sq.m

Daycare(age:3-5)= 411 pupils(source 2001 census)

Nursery(age:3-5) )= 411 pupils(source 2001 census)
Elementary(age:5-10) )= 599 pupils(source 2001 census)

Area:
Approx 0.2ha per 1000 pupils(sourse:URDPF1 Guidelines, 2014)

Daycare=0.2ha per 1000 pupils(2000 sq.m)

For 300pupil= 600sq.m

Nursery=0.2ha per 1000 pupils(2000 sq.m)

For 300pupil= 600sq.m

Elementary=0.2ha per 1000 pupils(2000 sq.m)

For 700pupil= 1400sq.m

Health facilities:

Type: Dispensary/Clinics, Sub- Health post

Area:
Source: UNRDPF1 GUIDELINES, 2014

Dispensary=0.020ha per 2500 people(200 sq.m)

For 100 people= 8sq.m

Sub-Health post=0.067ha per 3000 people(670 sq.m)

For 500 people= 111.67sq.m

188
PROGRAMME FORMULATION
Open spaces:
parks, agricultural land, playground, activity space, plazas, urban oasis(Source: NBC, 2005)

Residential Play Area= 5000 sq.m for 5000 Housing area park= 3-4 local parks and
people playgrounds

Neighbourhood Play Area= 1.50ha for 15000 Neighbourhood park= 3-4 local parks and
people playground

Social Facilities:
Type: Religious building, community centers/exhibition space, multipurpose hall,
library,

Area:
Community hall: 2500 sq.m(Neuferts) for 5000 people(4.91ropanies)

Multipurpose hall: 12 sq.ft per person(Neuferts)

For 3000 people: 36000 sq.ft(3344.5 sq.m or 6.57 ropanies)

Library: 2.5 sq.m per person(Neuferts)

for 1000 people: 2000 sq.m(3.93ropanies)

Religious building: 0.10ha for 10,000 people(source:NBC 2005, TCPO Draft Indian Standard)
For 500 people: 50 sq.m (0.09ropanies)

189
PROGRAMME FORMULATION

Economics Facilities:

Type: atm lounge, shopping center, cafe, vegetable markets, restaurants, open
bar/small shop
Area:
ATM Lounge:

Shopping Center: 0.20 for 15000 people

For 2000 people: 400 sq.m

Café/ restaurants: 540 sq.m for 1000 people(Neuferts)

Open bar or Bakery or shop with shutter: 1.7 sq.m per person
For 50 people: 85 sq.m

Vegetables market: 132 sq.m

FACILITIES FEATURES CAPACITY TENTATIVE

AREA
Educational Daycare 300 600sq.m
Nursery 300 600sq.m
Elementary 700 1400sq.m

Health Dispensary 100 8sq.m

Facility Sub-health post 500 111.67sq.m

Social Religious building 500 50sq.m

Facilities Multipurpose hall 3000 3344.5sq.m
Community hall 5000 2500sq.m
Library 1000 2000sq.m
Economic Café/Restaurants 1000 540sq.m
Facilities Shopping center 2000 400sq.m
Open bar 50 85 sq.m
Vegetables 132 sq.m
market
ATM Lounge 190
PROGRAMME FORMULATION
Recreational Areas:
swimming pool, playing courts, yoga areas, meditation spaces

Futsal
Swimming Pool

Basketball court

Yoga hall

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PROGRAMME FORMULATION
ROAD AND MOBILITY:
TYPES VEHICLE FOOTPATH TOTAL WIDTH
WAY
Major road 3.5m+3.5m 2m+2m bicycle 20m(2m + 2m
lane and green belt)
2.5m+2.5m
footpath
Minor road 3m+3m 2.5m + 2.5m 13m(1m + 1m
green belt)
Major road with 3.5m+3.5m (3+2)m + (3+2)m 20m(1.5m+1.5
on street m green belt)
parking
Minor road with 3m 3.5m one side 13m(1.5m
one side (3+2)m parking green belt at
parking side one side)
Local 1.9m Included in 1.9m
street(bicycle vehicle way
one lane)
Local 2.5m Included in 2.5m
street(bicycle vehicle way
two lane)

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7. Conclusion

Neighborhood planning is a vast subject and incorporates various ideas, ideologies and thought
process. Any design project is incomplete without justifiable data and reference from live projects,
similar is the case for planning project. Hence, to better understand the project properly literature
studies as well as studies were done, out of which one a national level was planning project and
another was international level planning projects. For national planning project , Pepsicola town
planning was studied and for international planning, Gandhinagar town planning was studied. For
low cost housing we have taken khuda ki basti (kkb) and for the study of sustainable housing we
have taken Vikas basti. After the study, we were able to extract some valuable guidelines that can
help us to better understand and design a well balanced urban built environment. Neighborhood
planning, design and regulation of the uses of space that focus on the physical form, economic
functions, and social impacts of the urban environment and on the location of different activities
within it. Because urban planning draws urban upon engineering, architectural, social, and political
concerns, it is variously a technical profession, an endeavor involving political will and public
participation, and an academic discipline. Urban planning concerns itself with both the
development of open land and revitalization of existing parts of the city, thereby involving goal
setting, data collection and analysis, forecasting, design, strategic thinking, and public consultation.
Hence, this project helped us understand that any settlement acts like a living organism with
origin, growth, decay the overall planning requirements, and understand the considerations to be
taken for neighborhood planning. It familiarized us with the neighborhood-planning concept, basic
infrastructure required for planning and its relation to the present site context as well as future
design planning.

193
8. Bibliography

Literature references and sources

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