Sculpture
Objectives
a. Define sculpture
b. Identify the elements of Sculpture Design
c. Determine the principles of sculpture design
d. Familiarize the famous sculpture in the world
e. Appreciate the importance of sculpture in Culture
Sculpture
The most enduring and, arguably, the greatest form of fine art known to man, sculpture has
played a major role in the evolution of Western culture. Its history and stylistic development
are those of Western art itself. It is a key indicator of the cultural achievements of Classical
Antiquity, and became an important influence on the development of Renaissance art in Italy.
Together with architecture, it was the principal form of monumental religious art which for
centuries (c.400-1800) was the driving force of European civilization. Even today, although
continuously evolving, sculpture is still the leading method of expressing and commemorating
both historical figures and events.
During its history, it has attracted some of the world's greatest artists, including classical
sculptors like Phidias, Myron of Eleutherae, Polyklitos, Skopas, Lysippos, Praxiteles and
Leochares, as well as Donatello (1386-1466), Michelangelo (1475-1654), Giambologna (1529-
1608), the great Bernini (1598-1680), Auguste Rodin (1840-1917), Henry Moore (1898-1986).
Elements of Sculptural Design
The two principal elements of sculpture are mass and space. Mass refers to the sculpture's
bulk, the solid bit contained within its surfaces. Space is the air around the solid sculpture, and
reacts with the latter in several ways: first, it defines the edges of the sculpture; second, it can
be enclosed by part of the sculpture, forming hollows or areas of emptiness; third, it can link
separate parts of the sculpture which thus relate to one another across space.
Works of sculpture can be assessed and differentiated according to their treatment of these
two elements. For instance, some sculptors focus on the solid component(s) of their sculpture,
while others are more concerned with how it relates to the space in which it sits (eg. how it
"moves through" space or how it encloses it
Another important element of (most) sculptures are their surfaces. These can produce quite
different visual effects according to whether they are (eg) convex or concave, flat or modelled,
coloured or uncoloured. For example, convex surfaces express contentment, satiety, internal
pressure and general "fullness", while concave surfaces suggest external pressure, an inner
insubstantiality and possible collapse. Then again, a flat surface carries no suggestion of three-
dimensionality, while a modelled surface - one that contains light/shadow-catching ridges or
hollows - can convey strong effects of 3-D forms emerging from or retreating into darkness,
similar to a painter's use of chiaroscuro. Although most traces of pigment have now
disappeared, a good deal of the sculpture produced in Antiquity (eg. Egyptian, Greek, Roman
statues/reliefs) and Medieval times (eg. gothic cathedral scultures) was covered with paint or
other colouring materials, including gold or silver leaf and other precious colourants.
Alternatively, sculptors carved directly from precious coloured materials, like ivory, jade, and
gold, or combinations thereof. Colour can obviously endow a surface with differing attributes of
(inter alia) texture, proportion, depth and shape. An interesting use of colour by a modern
sculptor can be seen in the Pop-Art work Ale Cans (1964, oil on bronze, Offentliche
Kunstsammlung, Basel) by Jasper Johns (b.1930).
Principles of Sculptural Design
These regulate the approach of sculptors to such matters
as orientation, proportion, scale, articulation and balance.
Orientation
To create a sense of harmony (or disharmony) in the sculpture itself, or between parts of it, or
between the sculpture and the viewer, or between the sculpture and its surroundings, the
sculptor usually works to a particular spatial plan or scheme of reference. Such a plan, often
based on a system of axes and planes, is essential to maintain linear proportion amongst other
things. Thus for instance, the poses of human figures are typically calculated and created with
reference to the four cardinal planes, namely: the the principle of axiality (eg. anatomical
movement), the principle of frontality (predominant in the kouros standing figures of Greek
Archaic sculpture), contrapposto - the dynamic pose in which one part of the body twists or
turns away from another part, exemplified in works by Michelangelo (1475-1564) and
Giambologna (1529-1608) - and the chiastic stance (the pose in which the weight of the body
rests mainly on one leg, a typical characteristic of Greek figurative sculpture of the High
Classical period).
Proportion
How sculptors handle proportionality varies considerably. Some (eg. Egyptian sculptors)
observed hierarchic non-naturalistic canons of proportion (eg. Gods the largest, Pharaohs next
largest, citizens smallest etc). Other sculptors have followed more naturalistic but equally
iconometric rules of proportion. By comparison, many tribal cultures employ systems which -
for religious or cultural reasons - accord greater size to certain parts of the body (eg. the head).
In addition, the specific siting of a sculpture may require a special approach to proportionality.
For example, a human statue mounted on the top of a tall structure may require a larger upper
body to balance the effects of foreshortening when viewed from ground level. (The great
rococo painter Tiepolo was a master at counteracting this effect when creating his ceiling
frescos).
Scale
This refers, for example, to the need to create a sculpture in tune with the scale of its
surroundings. Walk around any major Gothic cathedral and observe the great variety in the
scale of the sculptures which decorate the doorways, facades and other surfaces. In addition,
certain groups of figures, illustrating Biblical scenes, may contain several different scales: the
Virgin Mary and Jesus may be similar in size, while (eg) the Apostles may be smaller.
Articulation
This describes how sculptural figures (and other forms) are jointed:, either how the differing
parts of a body merge in a single form, or how separate sections come together. The realist
French sculptor Auguste Rodin (1840-1917) created impressionist-style continuity in his figures,
in contrast to the earlier Greek classical sculptors (eg. Polyklitus) and Renaissance sculptors
who preferred distinct units of delinated form.
Balance
In freestanding figurative sculpture, balance involves two principal matters. First, the sculptural
body must be physically stable - easy enough to achieve in a crawling or reclining figure, less
easy in a standing statue, especially if leaning forwards or backwards. If naturally unstable, a
base must be used. Second, from a compositional viewpoint, the statue must project a sense of
dynamic or static equilibrium. Without such harmony, beauty is almost impossible to achieve.
Materials
Almost any material capable of being shaped in three dimensions can be used in sculpting. But
some materials like stone - especially hard limestone (marble) - wood, clay, metal (eg. bronze),
ivory and plaster have exceptional "plastic" attributes and have therefore proved most popular
to sculptors from prehistoric times onward. As a result, for most of its history, sculpture has
been created using four basic methods: stone carving, wood carving, bronze casting and clay
firing. A rare type was chryselephantine sculpture, reserved exclusively for major cult statues.
Stone Sculpture
Stone sculpture, probably the earliest form of monumental sculpture as well as the best
medium for monumental works, was common to many eras of the Paleolithic Stone Age.
Prototype works of prehistoric stone sculpture include the basaltic figurine known as The Venus
of Berekhat Ram (c.230,000 BCE or earlier) and quartzite figurine known as The Venus of Tan-
Tan (c.200,000 BCE or earlier). Since then, probably the largest body of stone sculpture was the
series of column statues and reliefs produced for the great European Gothic cathedrals of
Chartres, Notre Dame de Paris, Amiens, Reims, Cologne, among many others, during the period
1150-1300.
Supreme examples of marble sculpture are Venus de Milo (c.130-100 BCE) by Alexandros of
Antioch; Laocoon and His Sons (c.42-20 BCE) by Hagesander, Athenodoros and
Polydorus; Pieta (1497-99) and David by Michelangelo; The Ecstasy of St Teresa (1647) by the
Baroque genius Bernini; Cupid and Psyche (1796-7) by the Neo-classicist Antonio Canova;
and The Kiss (1889) by the French genius Auguste Rodin.
Jade Sculpture
The best-known form of hardstone sculpture, jade carving has been a speciality of Chinese
master craftsmen ever since Neolithic times. Nephrite and Jadeite are the two most common
types of jade stone, although bowenite (a form of serpentine) is also used. The Chinese
attribute important qualities to jade, including purity, beauty, longevity, even immortality, and
sculptors value jade stones for their lustre, translucent colours and shades.
Wood Sculpture
Wood carving is the oldest and most continuous type of sculpture. Especially convenient for
small works, wood carving was widely practised during the Prehistoric age, and later during the
era of Early Christian sculpture - see, for instance, the gilded oak carving known as the Gero
Cross (965-70, Cologne Cathedral) - and had its Golden Age in the West, especially in Germany,
during the era of late Medieval art: witness the exquisite religious limewood carvings of the
German wood-carvers Veit Stoss (1445-1533) and Tilman Riemenschneider (1460-1531). Later,
in the Baroque era, wood was often coated in plaster stucco and painted, in the manner of
ancient Egyptian art. Great modern wood-sculptors include Henry Moore (1898-1986) known
for his elmwood Reclining Figure (1936), and Barbara Hepworth (1903-75).
Bronze Sculpture
Sculpting in bronze is a complicated process which was developed independently in China,
South America and Egypt. Bronze casting requires the modelling of a form in clay, plaster or
wax, which is later removed after the molten bronze has been poured. The lost-wax method
was a common technique during the Renaissance era. It was also a widely used technique
in African sculpture from Benin and Yoruba.
Famous pieces include The Dancing Girl of Mohenjo-Daro (c.2,500 BCE), a masterpiece of
early Indian sculpture from the Harappan Culture or Indus Valley Civilization in India, and the
large hoard of bronze plaques and sculptures (made using piece-mold casting) with jade
decoration found in the Yellow River Basin of Henan Province, Central China, dating from the
Xia Realm and later Shang Dynasty Period (from c.1,750 BCE).
Later bronze masterpieces include the Gates of Paradise, by Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378-
1455), David by Donatello (1386-1466), and by Michelangelo, Rape of the Sabines (c.1583) by
Giambologna, The Burghers of Calais (1884-9) and the Gates of Hell (1880-1917) by Auguste
Rodin, Unique Forms of Continuity in Space (1913) by Umberto Boccioni (1882-1916), Bird in
Space (1923) by the Romanian abstract sculptor Constantin Brancusi (1876-1957), Woman with
her Throat Cut (1932) and Walking Man I (1960) by Alberto Giacometti (1901-66), and The
Destroyed City (1953) by Ossip Zadkine (1890-1967).
Clay Sculpture
Sculpting in clay dates from the Paleolithic era of the Stone Age. Known (when fired)
as terracotta sculpture, it is the most plastic of all sculpting methods, versatile, light,
inexpensive and durable. Although clay mainly used for preliminary models, later cast in bronze
or carved in stone, it has also been used to produce full-scale sculpture. The earliest known clay
sculpture is the Venus of Dolni Vestonice (c.26,000 - 24,000 BCE), a ceramic figurine dating to
the Gravettian Period, discovered in the Czech Republic. Another Paleolithic masterpiece is
the Tuc d'Audoubert Bison of the Magdalenian period (c.13,500 BCE), an unfired relief of two
bison, found in the Tuc d'Audoubert Cave, Ariege, France. A third prehistoric masterpiece is
the Thinker of Cernavoda (c.5,000 BCE), the iconic terracotta figurine created during the
mesolithic Hamangia Culture in Romania.
However, the most famous example of clay sculpture must be the Chinese Qin Dynasty
Terracotta Army (the 'Terracotta Warriors'), a collection of 8,000 clay warriors and horses
unearthed in 1974 in Shaanxi province, China. Dating to 246-208 BCE, each of the 8,000 clay
soldiers is unique, with a different facial expression and hairstyle.
Famous Sculpture the world
1. B U S T O F N E F E R T I T I B Y T H U T M O S E ( 1 3 4 5 B C E )
This painted limestone bust, now in the Neues Museum in Berlin, is a beautiful portrait
of Nefertiti, the Great Royal Wife of the Egyptian pharaoh Akhenaten. Found in the workshop
of an artist named Thutmose, his iconic rendering made Nefertiti a symbol of ideal feminine
beauty for centuries to come.
2. TERRACOTTA WARRIORS (LATE 3RD CENTURY BCE)
The terracotta warriors are a collection of statues in Xi'an, China, depicting the army of Qin Shi
Huang, the first Emperor of China. Counted among the figures are 8,000 soldiers, 130 chariots,
and 670 horses. The figures are an incredible example of funerary art, created to guard to
Emperor in the afterlife. They were only discovered in 1974 when farmers digging a well
happened upon them in a location almost 1 mile from the Emperor's tomb. Portions of the
collection are often part of traveling exhibitions around the world and the mausoleum in Xi'an
has been a World Heritage Site since 1987. The works have inspired everything from 3D
sidewalk art to pizza dough sculptures.
3.LAOCOÖN AND HIS SONS (C. 323 BCE – 31 CE)
Since its 16th century excavation, Laocoön and His Sons has
attracted archaeologists and art lovers alike. This Hellenistic
sculpture depicts three marble figures in an action-packed scene
based on an ancient Greek myth. According to legend, Laocoön was
a priest from Troy who—along with his two sons, Antiphantes and
Thymbraeus—was attacked by sea serpents sent by a god. Although
the original sculptor remains a mystery, the work is lauded for its
technical mastery and emotional impact.
4. VENUS DE MILO (C.130 BCE)
Also located in the Louvre, the Venus de Milo is also known as the Aphrodite of
Milos and is thought to depict Aphrodite, the Greek goddess of love. The marble
sculpture stands 6 feet 8 inches tall and is known for its missing arms. As any limbs
were in peril of breaking off over time, it's not uncommon for ancient sculpture to be
missing their limbs. The world famous sculpture was found on the Greek island of
Milos in 1820 by a peasant, who discovered it fractured into two pieces. The work
has long influenced artists, including Dalí, who created the Venus de Milo with
Drawers in 1936.
5. DAVID BY MICHELANGELO (1501-1504)
Originally commissioned for the roof of Florence's
cathedral, Michelangelo was only 26 years old when he won the job.
One of the most iconic sculptures in history, Michelangelo's
oversized David is calm and collected, with his slingshot slung over
his shoulder, confidently waiting to take on Goliath. Michelangelo's
skill is demonstrated in his attention to detail, from the bulging
veins in David's hand to the mastery of contrapposto in his pose.
6. STATUE OF LIBERTY , DESIGNED BY FRÉDÉRIC AUGUSTE BARTHOLDI AND
BUILT BY GUSTAVE EIFFEL (1876-1886)
This masterpiece by French sculptor Auguste Rodin was originally titled The Poet and was
actually meant to be part of a larger composition called The Gates of Hell. The Thinker was
actually retitled by foundry workers who found similarities with Michelangelo's sculpture Il
Penseroso (The Thinker) and became an independent work of art. The celebrated sculpture has
been cast multiple times, with 28 full figure castings, though many not made during Rodin's
lifetime. The Musée Rodin has the honor of displaying the first full-scale cast of this figure,
often used to represent philosophy.
7. LINCOLN MEMORIAL, DESIGNED BY DANIEL CHESTER FRENCH & CARVED BY
THE PICCIRILLI BROTHERS (1920)
Originally designed to be 10 feet tall, this marble sculpture of the 16th president of the United
States was enlarged to 19 feet from head to foot. It depicts Lincoln in contemplation, sitting
inside the majestic temple structure that forms the rest of the Lincoln Memorial. From the
1930s, the space has gained importance as a symbol of race relations in the United States.
8. BALLOON DOG BY JEFF KOONS (1994-2000)
Love him or hate him, Jeff Koons is responsible for some of the most memorable art
of the 20th century. In 2013, his Balloon Dog (Orange), made of stainless steel with
a transparent coating, set a record for a living artist when it sold at Christie's for
$58.4 million in 2013. Part of a series that transforms a playful child's party favor into
a monumental sculpture, Koons also created other versions in blue, magenta, red,
and yellow.
9. MAMAN BY LOUISE BOURGEOIS (1999, CAST IN 2001)
Standing over 30 feet high, Louise Bourgeois‘ Maman at the Guggenheim in Bilbao is a
masterpiece that marries physical and psychological power. Impressive in its size, the large
spidery sculpture is associated with the artist's own mother, who worked repairing tapestries.
We see the spider, protecting fiercely her sac of 26 marble eggs, provokes fear through her size,
but vulnerability through the stilt-like legs, which could seemingly topple at any moment. The
spider is a recurring theme in Bourgeois' work, first featuring in drawings in 1947 and
continuing throughout her career, including the 1996 sculpture Spider.
10. CLOUD GATE BY ANISH KAPOOR (2004)
When he's not stirring controversy by exclusively licensing the blackest black paint on the
planet, Anish Kapoor is known for his headline-making sculpture. One of his most well-known
pieces, Cloud Gate in Chicago's Millenium Park, was inspired by liquid mercury. Kapoor won the
commission after submitting to a design contest, and though the design was controversial—
many believed the seamless design was impossible to construct and upkeep—it's now become
a beloved part of the city.
Activity
1. What is Sculpture?
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2. What is the importance of Sculpture in Culture?
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3. List atleast three famous sculpture in the Philippines and describe its significance.
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