7

Sculpture

Etymology

- from Latin sculptura "sculpture," from past participle stem of sculpere "to carve,
engrave," back-formation from compounds such as exculpere, from scalpere "to carve,
cut,"

Definition

- Sculpture, an artistic form in which hard or plastic materials are worked into three-
dimensional art objects. The designs may be embodied in freestanding objects, in reliefs
on surfaces, or in environments ranging from tableaux to contexts that envelop the
spectator.

A VERY BRIEF HISTORY OF

SCULPTURE

THE LÖWENMENSCH STATUETTE

An ivory statuette from the Paleolithic period, dating back
to around 35,000 BC, is one of the oldest sculptures ever
discovered. Discovered in a cave in Hohlenstein-Stadel,
Germany in 1939, it was carved out of mammoth tusk.
Called Löwenmensch (German for ‘lion human’), it is about
12” tall, and depicts a human figure with a feline face. It
has been estimated that the carving, using primitive flint
tools, likely took more than 350 hours to complete.
Because tribes of the time lived on the edge of
subsistence, spending such an extended amount of time in
making this statuette suggests it must have been an
extremely important artefact. It may have, perhaps, been
intended for use in a shamanistic ritual, to curry protection
for the tribe, or ensure a ‘good hunt’.
 EGYPTIAN
SCULPTURE
The Great Sphinx in Egypt is
probably one of the world’s most
famous sculptures. In opposite
fashion to the Lowenmensch
statuette, the Sphinx features,
instead, the head of a human on
the body of a lion. Originally
carved out of the limestone
bedrock, the Sphinx measures
65’ high and 240’ long. It has
since been restored using stone
blocks. Some historians believe
the head is that of the pharaoh,
Khafra. Though generally thought
to date back to about 2500 BC,
evidence of water erosion
suggests it might possibly be
much older.

GREEK SCULPTURE
In ancient Greek art, there’s little distinction
between the sacred and the secular. The Greek
gods were thought to have human form, thus, the
human form was considered to be the most
important subject in Greek art. In sculpture, the
early Greeks followed the Egyptian format very
closely, carving very stiff, blocky figures in stone.
During the Early Classical period of the 4th and 5th
centuries BC, and transitioning into the Hellenistic
period, sculptors began to break away from the
rigid, Egyptian influenced model. Sculpture began
to take on a much more realistic, natural look, with
marble or bronze, not stone, the favored medium.
And the subject matter, though depicting a greater
sense of power and energy, became much less
restricted to gods and nobles. For example,
the Kritios Boy, carved in marble, is one of the
earliest surviving examples of Greek sculpture
from this period. Because bronze had ‘scrap’
value, few bronze examples of this period have
survived. Using a technique that involves
ultraviolet light, it has also just recently become
known that most Greek sculpture was, apparently,
typically painted in bright colors.
THE RISE OF CHRISTIANITY
Until 325 AD, the Roman Empire was largely polytheistic. Sculptured works were generally
intended to honour a variety of different Gods or members of nobility. Then, in 325 AD,
Emperor Constantine made Christianity the official religion, and we start to see a shift in the
subject matter of popular sculpture. Giant statues became less common, and portraiture
began to dominate the field of Roman sculpture.

GOTHIC SCULPTURE
The Gothic era expanded on the religious
sculptures of the early medieval period and the
figures on churches became more elaborate.
Prominent Biblical figures were shown in very
high relief sculptures, which were often
situated, free-standing, around the church.

RENAISSANCE SCULPTURES
By the beginning of the 15th century, the Renaissance ushered in an eclectic
study of the humanities, including science, astronomy, and mathematics. Artists
began to revisit the thoughtful and dignified perfection of Classical times. The
invention of the printing press propagated these ideas, and artists began to show
more interest in a scientific approach to reality.

Working Title/Artist: Pieta (Vesperbild) Department: Medieval Art

Culture/Period/Location: HB/TOA Date Code: 07 Working Date: 1400
photography by mma, Digital File DT4948.tif retouched by film and media (jnc)
3_25_10
The Renaissance masters, including Donatello, Michelangelo, Raphael, and
Leonardo da Vinci, were figureheads of the times. Donatello was an Italian
sculptor who worked in Florence in the mid15th century. Leonardo da Vinci was a
student of Donatello. And one of the most famous artists of all time, Michelangelo,
was born in 1475. A genius and true ‘Renaissance Man’, one of Michelangelo’s
first sculptures was ‘Madonna and Child’, completed when he was only 16.

In 1497, he was commissioned to carve

a Pietà. Showing the Virgin Mary grieving over the body
of her deceased son. Completed when he was only 24
years old. This is the only work of art that Michelangelo
ever signed. After it was unveiled, he heard spectators
giving credit to others. So he snuck into the church in
the middle of the night to make one last addition to his
masterpiece. Carved into the ribbon across the Virgin’s
chest, it reads, “Michelangelo Buonarroti, Florentine,
made this.”
THE 19TH AND 20TH CENTURIES
In the 19th and 20th centuries, the art world reflected the rapid-fire changes brought about
by the Industrial Revolution. Instead of focusing on perfect anatomy, details, and
storytelling, artists began to pay more attention to what they perceived ‘below the surface’.
Personal expression and style took on greater importance in creating a truer rendition of
reality.

Auguste Rodin is one of the more famous of the sculptors of the time, and is considered the
father of modern sculpture.

Auguste Rodin is one of the more famous of the sculptors of the time, and is considered the
father of modern sculpture.

MODERNISM
A variety of art movements occurred during the modernist movement of the early 20th
century. Cubism, Dadaism, Surrealism, Pop Art, Minimalism, and Futurism all came about
during this period.

Marcel Duchamp was one artist of the time who challenged the notion of what art really is.
Duchamp was part of the Dada movement, a reaction to WWI that was basically ‘anti-
everything’. Duchamp’s 1917 exhibit, entitled ‘Fountain‘, illustrates perfectly the pessimism,
exasperation, and absurdity of the movement.

Although most famous as a painter, Pablo Picasso did also produce some sculptural pieces.
In fact, his mixed media sculptures were especially influential in the beginning of the 20th
century. These early sculpture creations employed a variety of unlikely objects, including
cardboard, bike seats, plywood, tree branches, etc.
8

Elements of Sculpture

Elements of 3-D Design

Space: distance, area, volume; physical space independent of what occupies it; absolute space.

Line: the edge or outline of a form, the meeting of planes; linear materials include: wire, wood, metal
rod, string or any materials with a long thin shape.

Plane: a flat or level surface –– planar materials include foam core, cardboard, sheet metal, plastic
sheets, and plywood.

Mass/ Volume: closed, independent, three dimensional form –– interpenetrable, completely surrounded
by space –– volumetric materials include blocks of plaster, wood or stone. Sometimes mass refers to a
positive solid and volume refers to a negative, open space surrounded by material, as in a bowl or other
vessel.

Shape: positive and negative: positive shape is the totality of the mass lying between its contours; in
three-dimensional work, the visible shape or outer limit of a form changes as the viewer's position is
changed. These outer limits are seen as shapes moving back and forth between major contours.
Negative space is empty space defined by positive shape. Sometimes referred to as occupied and
unoccupied space.

Value: light and shadows on the surface of forms; quantity of light actually reflected by an object's
surface; value changes might be affected by the addition of color to the surface of a work.

Texture: the surface quality of a form –– rough, smooth, weathered and so on.

Color: in 3D design, the actual color of the material being used.

Principles of Sculpture

Harmony: resolution of forces in opposition. Everything is working in harmony.

Contrast/ Variety: different qualities or characteristics in a form; interest generated in a work by using a
variety of shapes, forms, textures and so on.

Rhythm/ Repetition: rhythm is the result of repetition; three rhythmic devices include:

1) The duplication of the same form

2) Two forms used alternately; and

3) The sequential change of a form (large to small, for example.)

Emphasis: something in the work must dominate. A high point or climax occurring in the work, or the
domination of a motif or design element.

Emphasis: something in the work must dominate. A high point or climax occurring in the work, or the
domination of a motif or design element.

Balance: ordered relationship of parts. whether symmetrical or asymmetrical; equilibrium.

Symmetrical Balance: equal visual units right and left/ top to bottom of an imaginary center point.

Asymmetrical Balance: visual balance achieved by dissimilar visual units; for example, two or three small
shapes on the right balancing one larger shape on the left.

Proportion: elements compared, one to another, in terms of their properties of size, quantity, and
degree of emphasis.
Vocabulary Commonly Used When Describing 3-D Design

Abstract: (verb) to simplify, emphasize or distort qualities of a real-life image.

Assemblage: a work generated from a variety of objects and/or forms originally intended for other
purposes.

Axis: a line, real or imagined, around which the material that composes an object appears to be
organized.

Composition: an ordered relationship among parts or elements of a design.

Contour: the outline of an object

Craftsmanship: aptitude, skill, or quality workmanship in use of tools and materials.

Dominant: refers to elements in a composition; the dominant volume is the largest element in a group,
the most interesting and dramatic in character.

Elegant: with respect to design (or mathematics): ingeniously simple and effective, free of extraneous
detail.

Fabrication: the action or process of manufacturing or constructing something.

Form: The organization or arrangement of all the visual elements which develop a unity in the total
work of art; the totality of a work of art.

Geometric: mechanical, human -made shapes (square, circle, triangle,) with regular edges.

Juxtaposition: placement side by side; relationship of two or more elements in a composition.

Kinetic: construction that contains moving elements set in motion by air, motors or gravity.

Linear: involving or consisting of lines, looking like a line, narrow and elongated.

Malleable, malleability: the capability of being molded, taking shape or being made to receive desired
form.

Maquette: a small, scale model for a work intended to be enlarged.

Organic: free forms representing living things that have irregular edges. Also, biomorphic.

Perforated: pierced with a hole or holes (like Swiss cheese, for example.)

Radial: compositions that have the major images or design parts emanating from a central location.

Relief: sculpture in which forms project from a background, usually mounted on a wall. It is classified
according to the degree to which it is raised from the surface: high relief, forms moving out from the
surface; low relief, forms remaining close to the surface. Scale: the relationship between the size of an
object and the size of its surroundings.

Symbol: something used for or regarded as representing something else, as in signs, emblems or tokens.

Tactile: perceptible to touch; that which is tangible.

Three-dimensional: having height, width, and depth; a thing existing in space

Void: a hollow, concavity, or unoccupied space within a solid object or mass.

9

Music

The word music omes from the Greek word “musike, "a pleasing succession of sounds or
combinations of sounds; the science of combining sounds in rhythmic, melodic, and (later)
harmonic order," from Old French musique (12c.) and directly from Latin musica "the art of
music," also including poetry (also source of Spanish musica, Italian musica, Old High
German mosica, German Musik, Dutch muziek, Danish musik), from Greek mousikē
(technē) "(art) of the Muses," from fem. of mousikos "pertaining to the Muses; musical;
educated," from Mousa "Muse" (see muse). Modern spelling from 1630s. In classical Greece,
any art in which the Muses presided, but especially music and lyric poetry.

Music is a collection of coordinated sound or sounds. Making music is the

process of putting sounds and tones in an order, often combining them to create
a unified composition. People who make music creatively organize sounds for a
desired result, like a Beethoven symphony or one of Duke Ellington's jazz songs.
Music is made of sounds, vibrations, and silent moments, and it doesn't always
have to be pleasant or pretty. It can be used to convey a whole range of
experiences, environments, and emotions.

Properties of Music

Frequency refers to how often something happens -- or in our case, the number of periodic,
compression-rarefaction cycles that occur each second as a sound wave moves through a medium --
and is measured in Hertz (Hz) or cycles/second. The term pitch is used to describe our perception of
frequencies within the range of human hearing.

Amplitude/Loudness refer to how loud or soft the sound is.

Duration refers to how long a sound lasts.

Timbre ( pronounced TAM-burr) refers to the characteristic sound or tone color of an instrument. A
violin has a different timbre than a piano.

Elements of Music

Rhythm

Rhythm is what makes music move and flow. Rhythm is made up of sounds and silences.
These sounds and silences are put together to form patterns of sound, which are repeated to
create rhythm. A rhythm has a steady beat, but it may also have many different kinds of beats.

Melody

A melody, also tune, voice or line, is a linear succession of musical tones that the listener perceives
as a single entity. In its most literal sense, a melody is a combination of pitch and rhythm, while more
figuratively, the term can include successions of other musical elements such as tonal color.

Harmony

Harmony is when you have multiple pitches being played at the same time. ... When we talk
about harmony, we're generally talking about chords, which occur any time you have three or
more notes played at the same time.

Dynamics

Dynamics refers to the volume of a sound or note. The term is also applied to the written or
printed musical notation used to indicate dynamics. Forte means loud and piano means soft.

Style
Style refers to characteristic features of how music (of a certain era, or within some particular
genre) is played or expected to sound, i.e. its actual musical content - the set of
expected musical patterns, mannerisms, expressive devices it conventionally makes use of.

10

Different Mediums of Music

I. Vocal Medium – refers to human voice

Vocal Classes

a. Soprano - is a type of classical female singing voice and has the highest vocal range of all voice
types.
b. Mezzo Soprano - The mezzo-soprano voice is the middle-range voice type for female
c. Alto - the lowest singing part written for a female voice.
d. Tenor – the highest singing voice for male
e. Baritone – the middle-range voice for male
f. Bass – the lowest part written for a male voice

Solo – Singing without accompaniment

Duet – a group of two singers or a composition of two voices

Choir/chorus – a body of singers who perform together.

II. Instrument Medium – with use of musical instruments

1. Strings - is a musical instrument that produces sound by means of vibrating strings. In
the Hornbostel-Sachs scheme of musical instrument classification, used in organology, they
are called chordophones. The most common string instruments in the string family
are guitar, electric bass, violin, viola, cello, double bass, banjo, mandolin, ukulele, and harp.

2. Brass - A brass instrument is a musical instrument that produces sound by sympathetic

vibration of air in a tubular resonator in sympathy with the vibration of the player's lips. Brass
instruments are also called labrosones, literally meaning "lip-vibrated instruments"
3. Woodwinds – Woodwind instruments are a family of musical instruments within the more
general category of wind instruments. Common examples include flute, clarinet, oboe,
saxophone, and bassoon. There are two main types of woodwind instruments: flutes and
reed instruments.

4. Percussion - A percussion instrument is a musical instrument that is sounded by being

struck or scraped by a beater including attached or enclosed beaters or rattles struck,
scraped or rubbed by hand or struck against another similar instrument. The percussion
family is believed to include the oldest musical instruments, following the human voice.

Kinds of Music
 A music genre is a conventional category that identifies some pieces of music as
belonging to a shared tradition or set of conventions. Music can be divided into different
genres in many different ways. The artistic nature of music means that these
classifications are often subjective and controversial, and some genres may overlap.

Electronic Dance Music:

Generally referred as EDM, this form of music is produced by DJs who add dozens of tones to a

piece to create unique music. You can hear them in clubs or even live, depending upon your

accessibility for the same. In the early twenties, electronic dance music was known in the form

of Jamaican dub music, the electronic music of Kraftwerk, the disco music of Giorgio Moroder,

the Yellow Magic Orchestra and many more.

Rock Music:

Originated as “Rock & Roll” in the United States, Rock music has been rocking the world since

the 1950s. It is a form of music that started actually around string instruments, but now uses

other modern instruments too making it a little difficult to give it an accurate definition. Its loud

and strong beats make it popular among the youths. Some of the rock stars who have

popularized the culture include Little Richard, Bill Haley and Chuck Berry while rock bands like

Pink Floyd, The Doors, Metallica, Nirvana and Megadeth are the modern bands who have taken

the culture by storm.

Jazz:

Identified with swing and blue notes, Jazz has its roots both in the West African and European

culture. It is said that Jazz is “One of America’s original art forms” and boasts a unique

combination of creativity, coactions and interactivity. Originating in the late 19th to early 20th

century, Jazz has also played an important role in introducing the world to a number of women

performers like Ella Fitzgerald, Betty Carter, Abbey Lincoln and Ethel Waters.

Dubstep:

The use of instruments attracting music lovers for its bass and rhythm, this falls in the electronic

music genre. People consider it to be a darker form of music, but since its birth in the late 1990s,

this genre has successfully made its place in the industry.

Rhythm and Blues:

Vocalists like Rihanna, Mariah Carey, Beyoncé, Usher and the legendary Michael Jackson have all

made it huge in the music industry with their love for this form of music. Originated in the 1940s,

this African-American music is a combination of hip hop, funk, dance, pop and soul focusing on

themes like relationships, sex and freedom.

Techno:

You may have listened to a number of techno music while clubbing, but it is Detroit techno that

is considered to be the foundation of this form of music. Unlike the days of its emergence, the

use of technology today has greatly enhanced the quality of techno style music and popularizing

it among people day by day.

Country Music:

Another popular genre of American music which originated in the 1920s, Country music has its

roots from American folk and western music. It is formed using simple forms of instruments

ranging from electric and steel guitars to drums and mandolin or mouth organ. Some very

popular country music singers include Shania Twain, Johnny Cash Taylor Swift and Kenny Rogers.

Electro:

A perfect blend of hip hop and electronic music, electro or electro-funk uses drum machine,

vocoder and talkbox helping it to distinguish itself from another similar form of music, Disco.

Notable artists who have been into this form of music include Arthur Baker, Freeez, Man Parrish

and Midnight Star.

Indie Rock:

Falling in the genre of alternative rock music, Indie Rock originated in the 1980s and has

gradually changed the music industry. After a decade, it also gave birth to a couple of sun-genres

in related styles such as math rock, emo, noise pop, post rock and lo-fi.

Pop Music:

“Pop” is a term derived from “Popular” and thus Pop Music is known to be a genre of popular

music. With its roots in the rock & roll style, this form can include any form of music ranging

from urban and dance to rock, country and Latin. Instruments highly used are electric guitars,

synthesizer drums as well as bass and one can listen to this form of music by listening to songs
by Britney Spears, Madonna, Beyonce Lady Gaga and of course the “King of Pop”, Michael

Jackson.

11
Dance
The word “Dance” comes from an old German word, “Danson”, which means “to
stretch”.
- to move one's feet or body, or both, rhythmically in a pattern of steps, especially
to the accompaniment of music.

History of Dance

From the earliest moments of known human history, dance accompanied ancient rituals,
spiritual gatherings and social events. As a conduit of trance, spiritual force, pleasure,
expression, performance and interaction, dance became infused into our nature from
the earliest moments of our existence - from the moment when first African tribes
covered themselves in war-paint to the to the spreading of music and dance across all
four corners of the world. Without a doubt, dancing remains one of the most expressive
forms of communications that we know.

The oldest proof of existence of dancing comes from the 9000 year old cave paintings
that were found in India, which depicts various scenes of hunting, childbirth, religious
rites, burials and most importantly, communal drinking and dancing. Since dancing itself
cannot leave clearly identifiable archaeological artefacts that can be found today,
scientist looked for secondary clues, written word, stone carvings, paintings and similar
artefacts. Period when dancing became widespread can be traced to the third millennia
BC, when Egyptians started using dance as integral parts of their religious ceremonies.
Judging by the many tomb paintings that survived the tooth of time, Egyptian priests
used musical instruments and dancers to mimic important events - stories of gods and
cosmic patterns of moving stars and sun.

This tradition continued in ancient Greece, where dance was used very regular and
openly to public (which eventually brought the birth of the famous Greek theatre in 6th
century BC). Ancient paintings from 1st millennia clearly speak of many dance rituals in
Greek culture, most notably the one before start of each Olympian Games, precursor to
the modern Olympic Games. As centuries went on, many other religions infused dance
in the core of their rituals, such as Hindu dance "Bharata Nhatyam" which is preformed
even today.

Of course, not all dances in those ancient times were intended for religious purposes.
Ordinary people used dance for celebration, entertainment, seduction and to induce the
mood of frenzied exhilaration. Annual celebration in honour of Greek god of wine
Dionysus (and later Roman god Bacchus) included dancing and drinking for several
days. 1400BC year old Egyptian painting showed the group of scantily dressed girls
who danced for the wealthy male crowd, supported by the several musicians. This kind
of entertainment continued to be refined, until medieval times and the start of the
Renaissance when ballet became integral part of the wealthy class.

European dances before the start of Renaissance were not widely documented, any
only few isolated fragments of their existence remain found today. The most basic
"chain shaped" dance practiced by commoners was most widespread across Europe,
but the arrival of Renaissance and new forms of music brought many other styles in
fashion. Renaissance dances from Spain, France and Italy were soon surpassed by
Baroque dances which became widely popular in French and English courts. After the
end of French Revolution, many new types of dances emerged with focused on less
restrictive woman clothing, and tendency for skipping and jumping. These dances soon
became even more energetic in 1844 with the beginning of so called
"international polka craze" which also brought us the first appearance of famous waltz.

After the short period of time when great ballroom masters created wave of complicated
dances, the era of modern day 2 person dance started with the careers of famous
ballroom dances Vernon and Irene Castle. After those early years of 20th century many
modern dances were invented (Foxtrot, One-Step, Tango, Charleston, Swing,
Postmodern, Hip-hop, breakdancing and more) and the expansion of musical brought
those dances into worldwide popularity.

Elements of Dance

Choreography – creation of steps with music and movement with a rhythm of music

Costumes – the style of dress that a dancer wears. It depends upon the color

Dancer – a person who perform synchronize movement

Decoration – it pertains to props, design and accessories

Movement – the action of the dancer as they move to create various and to
communicate with audience.

Music – the mood and plan based on the music

Technique – control of the muscles over the body

Theme – it is actually the main content of the dance. It tells us what the dance is trying
to convey
12

Different Kinds of Dances

1. Ballet

Tutus, pointe shoes and men in tights are what come to mind when someone mentions
ballet. Yet Ballet is so much more than that. Said to be the most difficult genre to
master, ballet is a rigorous style of dance that is the foundation of most forms of dance
training. It is usually set, but not limited to, orchestrated music and is often the first
dance style a child will experience as they begin their dance classes. Ballet shoes are
usually worn until the dancer's feet have developed enough strength to progress
into pointe shoes, often happens around the age of 12 and only after the students have
been given permission by their teacher. Ballet is an excellent teaching tool for all
dancers as it is a complex mixture of technique, coordination and musicality.

2. Tap

Tap is best described as "musical feet". Tap is a form of dance where dancers use their
feet as percussive instruments. Tap shoes are that are specially designed with
percussive metal plates on the toe and heel, called taps. There are many different styles
of tap dancing however the two most noted are Rhythm Tap and Broadway Tap.
Rhythm Tap is more musically driven, where Broadway Tap is more dance and
movement-oriented. Tap is great for fostering rhythm in dancers, as it turns their feet
into a musical instrument.

3. Jazz

Jazz is the most popular style of dance among dancers. Jazz combines all dance
styles in a high energetic dance that is without conventional boundaries. It has been
influenced by ballet, modern, tap, hip-hop, African dance and many more styles. Jazz is
most often accompanied by upbeat, currently popular songs. Jazz shoes typically have
a leather split sole which offers the dancers foot more freedom to bend and move. Due
to the upbeat music, dramatic themes and cool choreography, it isn’t hard to see why
this is the most popular dance style!
4. Modern

Modern was said to be first created as a rebellion against classical ballet. A raw style of
dance, modern dance is an expression on the dancers' relationship to the floor,
including methods of contractions, release and movement, as well as the dancer's of
breath. Modern dancers have a variety of shoes to choose from that allow freedom in
the foot while providing protection from the floor. Though its roots are in opposition to
the seemingly oppressive rigour for classical ballet, modern and ballet are closely linked
in the complexity of technique, coordination and musicality.

5. Lyrical

Though the basis of lyrical dance is ballet merged with jazz and modern. It is dynamic
while simultaneously subtle, and focuses on conveying feelings and emotions through
movement. Set to popular songs that emphasize deeper feeling and emotion, such as
grief, longing, love and despair. Lyrical shoes provide protection for the dancer while
allowing them to feel the dance floor as much as possible. Though proper dance
techniques are important, the true heart of lyrical is found in its expressive nature.

6. Hip Hop

Hip Hop is an edgy, raw and intense urban dance style also known as Street Dance.
The origin of popping, locking and crumping, Hip Hop is mostly danced to rap, urban
and not surprisingly, hip hop music. Funky, high-top dance sneakers are normally worn
by dancers. What sets Hip Hop apart from most dance genres is that its original street
dance was freestyle in nature and did not follow a predefined choreography. A style of
dance that is open to personal expression, Hip hop artists were free to interpret the
dance in any way they could, and this lead to many innovative and exciting dance
styles.

7. Contemporary

Contemporary dance embodies ballet, modern, jazz and lyrical. It uses a technique
such as ballet as its fundamentals and creates many more movements that do not
adhere to the strict rules of ballet and modern. There are different categories of
contemporary dance such as Contemporary Ballet and Contemporary Jazz.
Contemporary dance can be danced to all types of music and in non-traditional
costumes. Contemporary dancers often wear lyrical dance shoes, and sometimes no
shoes at all.

8. Highland Dancing

Highland dance was developed in the Gaelic Highlands of Scotland and should not be
confused with Scottish Country Dancing. Highland dancing requires a lot of stamina, as
well as arm and leg strength. Many people confuse Scottish highland dance with Irish
dance but, Highland dancing is from Scotland and is traditional, whereas, Irish dance is
from Ireland and is progressive. Shoes traditionally worn for both these types of dance
are Ghillies and are very similar but slightly different.

9. Line Dancing

Line Dancing is a social dance that is made up of a sequence of repeated steps and is
traditionally associated with country-western music. It is a solo dance that is danced in a
straight line, a circle or in a “follow the leader” pattern. Footwear is decided by the
dancer and is if often cowboy boots for the men and heels for the women. Many women
choose to wear a Cuban heel shoe as it offers great support and is the perfect heel
height for any age!

10. Irish Dancing

Irish dancing originated from Ireland and can be divided into performance and social
dances. Made famous by Riverdance, it is best recognized by stationary arms combined
with rapid leg and foot movements. Irish soft shoes and hard shoes are worn depending
on the style of Irish dance. Irish dancers are also known for their intricately detailed
dance costumes.

11. Social Dance

Social dance is dance which is recreational and usually performed with a partner and
in groups or as a community activity for fun and enjoyment. Sometimes it does not
require a partner but simply a number of people in a group.

12. Ethnic Dance

A folk dance is a dance developed by people that reflect the life of the people of a
certain country or region. Not all ethnic dances are folk dances. For example, ritual
dances or dances of ritual origin are not considered to be folk dances.
13

Photography

The word “photography” comes from the Greek (phos) “loght” + (graphis) “stylus”,
“paintbrush” or (graphê) “representation by means of lines” or “drawing”, together
meaning “drawing with light”. Traditionally, the products of photography have been
called negative and photographs, commonly shortened to photos.

- It is the art or process of producing images through the use of a light sensitive
chemical or film.

History of Photography

The First Cameras

The basic concept of photography has been around since about the 5th century B.C.E. It
wasn't until an Iraqi scientist developed something called the camera obscura in the 11th
century that the art was born.

Even then, the camera did not actually record image, it simply projected them onto
another surface. The images were also upside down, though they could be traced to
create accurate drawings of real objects such as buildings.

The first camera obscura used a pinhole in a tent to project an image from outside the
tent into the darkened area. It was not until the 17th century that the camera obscura
became small enough to be portable. Basic lenses to focus the light were also introduced
around this time.

The First Permanent Images

Photography, as we know it today, began in the late 1830s in France. Joseph Nicéphore
Niépce used a portable camera obscura to expose a pewter plate coated with bitumen to
light. This is the first recorded image that did not fade quickly.

Niépce's success led to a number of other experiments and photography progressed very
rapidly. Daguerreotypes, emulsion plates, and wet plates were developed almost
simultaneously in the mid- to late-1800s.

With each type of emulsion, photographers experimented with different chemicals and
techniques. The following are the three that were instrumental in the development of
modern photography.

Daguerreotype

Niépce's experiment led to a collaboration with Louis Daguerre. The result was the
creation of the daguerreotype, a forerunner of modern film.
 A copper plate was coated with silver and exposed to iodine vapor before it was
exposed to light.
 To create the image on the plate, the early daguerreotypes had to be exposed to light
for up to 15 minutes.
 The daguerreotype was very popular until it was replaced in the late 1850s by emulsion
plates.

Emulsion Plates

Emulsion plates, or wet plates, were less expensive than daguerreotypes and required
only two or three seconds of exposure time. This made them much more suited to portrait
photographs, which was the most common use of photography at the time. Many
photographs from the Civil War were produced on wet plates.

These wet plates used an emulsion process called the Collodion process, rather than a
simple coating on the image plate. It was during this time that bellows were added to
cameras to help with focusing.

Two common types of emulsion plates were the ambrotype and the tintype. Ambrotypes
used a glass plate instead of the copper plate of the daguerreotypes. Tintypes used a tin
plate. While these plates were much more sensitive to light, they had to be developed
quickly. Photographers needed to have chemistry on hand and many traveled in wagons
that doubled as a darkroom.

Dry Plates

In the 1870s, photography took another huge leap forward. Richard Maddox improved on
a previous invention to make dry gelatine plates that were nearly equal to wet plates in
speed and quality.

These dry plates could be stored rather than made as needed. This allowed
photographers much more freedom in taking photographs. The process also allowed for
smaller cameras that could be hand-held. As exposure times decreased, the first camera
with a mechanical shutter was developed.

Modes of Production

Amateurism

An amateur photographer is one who practices photography as a hobby and not for profit.
The quality of some amateur work is comparable or superior to that of many professionals
and may be highly specialized or eclectic in its choice of subjects. Amateur photography
is often pre-eminent in photographic subjects which have little prospect of commercial
use or reward.

Commerce

Commerce photography is probably best defined as any photography for which the
photographer is paid for images rather than works of art. In this light money could be
paid for the subject of the photograph or the photograph itself. The commerce
photographic world could include:

a. Advertising photography – photographs made to illustrate and usually sell a

service or product.
b. Fashion and glamour photography – this type of photography usully incorporates
models.
c. Crime Scene Photography – this type of photography consist of photographing
scenes of crime such as robberies and murders.
d. Still life photography – it depicts inanimate subject matter, typically commonplace
objects which may be either natural or man-made
e. Food photography – it can be used for editorial, packaging or advertising use.
Food photography is similar to still life photography, but requires some special
skills.
f. Editorial photography – photographs made to illustrate a story or idea within the
context of a magazine.
g. Photojournalism – this can be considered a subset of editorial photography.
Photographs made in this context are accepted as a documentation of a news
story.

14
Steps in Photography
It is quite interesting to learn photography and take shots befitting a professional.
Here are 10 simple steps which will guide you through the basics of professional
photography.

Step 1: Know Your Camera

It is time to read that lengthy camera manual and know precisely the things your
camera is capable of.

Step 2: Composition

Spotting something with your eyes and capturing it on the camera are two
different things. You need to frame your shot with the viewfinder or screen so that
you know exactly what you want to include and exclude.

Step 3: Light

The most important aspect which can make a dramatic difference to your shot is
light. Lighting aspects in indoor photography can be controlled to the full extent
and is excellent for portrait photos. Outside you need to consider the angle of sun
rays, the cloudiness of the sky and time of day. Soft lighting is excellent for most
shots.

Step 4: Shadow

This too has to do much with the previous point but here you need to notice
where the shadows are falling and whether they are too dark and hiding facial or
other objects in the frame.

Step 5: Color

The color composition in your frame also needs to be considered. You need to
avoid too many garish colors, and there should be a balance of various tones.

Step 6: Background

If you trying to take the shot of a subject against a background, make sure it is
not too cluttered and the subject should be easily spotted against it.
Step 7: Focus

Focusing on a subject can make areas away from the subject go out of focus and
a bit blurry. To get a uniformly sharp image, learn to set the depth of field so that
all objects are sharp.

Step 8: Extra Equipment

Always carry a tripod, as it is an excellent piece of equipment which will get you
very good shots whether it is of nature or portraits.

Step 9: Multiple Shots

To catch that perfect moment or that fleeting emotion on a face, it is always

better to fire off multiple shots. Now you are dealing with digital photography and
hence you are not losing any money on film.

Step 10: Learn to Handle a Photo Editing Software

 15
Cinema
Derived from the Greek word “kineo” (to stir literally or figuratively; to stir
(transitively), literally or figuratively)
- It is an act of presentation in lights made picture possible to appear in a two
dimensional surface

History of Cinema

It was the time of Shakespeare when drama became modern of play. The play
came from Shakespeare story. It was Thomas Edison who made cinema possible
through his invention called optic lights which gives rise to motion pictures.

Elements of Cinema

Music

Characters