FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 3

Forensic Photography
Third Edition

Philippine Copyright, 2020

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ISBN: 978-971-9647-40-9
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 4

DEDICATION

I heartily dedicate this book to my family

who are the source of my strength and inspiration.
Their words of encouragement motivated me to pursue this book.
They have supported me all throughout the process
with profound understanding, and they are always beside me
every time I need their love and understanding.
PLTCOL MA. Elizabeth C. BulaN, DPA

I lovingly dedicate this book to my Lola and Lolo,

Nanay Tessie, Tatay Rene, Auntie Sally and brother Nonong
who are all up there watching over me.
To my loving big brother Vincent who is my inspiration,
and his honey Rollyn Parilla,
my mentor Dean ALEXANDER G. GANIBI,
to my one and only Melody of my life,
to my buddies Pareng Al and Ma’am Jag,
my BOSS and IDOL, PLTCOL MA. ELIZABETH C. BULAN, DPA,
and to all my students, who always believe in me.
PROFESSOR Ma. Elena P. Magadia
 Table of Contents

DEDICATION................................................................................. 4

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION............................................................................ 8
What is Photography?..................................................................... 8
What is Police Photography?........................................................... 8
Significance of Photography in
Police Work and Law Enforcement......................................... 10
The PNP Forensic Photography Division........................................ 11
Review Questions.......................................................................... 13

CHAPTER 2
HISTORY OF FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY.................................. 15
Pre-Photographic History.............................................................. 16
Advances in Photographic Technology........................................... 18
Beginnings of Forensic Imaging..................................................... 20
Forensic Imaging in the Twentieth Century................................... 21
Review Questions.......................................................................... 24

CHAPTER 3
LIGHT AND THE CAMERA.......................................................... 26
Light............................................................................................. 26
Two Main Sources of Light............................................................ 28
Sources of Artificial Light.............................................................. 29
The Camera.................................................................................. 31
Camera Types............................................................................... 32
Essential Components of a Camera............................................... 33
Essential Parts of a Camera.......................................................... 33
Camera Lenses............................................................................. 37
Standard Camera Lenses.............................................................. 37
Special Camera Lenses and Zooms............................................... 38
Classification of Lenses................................................................. 39
Inherent Defects and Aberrations of Lenses.................................. 40
Types of Lens According to Their Degree of Correction................... 40
Camera Accessories...................................................................... 41
Basic Crime Scene and Evidence Photography Kit......................... 43
Proper Handling of the Camera..................................................... 45
How to Hold a Camera.................................................................. 45
Care and Handling of the Camera and Film.................................. 45
Review Questions.......................................................................... 47
CHAPTER 4
FILM VS. DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY............................................ 49
Film Photography......................................................................... 49
Loading and Unloading the Film................................................... 50
Choosing Film Types..................................................................... 53
Chemical Processing..................................................................... 55
Equipment for Film Processing..................................................... 58
Digital Photography...................................................................... 59
Advantages and Disadvantages of Digital Photography.................. 61
Digital Photography in Police Work............................................... 63
Review Questions.......................................................................... 64

CHAPTER 5
ESSENTIALS OF PHOTOGRAPHY............................................... 66
Exposure...................................................................................... 66
Exposure Controls........................................................................ 67
Available Light Photography.......................................................... 67
Exposure Using Flash (Artificial Light).......................................... 68
Focus........................................................................................... 69
Depth of Field............................................................................... 70
Taking Better Photos: General Photography Tips........................... 71
Top Ten Tips for Better Photos...................................................... 72
Tips for Optimizing the Quality of Crime Scene Photographs......... 76
Review Questions.......................................................................... 78

CHAPTER 6
DOCUMENTATION OF THE CRIME SCENE................................ 80
Photographing the Crime Scene.................................................... 81
Ranges of Photographs................................................................. 81
Methods of Photographing the Crime Scene.................................. 83
Sequential Photographs of the Crime Scene.................................. 83
Standard Operating Procedures in
Photographing the Crime Scene............................................... 84
Issuance/ Release of Photographic Evidence................................. 85
Note Taking.................................................................................. 85
Essential Items of Information to Be Included
During Note Taking................................................................. 85
Crime Scene Sketching................................................................. 87
Information to be Included in the Sketch...................................... 94
Types of Sketches......................................................................... 94
Methods of Sketching................................................................... 95
General Rules of Sketching........................................................... 96
Review Questions.......................................................................... 98
CHAPTER 7
PHOTOGRAPHING THE CRIME SCENE.................................... 100
Photographing Evidence.............................................................. 101
Photographing Bodies and Wounds............................................. 105
Accident Photography................................................................. 107
Mug-Shot Photography............................................................... 108
Review Questions........................................................................ 110

CHAPTER 8
ULTRAVIOLET AND INFRARED PHOTOGRAPHY..................... 112
Ultraviolet Photography.............................................................. 113
Infrared Photography.................................................................. 114
Macrophotography...................................................................... 116
Microphotography....................................................................... 116
Review Questions........................................................................ 117

CHAPTER 9
Application of Photography to Law Enforcement.......................... 119
Uses of Photographs................................................................... 120
Legal Implications of Photographic Evidence............................... 120
Categorizing Photographic Evidence............................................ 121
Preservation of Fingerprints Through Photographs...................... 122
Markings in the Field of View...................................................... 122
Basic Requirement for the Admissibility
of Photographs as Evidence in Court..................................... 123
Review Questions........................................................................ 125

ANNEXES
A.M. NO. 01-7-01-SC - RE: Rules on Electronic Evidence ........... 127
Primer on the Anti-Photo and Video Voyeurism
Act of 2009 (RA 9995)........................................................... 137
Primer on Cybercrime................................................................. 140
1997 Resolutions & Legislative Committee - Resolution 97-9...... 142

GLOSSARY................................................................................. 143

BIBLIOGRAPHY......................................................................... 149
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 8

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:
• Define photography, police photography and forensic
photography;
• Describe the police photographer;
• Explain the significance of photography in law
enforcement and police work; and
• Enumerate the duties and functions of a forensic
photographer.

What is Photography?
The word photography is derived from the Greek words “photos”
(light) and “graphos” (writing). The term, therefore, means “writing with
light” (Lynch-Johnt & Perkins, 2008).
Photography involves the creation of an image using light. It is
the art or process of producing images of objects by action of light on
a sensitized surface with the aid of an image-forming device known as
a camera and the chemical process involved therein.

What is Police Photography?

Police photography refers to the use of a camera and video for
law enforcement purposes such as documenting physical evidence and
crime scenes, or recording interrogations, traffic stops, surveillance,
public thoroughfares, traffic accidents and still images of arrested
individuals (Miller, 2007). In short, it is the art or science that deals
with the study of principles of photography and its application to police
work.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 9

A police photographer needs knowledge and skill of how a camera

records visual and audio components. He must also know how to
record images at invisible ultraviolet (UV) and infrared (IR) wavelengths.
Further, he must be familiar with certain techniques such as close-up
photography (or macrophotography), the effective use of flash, and the
specialized use of cameras in conditions with limited ambient lighting
(night-time photography).
Police photography mostly involves the documentation of crime
scenes and injuries. Hence, it is also sometimes referred as crime
scene photography or forensic photography. Forensic photography
more specifically involves the process of recording the crime scene or
any object for court presentation.
Forensic photography refers to the recording of objects and scenes
to be used for and within the legal process. These records result in
forensic photographs that can be used for documentation, analysis,
intelligence or court presentations. These photographs have the
potential to provide information that can be used as evidence (Spring,
2007).
Any photograph may be considered “forensic” if it adds information
required by the court and can be admitted as evidence. For example,
the investigation on the terrorist attacks in the USA on September 11,
2001 involved the use photos taken not only by forensic photographers.
Newspaper reporters, television camera crews, street photographers
and others caught up in the disaster also contributed photographs
that served as evidence.
Forensic photographers, however, have specific technical
knowledge not only in photography but also in forensic science and
laws pertaining to the use of photographs as evidence. For example,
they understand how images can be used to determine measurements
of distance, dimension or location. Simply taking photographs of an
object at a crime scene is not enough for a thorough analysis. Forensic
photographers should document the scene from several locations and
orientations using scales and measurements to cover as much relevant
detail and establish as much objectivity as possible. Zoom lenses
are not recommended since their focal length cannot be determined,
thereby confusing measurements and comparisons of objects in
space. Forensic photographers may be able to disclose forensic detail
that is normally invisible through the use of ultraviolet or infrared
wavelengths. Further, they can provide photographs to be used in
court to demonstrate such forensic data. These photographs must
demonstrate a fair and accurate representation of the scene, object,
situation or event relative to the crime (Spring, 2007).
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 10

Forensic photography is an integral part of forensic science and

criminalistics.1 Forensic photographers should document every aspect
of creating the photographs, including details of equipment/materials,
processing and printing information as well as noting time, conditions,
distances, scales of size, and the like. They should be guided by strict
procedures and protocols. In her discussion of forensic photography in
the Focal Encyclopedia of Photography, Gale Spring (2007) enumerates
the following questions that forensic scientists must consider in
defining forensic photographs (Spring, 2007):
• Do they tell a complete story?

• Are they an unbiased and objective approach to the

subject or scene?

• Are they of sufficient quality to be analyzed?

• Have all technical data been recorded?

• Can the photographer explain in court how the

photographs were taken and offer assistance in their
interpretation?

• Are post-production methods clearly outlined?

Significance of Photography in Police Work and Law Enforcement

People take photographs for all sorts of reasons. The photos serve
a social function: as reminders of vacations and loved ones by freezing
moments in their own history for recall in years to come.
In law enforcement work, photography serves four primary
functions:
1. As a means of identification

2. As a method of discovering, recording, and preserving

evidence

3. As a way to present in the court room an impression of

the pertinent elements of a crime

4. As a training and public relations medium for police

programs

1 Forensic science is defined as the application of scientific facts to legal problems;

criminalistics is the scientific recognition, identification, preservation, and inter-
pretation of physical evidence (Brenner, 2004).
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 11

One of the most critical of these functions is presenting

photographs in court that can aid in the determination of the truth
respecting a matter of fact. Evidence that cannot be brought inside
the courtroom can be presented by means of photographs. In cases of
disputes in vehicular accidents for example, vehicles are too bulky to
be brought inside the court. Instead, photographs of the vehicle can be
presented in order to demonstrate the extent of damages sustained by
the victim. It is crucial, however, that the photographs to be admitted
as evidence in court are faithful representations of the original. Faithful
representation means the same likeness and accurateness as seen by
the naked eye.
Below are further uses of photography in police work.
1. It serves as evidence.
2. It preserves all pieces of evidence.
3. It refreshes the mind of the investigator.
4. It records the illegal activities and identities of criminals.
5. It is useful in personal identification as well as in the
identification of missing persons, wanted persons, and
stolen or lost properties.
6. It records all things that an investigator may fail to notice.
7. It assists the court in understanding the case.
8. It helps reconstruct the crime scene.
9. It helps the expert witness in illustrating their findings.
10. It supplements, explains and replaces the descriptive
testimony of witnesses.
11. It serves as lecture materials and illustrations during
police personnel training.
12. It also serves to reproduce and copy documents.

The PNP Forensic Photography Division

The Philippine National Police (PNP) Crime Laboratory has its own
Forensic Photography Division whose personnel perform the following
functions/capabilities:
1. Photograph suspects and crime victims for personal
identification;
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 12

2. Photograph evidence submitted to the laboratory before

examination;
3. Conduct crime scene photography;
4. Conduct crime scene sketching;
5. Conduct comparative examination and analysis of
questioned photographs against known photographs;
6. Conduct lectures to different police/military training
institutions, government agencies and public/private
schools upon request;
7. Reproduce photographs and other printed materials;
8. Sketch facial features of suspects based on actual
description by the witness or victims for identification; and
9. Attend court duties.

The PNP’s crime scene photographers follow the following standard

operating procedures:
1. A crime scene photographer must be on duty at the Forensic
Photography Division on call whenever photographic
assistance is needed.
2. The crime scene photographer must be knowledgeable of
the crime committed/reported to enable him to determine
the equipment and materials to bring along to the crime
scene. These equipment and materials may include digital
and film-based cameras with wide angle and normal lens,
tripod, flash unit, flood light, measuring tools, data board,
pencil and rolls of film (colored and monochrome).
3. The crime scene photographer should record in the
photography division’s record book all the details of the
incident/crime responded before and after Scene of the
Crime Operation (SOCO) and Field Laboratory Work (FLW)
responses, including the type of camera and film used.
Right after the operation, he must immediately process
the exposed film and print the negative for filling and
presentation in court.
4. The responding crime scene photographer should check
and ensure the serviceability of his equipment and strictly
observed the steps and procedures applicable for every
scene, including measurements and identification.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 13

Student’s Name:
Year/ Section:
Instructor:
School:

Review Questions:
1. What is photography?
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2. What is the difference between police photography and
forensic photography?
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FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 14

3. What does a forensic photographer do?

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4. How is photography significant in law enforcement and police
work?
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5. What are the responsibilities of a PNP forensic photographer?
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FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 15

CHAPTER 2
HISTORY OF FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY

Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:
• Describe the camera obscura;
• Enumerate significant events in the pre-photographic
history;
• Identify advances in photographic technology during
the nineteenth century;
• Narrate the beginnings of forensic imaging;
• Explain the contribution of Alphonse M. Bertillon in
criminology; and
• Enumerate important developments in forensic
imaging in the twentieth century.

This chapter provides a discussion regarding the history and

evolution of police photography, which is largely based on the history
of photography itself. Note that although the historical accounts
enumerated here are sourced from several photography and forensic
science books, they are mostly based on a western point of view.
Hence, major forensic events, milestones and court citations will
describe the European or American experience. Note further that, as
observed by Robert C. Sanders in his chapter on the history of forensic
imaging in Crime Scene Photography, there are several conflicting dates
related to some photographic inventions. He attributes these conflicts
to the possibility of (1) mistake by other authors, (2) using the date
the research started, (3) using the date the research first produced
successful results, (4) using the date the invention was announced, or
(5) using the date the invention was patented (Sanders, 2010).
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 16

Pre-Photographic History
The early cave paintings of the Upper Paleolithic period can be
considered as the earliest creation of pictorial recording. Such can be
traced as far back as about 35,000 years ago. These “pictures” could
possibly be a record of actual hunting of the time, or they could be
religious petitions for a bountiful hunting. They could also simply be
depictions of icons that serve to brighten domestic activities. These
pictorial images are significant to the discussion of history because they
demonstrate how human culture is inextricably linked to photography
(Wright, 1999).
The history of imaging began with the camera obscura, the first
pinhole camera. Although there may be a conflict among authors as
to who is the first to describe the camera obscura, Robert C. Sanders
considers that it is most likely the Arab scholar Hassan bin al Haitham
who wrote about it in 1038. These early pinhole cameras were used
by scientists to observe the sun and by artists to make sketches. Two
others who are credited by some authors as the first to describe the
camera obscura are Roger Bacon in 1267 and Leonardo da Vinci in
1490 (Sanders, 2010).
The evolution of the camera obscura includes the addition of lens
in 1550 by Girolamo Cardano, the further addition of lenses and curved
mirrors to produce an upright image in 1558 by Giovanni Battista della
Porta, and the invention of a diaphragm in 1568 by Daniele Barbaro.
Jean Hellot may have been the first one to use the word
“photography,” which means writing with light. He was reported to
have used a photographic process to make secret writings visible by
exposure to light in 1737. In 1795, Thomas Wedgwood made the first
known attempt to use a photographic process to take a photograph with
a camera obscura. However, his attempt failed due to a combination of
underexposure and his inability to fix the image.
The editors of the Focal Encyclopedia of Photography define
photography as beginning when the recording of images “could-be-
made-permanent.” The book provides the following dates to outline
important pre-photographic events in history (Peres, 2007).

1200s Simple glass lenses were introduced.

Leonardo da Vinci discovered the multicolored

1472
nature of white light.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 17

J.C. Sturm invented a portable camera obscura

1676
with reflex mirror and focusing lens.

Sir Isaac Newton published Opticks in which he

1704 presented his discoveries in optics and elaborated
on his corpuscular theory of light.

J.H. Schulze experimented on light sensitivity of

silver salts, contact images (from stencils) on liquid
1725
mixtures of chalk and silver nitrate in a bottle.

1758 John Dolland invented the achromatic lens.

G.C. Lichtenberg developed electrostatic discharge

1777
patterns with dry powder.

C.W. Scheele discovered that blackening of silver

1777 chloride in the violet and the blue of the spectrum
is quicker than by other colors.

Sir John F.W. Herschel discovered infrared

radiation. He used a beam splitter to split out a
1800 white light source into individual colors when he
placed a thermometer next to the red end where
there was no visible color of light.

T. Wedgwood and H. Davy discovered that contact

1800 copying of silhouettes, leaves, etc., on leather is
sensitized with silver nitrate.

J.W. Ritter discovered the blackening of silver

1801
chloride by ultraviolet radiation.

Sir David Brewster invented the optical system of

1815–1820
the future parlor stereoscope.

J. Nicéphore Niépce discovered that camera

1816 photographs on paper are sensitized with silver
chloride.

Sir John F.W. Herschel discovered thiosulfates and

1819
the solution of silver halides by “hypo.”

J. Nicéphore Niépce discovered copying of engravings

1822–1825 on glass, zinc, and pewter sensitized with bitumen
to further attempts at direct photography.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 18

Advances in Photographic Technology

The first half of the nineteenth century highlights several attempts
to perfect photography through the invention of different processes
and techniques. These attempts aimed at producing the most realistic
and detailed pictures by fixing the image created inside a camera. The
creation of the first photographs required lots of skill and knowledge,
and they were regarded as miraculous and praised for their beauty
and detail.
In 1826, Joseph Niépce successfully made the first known
photograph, a reproduction of a 17th century Dutch engraving showing
a man leading a horse. For this reason, he has been credited as being
the inventor of photography. The photograph was sold at Sotheby’s in
Paris on March 21, 2002, to the French National Library for $443,000
(Peres, 2007).
In 1839, Louis Jacques Mandé Daguerre invented the
daguerreotype, the first commercially successful photographic
process. It used a silver nitrite
light-sensitive emulsion that was
developed with mercury vapor and
fixed with a strong salt solution to
produce a positive photographic
image. The latent image and use of
silver combined with iodine (silver
iodide) that were introduced by
Daguerre became the basis of every
major camera process of the 19th
century until the introduction of
gelatin bromide emulsions used in
the manufacture of dry plates and Figure 2.1
developing-out papers (Sanders, Daguerreotype Camera
2010).
In 1839, William Henry Fox Talbot invented the calotype, a silver
chloride-coated light-sensitive paper that was fixed with strong salt
solution. The calotype (from the Greek kalos, meaning “beautiful”) was
later patented by Talbot in 1841. In 1844, he improved the calotype
paper negative process using a gallic acid and silver nitrate solution
with a hypo fixer. This is the process that eventually evolved into the
photographic negative printing process that is in use today (Peres,
2007).
The calotype did not become popular in the USA because the
daguerreotype was already well established. In 1841, the Paris
police department became the first agency to use daguerreotype mug
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 19

shots. By the late 1840s, the daguerreotype process was being used
commercially in every industrialized nation of the world.
Another milestone in the history of photography was the discovery
of the UV fluorescence by Sir George G. Stokes in 1852. This led to the
formulation of the Stokes’ Law as the fundamental theoretical basis
of all fluorescent photography currently used in law enforcement.
It states that the wavelength of the fluorescence is always longer
than the wavelength of the light that excited the fluorescence. The
fluorescence will not be as bright as the exciting light source. Sanders
(2010) explains that in practice, this means “that if the film or camera
sensor is sensitive to both the color of the exciter light source (such
as an argon-ion laser with an output at 514nm) and the color of the
fluorescent light (such as the color of the fluorescent color of R6G
dye-stained latent print evidence), you will need a barrier filter to
block the exciter light source so that the film or sensor can record the
fluorescence.”
Sanders identified other advances in the history of photography,
as follows (Sanders, 2010):

French photographer and balloonist Gaspar Felix

1858 Tournachon took the first known aerial photograph of the
French village of Petit-Becetre.

Maxwell and Sutton were able to successfully make color

separation negatives, which, when projected through the
1861 corresponding red, green, or violet filter to which they were
photographed through, resulted in a color image of the
object photographed.

First recorded use of RGB color separation negatives

to reproduce a color image by Ralph Evans who used
1961
the fluorescent properties of the red dye in the object
photographed.

Dr. Hermann Wilhelm Vogel discovered dye-sensitizing

technology that extended the color sensitivity of black-and-
1873 white films into the red region of the visible light spectrum,
resulting in the development of photographic film emulsion
and the modern black-and-white panchromatic film.

As photographic technology advanced up to the end of the

nineteenth century, equipment and materials had become somewhat
easier to handle, and photography had spread all around the world
and was being put to use for artistic purposes and to document people,
places and things.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 20

Beginnings of Forensic Imaging

The roots of police photography could
perhaps be traced to 1851 when French
photographer, Louis Dodero, originated
the idea of using photographs to establish
identity or rights. A year later, Switzerland
began to photograph vagrants and beggars,
while France started to circulate its first
photographic “wanted” posters. These events
are also considered the historical beginnings
of identification photography, or the creation
of inexpensive and quick portrait pictures
of people for a passports, security passes,
licenses, permits, or similar applications
(Francis, 2007).
Sanders (2010) traces the beginning
of forensic image analysis in 1851 with
the scientific examination of a faked color Figure 2.2
daguerreotype. By 1859, the United States John Wilkes Booth
Supreme Court ruled on the admissibility of wanted poster
photographs used as evidence. Specifically, photographs of a document
were properly admitted in place of the original document, for the
purpose of proving that a land grant title document was a forgery.
In 1860, identification photography was used in England and
the USA as photographic records of those who were arrested and
imprisoned. Prompted by the assassination of President Abraham
Lincoln, the USA made its first “wanted” posters of John Wilkes Booth
and his accomplices (Sanders, 2010).
Crime scene photography dates back to 1867 when advertisements
of crime scene cameras began to appear. These cameras promised to
replace the crime scene sketches of the time.
Fake ghost photographs used to commit fraud started to appear
as early as the 1860s. Wealthy relatives of recently deceased persons
became the victims of criminals who offer to hold a meeting of
spiritualists for a fee to enable the victims to contact the spirits of
their recently deceased relatives. The criminals would also fake spirit
photographs by using a double exposure either in the camera or the
dark room to create photos of the victims with these “spirits.”
During the 1870s photographic evidence continued to become
admissible in United States courts. Photographs were affirmed as an
established means of reproducing a correct likeness of a person in
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 21

1874; the use of traffic accident photographs were affirmed to show the
road conditions that were a factor in the traffic accident in 1875; and
tintype photographs of injuries were admitted in 1879.
Alphonse M. Bertillon invented many techniques that contributed
to the field of criminology, one of which is the invention of the
mug shot. In 1879, when he completed his military training and
became a minor clerk at the Paris Prefecture of Police, he began to
use anthropological statistics and anthropometric techniques in
solving the central problem plaguing the department’s identification
practices (Lerner & Lerner, 2006). The department had accumulated
a tremendous number of images but lacked any real way to utilize
them. Bertillon developed a system of identification that involved the
recording of eleven anthropometric measurements, supplemented with
a physical description of the body, particularly the features of the face
and the head. Bertillon’s signaletic system was officially accepted by
the Paris police in 1883 and became widely adopted across Europe,
Canada, and the United States. However, the system was not entirely
successful as a dominant mode of criminal identification, and was
eventually replaced by fingerprinting (Finn, 2009).
In 1887, banks began using cameras to photograph persons
attempting to break into them. In 1893, a bank robbery suspect in New
York City was identified using such a photograph (Sanders, 2010).

Forensic Imaging in the Twentieth Century

The turn of the twentieth century saw many important
developments in photographic technology and forensic photography,
as summarized below (Sanders, 2010).

The Lumiere brothers patented the autochrome color

1904
photography plates that were put into production in 1907.

In Colorado, USA, intoxicated persons were being

photographed by the police department; in Massachusetts,
1907
the use of photographic speed recorders to detect speeders
were approved.

Kodak dominated the amateur market with some

1910
photographic techniques still used today.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 22

Siegrist and Fischer produced color images by chemically

1912
forming dyes in the emulsion layer during development.

In Chicago, the International Association for Identification

1915 was formed. It has evolved into the oldest and largest
forensic science organization in the world.

In Ohio, USA, a motion picture was ruled as inadmissible

imaging evidence because it did not show the details
clearly enough to be useful. This court ruling highlights
1916
that photographs should be relevant, material, a fair and
accurate representation, and not overly prejudicial to be
admissible as evidence in court.

In Ohio, USA, an appellant court ruled that photographs of

X-rays were not admissible in place of the X-rays because
1928
the photographs did not show some significant details that
were visible in the original X-rays.

The flash bulb was invented, making it possible for a

1930 portable light source to enable the taking of many evidence
photographs.

In New Hampshire, USA, the ultraviolet photograph of

footprints in blood were upheld as admissible in court.
1934 Several other states defined what is considered as a fair
and accurate photographic representation of photographs
to be admitted as evidence in court.

In the United States, the microfilm of a document was

1938 admitted in place of the document, and the admissibility of
a color photograph was upheld.

Kodak introduced the Super-Six-20 camera, which featured

1938
an automatic exposure capability.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 23

1941 Kodak introduced the Kodacolor color negative film.

1942 Kodak introduced the Ektachrome color slide film.

1947 Kodak introduced the Ektacolor color negative film.

1947 Edwin Land invented the Polaroid Land Camera.

1948 The Polaroid black-and-white print film was invented.

The United States FBI Laboratory split its photographic

operations unit into a processing unit and a special
1942
photographic unit that has evolved into the current forensic
audio, video, and image analysis unit.

1957 The videotape recorder was introduced.

The Super 8mm movie equipment was introduced. It

1965 became a hit with consumers until it was replaced with
video camcorders.

Fully automatic electronic flash units became available for

1965
still photography.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 24

Student’s Name:
Year/ Section:
Instructor:
School:

Review Questions:
1. What is a camera obscura and how was it used?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. What significant events occurred during the pre-photographic
history?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3. What are the advances in photographic technology that
occurred during the nineteenth century?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 25

_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
4. What are the significant events relevant to the beginnings of
forensic imaging?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
5. Who is Alphonse M. Bertillon and what are his contributions
to the field of criminology?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
6. What are the important developments in forensic imaging that
occurred in the twentieth century?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 26

CHAPTER 3
LIGHT AND THE CAMERA

Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:
• Explain the importance of light in photography;
• Enumerate the types, components and essential parts
of a camera;
• Explain the function of the lens and identify standard
and special camera lenses and zooms;
• Identify and explain the functions of different camera
accessories;
• Enumerate the equipment and accessories included in
a crime scene photography kit; and
• Explain the proper way of handling a camera.

For a police photographer to take consistently successful

photographs, he must understand the basic optical principles underlying
how a camera works, the type of lens and lighting equipment to utilize,
the film speed or digital setting to use in a particular situation, as
well as the advantages and drawbacks of different camera formats. By
becoming familiar with the controls on the camera, the photographer
will be more able to concentrate on the composition and lighting of
each photograph.

Light
Light is the very essence and the basic substance of photography.
It is important to understand how light behaves and how lenses form
it into images in order to gain a broader view of the possibilities of
photography.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 27

We tend to take light for granted even

when it is light that enables us to view
the world through our eyes. Light is what
enables our eyes to see, just as sound
enables our ears to hear, and flavor enables
our tongue to taste.
In Langford’s Basic Photography,
visible light is defined as “a stream of
energy radiating away from the sun or
similar radiant source,” with four important
characteristics (Langford, Fox, & Smith,
2010):
1. Light behaves as if it moves in
waves, like ripples crossing the
surface of water. Variations in
wavelengths give our eyes the
sensation of different colors.
2. Light travels in a straight line
(within a uniform substance or
medium). This can be seen in light
beams and shafts of sunlight, and
the way that shadows fall.
3. Light moves at great speed
(approximately 300,000 kilometers
or 186,000 miles per second
through the vacuum of space). It
moves less fast in air, and slightly
slower still in denser substances
such as water or glass.
4. Light also behaves as if it consists
of energy particles or photons.
These bleach dyes cause chemical
changes in films and electronic
response in digital camera sensors.
The more intense the light, the
more photons it contains.
John Hedgecoe (2005) explains the
path of light in photography by starting
with the subject and light source. Light
rays reflected from the subject of the photo
are transmitted through a glass lens at
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 28

the front of the camera to form a latent image on the film. A lens
consists of a convex disk of ground and polished glass that reflects
the widening light rays traveling away from every point of the subject.
Light is prevented from reaching the film by a shutter until your chosen
moment of exposure. The point at which the lens focuses these rays –
the focal plane – coincides with the position of the film when the lens is
correctly focused. The focal plane is where the rays of light refracted by
the lens converge to form a sharp, upside-down image. Light traveling
from different distances from the camera needs varying degrees of
refraction to focus at the focal plane, so a focusing mechanism moves
the lens toward or away from the position of the film and focal plane
coincides when the lens is correctly focused.
The amount of exposure to light is most often controlled by a
combination of the time the shutter is open (the shutter speed) and the
diameter of the light beam passing through-the-lens (the aperture). The
shutter speed and the aperture are controls that influence the visual
result. Shutter time alters the way movement is recorded, blurred or
frozen; while lens aperture alters the depth of subject that is shown in
focus at one time (depth of field) (Langford, Fox, & Smith, 2010). These
controls will be explained further in this chapter.

Two Main Sources of Light

1. Natural Light
This refers to the daylight coming from the sun, which is generally
utilized for outdoor photography, or light that comes to existence
without the intervention of man. Light produced by the sun, including
direct sunlight, the soft light in a shadow, light that bounced off a
reflective surface, moonlight reflected from the sun, and starlight are
all sources of natural light.
Daylight photography depends as much on the quality of the
daylight as its strength. The quality of daylight is a combination of
contrast and color temperature or color of the day.
Natural light can be classified according to its intensity.
a. Bright Light - a lighting condition wherein objects in
open space cast a deep on uniform shadow
In bright light, the subject will produce strong shadow
because the source of light is not covered by clouds. In
black and white photography the object or subject looks
contrastly.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 29

b. Hazy Light- a lighting condition wherein the objects in

open space cast a transparent shadow
In hazy sunlight, the sun is covered by the clouds
and shadow appears bluish because of the decrease
of the light falling on the subjects in open space. The
shadow cast is transparent to the eye and more details
are visible under this lighting condition than in bright
sunlight. When the sunlight is obscured by light clouds,
the intensity of the direct light falling on subject in open
space is decreased. In effect, the light coming from the
sky becomes stronger that the shadows appears more
bluish that in bright sunlight.

c. Dull Light – a lighting condition wherein the objects in

open space cast no shadow.
In dull sunlight, the sun is totally covered by thick
clouds. No shadows are formed due to the uniform
illumination of light around the subjects in open space.

2. Artificial light
This refers to man-made sources of light used or utilized for indoor
photography to align the adverse lighting condition. It is also utilized to
align the hazy or dull light in outdoor photography.
This includes all non-natural sources such as conditions light
from incandescent and fluorescent light bulbs, electronic flashes and
studio strobes.

Sources of Artificial Light

a. Continuous Duration
• Fluorescent Lamps
• Incandescent Lamps/ Tungsten Light
• Photoflood Lamps
• Infrared Lamp
• Ultraviolet Lamp

b. Short Duration
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 30

• Flash bulbs (chemical flash lamp)

• Flash cubes
• Flash bar
• X – cube
• Electronic flash

Types of Electronic Flash

1. Strobe cube
2. Slave unit or slave flash
3. Right light
4. Accessory flash unit

Types of Accessory Flash Units

1. Manual Flash – These flash units require you to figure
out the correct exposure for your shooting conditions.
2. Automatic Flash – These flash units use automatic
sensors to control light output and duration based
on the distance from the camera to the subject. When
you set the aperture you want to use, the flash will
automatically calculate how much light is needed to
illuminate a specific distance range, such as 3 to 15
feet; the flash unit will have an electric eye that reads
the amount of light bouncing back from the subject.
3. Dedicated Light Unit – They are made to work with your
camera in specific electronic means (hence the name).
They will do all the thinking for the photographer:
automatically setting the correct shutter speed and
aperture, and controlling the exposure by regulating
flash duration.
4. Built-in Flash Unit – a flash unit built into the camera
5. Off-camera Flash – a flash unit not mounted on the
camera
Flash synchronization speed is a shutter speed that can be used
when working with a flash unit to obtain evenly lit results.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 31

The Camera
By definition, a camera is photographic apparatus used to
expose sensitized film or plates to reflected light images formed by a
lens (Brenner, 2004). It can also be considered as a light tight box
with a means of forming the image, holding sensitized materials, and
controlling the amount of light that will reach the film.

A camera usually has electronic refinements and automatic

features, but underneath all that is a basic design that includes a
lightproof container with a hole at one end over which a lens is placed
and a holder opposite to accommodate either a strip of light-sensitive
film, or a light-sensitive electronic chip. “To produce a correctly
exposed image in a variety of light intensities, the camera lens has an
iris diaphragm that can be adjusted to leave a hole of varying diameter.
This is called the aperture. On a fixed-lens compact camera, the lens
also contains a shutter mechanism, known as a between-the-lens
shutter, which opens to allow light to reach the film. The shutter allows
you to choose the precise moment of exposure, and by selecting from
a range of shutter speeds you can also control the length of exposure.
The shutter mechanism on a single lens reflex (SLR) camera is located
inside the body, behind the lens, just in front of the film or digital
sensor, and is known as a focal-plane shutter” (Hedgecoe, 2005).
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 32

Camera Types
1. SLR (single lens reflex) cameras are the most popular type for
serious photography. They could be either digital or use 35mm
film. An SLR camera’s unique feature lies in the design of its
viewfinder system in which a system of mirrors shows the user the
image precisely as the lens renders it. Thus, no matter what focal
length lens is attached to the camera, the scene the photographer
sees through the viewfinder corresponds exactly to that seen by
the lens.

2. Compact or point-and-shoot cameras can be either digital or film

cameras and are light and easy to use. This non-SLR camera does
not support interchangeable lenses and the view seen through the
viewfinder is not exactly the same as that seen through the lens.
This problem can result in framing errors and not seeing whether
the image is correctly focused. They are called point-and-shoot
because they have controls that are either very simplified or very
automated (or both). Such cameras are meant to be used to record
snapshots without having to learn how to use a camera.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 33

3. Medium-format cameras use wide rolls of film (between the

35mm and 4x5-inch formats) for better image definition.
Because of the large negative size, the image resolution is
higher with medium-format than 35mm cameras. These
cameras tend to be more expensive, and lenses tend to be
large.

Essential Components of a Camera

A camera should have the following controls and adjustments
(Langford, Fox, & Smith, 2010):
1. A means to accurately aim the camera and compose the
picture;
2. An ability to focus precisely;
3. A shutter to control the moment of exposure and how long
light acts on the sensitive surface;
4. An aperture to control image brightness and depth of field;
5. A method of loading and removing film, without allowing
unwanted light to affect it; and
6. A meter to measure the light and indicate or set the exposure
needed for each shot.

Essential Parts of a Camera

1. Light-Tight Box or Body – part of the camera that is very
important because of its capability to exclude all the
unwanted light that might expose the film

2. Lens – a glass, plastic, or crystal optical element molded

into a curved shape that can bend and focus rays of light;
responsible for focusing the rays of light coming from the
subject

3. Film Holder – holds the film firmly inside the camera

4. Shutter – device used to control the amount of time during

which light is allowed to enter the camera and register on
the film or image sensor; serves as the barrier of the rays
of light that will enter and affect the film inside the camera
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 34

Setting the shutter at certain speeds enables the camera to

determine the length of time the film is exposed. Moving the
shutter speed dial to the next stop either doubles or halves
exposure time.
Shutter speed: B, 1, 2, 4, 8, 15, 30, 60, 125, 250,
500, 1000, 2000
• Number 1 stands for a whole second and the
others are a fraction of a second.
• The shutter speed of 125 is capable of stopping
the movement of the subject.
• The shutter speed of 60, 125 and above is
advisable to use when handholding the camera
with a 50mm lens but if your lens is 300mm,
use 500/sec or higher.

5. Viewfinder – an optical or electrical device used to compose

and frame a scene; shows the entire scene coverage that
can be recorded in the film inside the camera; also called a
view system, a finder or a viewing screen.
Compact or point-and-shoot cameras have direct vision
viewfinders that do not show exactly the same image that
the lens sees. In SLR cameras, light is reflected by a mirror
and pentaprism to the viewfinder. Digital cameras usually
have an LCD monitor to show the image being projected
onto the sensor.

6. Film Advancer & Lever – a mechanism for moving film from

one spool to another incrementally one frame at a time.

7. Shutter Speed – it will control the duration between the

opening and closing of the shutter.

8. Lens Aperture – an opening (diaphragm) in a light-blocking

plate that allows light to strike the film or image sensor; the
ratio between the diameter and focal length of the lens; the
light gathering power of the lens.
• The diameter of the lens diaphragm can be
changed by turning the aperture ring. This
dictates the brightness of the image reaching
the film. Moving to the next f-number either
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 35

halves or doubles aperture size. Aperture size

also affects depth of field.
• The higher the number, the smaller the lens
opening.
• The smaller the lens opening, the greater the
depth of field.

9. Focusing Mechanism – The sharpness or clearness of the

objects being photographed will depend upon the focusing
system of the camera. The focus is the physical point at
which rays of light from a lens converge to form a properly
defined image of the subject.

Focusing control:
a. Split Image b. Microprism c. Ground Screen
Out of focus Sharp focus
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 36
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 37

Camera Lenses
As defined above, a lens is a glass, plastic, or crystal optical
element molded into a curved shape that can bend and focus rays of
light. It is responsible for focusing the rays of light coming from the
subject.
Simple lenses feature a single convex or concave lens. Most
photographic lenses feature multiple elements housed in a single lens
barrel that cancel out each element’s weaknesses to produce a sharp
image. The size of the individual lens elements and their positions
determine the angle of view and focal length of the lens.

Standard Camera Lenses

Standard camera lenses can be divided into the following broad
groups (Hedgecoe, 2005):
1. Standard/Normal Lens
A standard lens or normal lens has a focal length that is
roughly equivalent to the diagonal of the light-sensitive,
image-recording area within the camera. They usually have
wide maximum apertures, making them useful in low-light
situations;
2. Wide-Angle Lens
A wide-angle lens has a focal length shorter than the
diagonal of the film frame or image sensor. It provides a
broader angle of view than a standard lens and is therefore
ideal for photographing a group of people or when working
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 38

in confined space. However, distortion may be a problem if

the lens is used too close to a subject;
A wide-angle lens is also sometimes called a short lens.
These lenses can be rectilinear (straight lines are preserved)
or fisheye (showing extreme barrel distortion);
3. Long-Focus Lens
A long focus lens has a focal length that is much greater
than the diagonal of the film or image format with which
it is used. Longer focal lengths are useful for taking large
images of distant subjects or when unable to move close
enough to the subject to use a shorter lens; and

4. Zoom Lens
A zoom lens has a variable focal length. It allows fine-tuning
of subject framing by adjusting the focal length of the lens.

Special Camera Lenses and Zooms

The following are special lenses and zooms designed for the 35mm
format (Hedgecoe, 2005).
1. Mirror Lens
A mirror lens uses a combination of glass elements and
mirrors that bounce the light up and down the lens barrel,
manipulating the light rays to allow a long focal length to
be contained within a physically short space. The compact
design reduces the bulk and weight associated with extreme
long-focus lenses.
2. Ultra Wide-Angle Lens
Linearly corrected ultra wide-angle lenses have a focal
length ranging from around 21mm down to around 15mm.
An example is the fisheye lens, which has a very wide-angle
lens that produces distorted view of the world.
3. Wide-Angle Zoom
A wide-angle zoom is likely to be slower and heavier and to
show more image distortion than a wide-angle fixed focal
length lens. However, it has the advantage of being able to
select intermediate focal length settings.
4. Shift Lens
A shift lens is also sometimes called a perspective control
lens. It can be shifted off-center in relation to the film
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 39

frame, so that the correct perspective can be achieved

when photographing converging vertical lines such as tall
buildings.
5. Macro Lens
Macro lenses are designed to render a subject with 1:1 or
higher magnification for very close focusing distances. They
are useful in taking close-ups of small subjects or isolating
details of larger subjects because they allow the camera
to focus extremely close to a subject to record a detailed
image.
6. Telephoto Lens
A telephoto lens has a focal length longer than the diagonal
of the film frame or image sensor. Telephoto lenses make a
subject appear larger on film than a normal lens at the same
camera-to-subject distance. They also have a shallower
depth of field than wide-angle lenses. They are usually used
by sports photographers who frequently use a monopod for
support and maneuverability.
7. Telephoto Zoom
A telephoto zoom ranging from 75–300mm encompasses
about six fixed focal length lenses. This type of zoom
is popular with sports and wildlife photographers. It is
also useful for portraits and can be used to photograph
architectural and landscape details.

Classification of Lenses
1. Positive lens – a convex lens characterized by the fact that
it is thicker in the middle than the edge, and forms a real
image on the opposite side of the lens. It has a positive
focal length and bends the rays together, which makes it a
converging lens.
2. Negative lens – a concave lens characterized by the fact
that it is thinner in the middle than the edge and forms
a virtual image on the same side of the lens. It does not
require focusing at all, as everything will be sharp, upright
and clear, no matter how close or far away the object. It
is also known as a diverging lens because of its power to
diverge rays of light that passes through it.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 40

Inherent Defects and Aberrations of Lenses

1. Chromatic aberration – It is an inability of the lens to focus
all colors in the same plane. It is a lens defect which has
trouble bringing all the different wavelengths of visible light
into focus at the same point on the film. This is the most
difficult lens aberrations to correct.
2. Spherical aberration – a lens defect wherein the photographic
rays passing through the edges refract more sharply than
those passing through the central part of the lens. Thus,
they come to focus at the edges than at the central rays.
3. Astigmatism – the inability of the lens to focus in both
horizontal and vertical plane at the same time; or the
inability of the lens to focus in both lines running indifferent
direction (e.g., a cross)
4. Distortion – outer parts of the image produced by the lens
will be magnified either less or more than the outer image
Distortion comes in two basic forms:
a. Pincushion distortion – In pincushion
distortion, there are straight lines near the
edges of the frame bow toward the center of
the frame. The curving is inward.
b. Barrel distortion – In barrel distortion,
straight lines near the edges of the of the
frame bow outward from the center.
5. Coma – This is known as lateral aberration. It is concerned
with rays entering the lens obliquely. It is a lens defect that
produces a blurred comet- like image.
6. Curvature of field – the image formed by lens comes to a
sharper focus on a curved surface than on a flat surface.
7. Chromatic difference of magnification – the inability of the
lens to produce images sizes of object with different color.

Types of Lens According to Their Degree of Correction

1. Achromatic or apochromatic – lens corrected for chromatic
aberration
2. Aspherical – lens corrected for spherical aberration
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 41

3. Anagmatism or anastigmatic - lens corrected for astigmatism

4. Process – lens corrected for astigmatism but with higher
correction to color; a super corrected lens for astigmatism
5. Rapid rectilinear – lens corrected for distortion; a combination
of two achromatic lenses with almost the same focal length

Camera Accessories
The following are among the several
camera accessories that can be utilized in
photographing subjects.
1. Tripod – a stand consisting of
three legs and a mounting head
for a camera; used to support and
stabilize the camera (Figure 3.7)
2. Cable release – a cable with a button
or plunger attached to a camera to
prevent accidental movement and
eliminate camera shake (Figure
3.8)
3. Flash unit – an artificial light source
synchronized with the opening and
closing of the shutter to emit a brief
but very bright burst of illumination
to a scene (Figure 3.9)
4. Light Meter – a device used in
determining the intensity of light
that strikes the subjects and affects
the film (Figure 3.10)
5. Extension Tube – a tube inserted
between the lens and camera body
to provide increased magnification
for macrophotography; used in
photographing minute objects
(Figure 3.11)
6. Filter – a piece of colored glass,
gelatin, plastic, or other material
that attaches to or over the camera
or enlarger lens to selectively absorb
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 42

(or otherwise alter) the light passing

through it; used to enhance color or
contrast, remove reflections, reduce
haze, soften focus, or produce a
variety of special effects. (Figure
3.12)
There are two general types
of photographic filters, namely the
non-special effects filters which
are intended to manipulate the way film reacts to subject
colors, and the special effects filters which are intended to
give special effect to pictures. Examples of special effects
filters include multi-images filter, speed filter and double
exposure filter.
Filters can also be classified into five, namely:
a. Contrast filter – adjusts the tonal differences of
an image
b. Correction filter – colored filter used in black &
white image capture to ensure that tones are
reproduced with the same relative brightness as
perceived by the human eye
c. Haze filter – used to filter out ultraviolet (UV)
radiation, which can cause a bluish fog and loss
of detail in distant objects; also used to protect
the front lens element from dust, moisture and
scratches
d. Sky filter – a graduated filter designed to darken
the sky while leaving the foreground exposure
unaltered
e. Polarizing filter – gray filter used over light
sources or camera lenses to reduce specular
reflections on certain surfaces; also increases
saturation of colors, especially in landscapes
Primary color filters allow only that particular primary color to
pass through – that is, red allows red to pass through, blue allows
blue, and green allows green. Complementary color filters work in the
same way. Yell0w is a mixture of red and green, so yellow filter allows
only those two colors to pass through, and so on.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 43

Color combination of photographic filters:

a. Yellow and magenta = red
b. Cyan and magenta = blue
c. Cyan and yellow = green
d. Red and green = yellow
e. Blue and red = magenta
f. Blue and green = cyan

6. Camera Grip – a device used to hold

the camera firmly so as to prevent
vibration or movement (Figure 3.13)

7. Lens Hood – A plastic, metal, or

rubber device that attaches to the
front of a lens to shield it from
extraneous light and eliminate
reflection that might destroy the
image cast by objects especially
when the light is coming from
the top or side portions of the
camera; also offers added physical
protection against accidental blows;
also called sun shade or lens shade
(Figure 3.14)

Basic Crime Scene and Evidence Photography Kit

In Crime Scene and Evidence Photographer’s Guide, Robert C.
Staggs (2005) recommends the following equipment and accessories to
be used by a forensic photographer.
1. Camera
2. Normal lens (a 50mm lens is considered a normal lens
for a 35mm camera)
3. Wide angle lens (28mm or similar for a 35mm camera)
4. Close-up lenses or accessories (e.g., macro lens, 1:1
adapter, extension tubes, bellows, reversing ring, or
close up filters)
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 44

5. Filters (red, orange, yellow, blue, and green)

6. Electronic flash
7. Remote sync cord for electronic flash (to operate flash
when not mounted on camera)
8. Extra camera and flash batteries
9. Locking cable release
10. Tripod
11. Film (color and black and white print film)
12. Owner’s manuals for camera and flash
13. Notebook and pen
14. Scales
15. ABFO #2 scale (injury photography)
16. Gray card (to aid in getting accurate exposures)
17. Index cards and felt pen
18. Flashlight

Other equipment that should be considered

1. Telephoto lenses (135mm, telephoto zoom lens for
surveillance photography)
2. Supplementary light meter for low light level readings
3. Small tools for emergency camera repairs
4. Blocks of wood, clothespins, and other devices for
positioning evidence for close-up photography
5. White handkerchief or other flash diffusion material
6. Levels
7. Tape measure
8. Color chart or color control patches (injury
photography)
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 45

Proper Handling of the Camera

Camera motion can be caused by lack of sharpness. There are two
prime causes of camera motion.
1. Vibration - usually caused by body movement including the
beating of the heart
2. Actual camera movement – caused by the improper holding
of the camera

How to Hold a Camera

Camera motion can result in blurry images. To prevent this, it is
important to hold the camera properly by considering the following.
1. Hold the camera with the right hand and place the index
finger under the shutter release. The thumb should be
under the film advance lever and the remaining three
fingers against the front of the camera.
2. The heel of the camera must lie on the palm of the left hand.
3. The photographer’s arm should be resting against the body
with the legs far enough apart to be a steady base. When
taking a photograph in a kneeling position, do not rest the
elbow on the knees as the bone-to-bone contact is unsteady
and will be reflected in the photograph.
The placement of the rest of the body while taking the photograph
is as important as holding the camera.

Care and Handling of the Camera and Film

The photographer should take care of the camera between uses
by keeping it out of direct sunlight and away from heat sources. The
camera should never be exposed to direct sunlight or to heat inside
glove compartments or trunks of vehicles during hot weather. The
photographer should also keep the film in an insulated chest or
wrapped in white reflective cloth. Exposed film should be maintained
in a refrigerator or processed immediately. In cold weather, the camera
should be protected by keeping it under your jacket as the film may
become brittle and tear or break. Salt water may also damage the
camera and film so make sure the camera is fully protected. Negatives
should be placed in a plastic sleeve to avoid scratches.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 46
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 47

Student’s Name:
Year/ Section:
Instructor:
School:

Review Questions:
1. What is light and why is it important in photography?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. What is a camera?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3. What are the types, components and essential parts of a
camera?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
4. What is a lens? What is its function in a camera?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 48

5. What are the different standard lenses? The special camera

lenses and zooms?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
6. What are the different camera accessories that a photographer
can utilize and what are their functions?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
7. What items should be included in a forensic photography kit?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
8. How should a photographer handle a camera to prevent
motion?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 49

CHAPTER 4
FILM VS. DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY

Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:
• Describe the film-based camera;
• Explain the process of loading and unloading the film;
• Differentiate film types;
• Explain the chemical processing of photographs;
• Differentiate a photograph from an image;
• Enumerate the different types of digital cameras;
• Identify the advantages and disadvantages of digital
photography; and
• Explain the issues regarding the use of digital
photography in police work.

Generally speaking, a photography student who hopes to become

a forensic professional has to learn the same basic photography skills
when using a film-based or a digital camera. In fact, the previous as well
the succeeding chapters broadly discuss photography principles that
apply to both. In this chapter, however, film and digital photography
will be discussed independently, and their overall differences will be
elaborated.

Film Photography
Although digital photography has now gained dominance over
film photography, there are still professionals who would argue that
film remains the best way to capture images because of its incredible
ability to record detail in a very stable form.
The most popular of film cameras is the 35mm SLR (single lens
reflex camera), with through-the-lens viewing, built-in metering and
interchangeable lenses. The availability of fine-grained and ultra sharp
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 50

rolls of film allows the 35mm format to be usable for a wide variety of
needs.
Film cameras are loaded with a film without having it fogged by
light. A photographic film is defined as a thin, transparent, flexible
acetate or polyester base, coated with light-sensitive emulsion used in
a camera to record a photographic image. They should always be kept
in a cool place, out of direct sunlight, in low humidity, and away from
all sources of chemical fumes.

Loading and Unloading the Film

To load the film into a 35mm camera:
1. Open the back of the camera by lifting the film rewind
knob and pulling out the back.

2. With the rewind knob up, fit the film canister on the left
side under the rewind knob.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 51

3. Pull the tail of the film gently out of the canister into place.

4. Pull the tail of the film gently out of the canister and insert
it into the take-up spool.

5. Turn the rewind knob slightly to make sure that the film is
snug against the sprockets and advance the film once.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 52

6. Close the camera and advance the film twice.

To unload the film into a 35mm camera:

1. Release the take-up spool by pushing the film rewind button
on the bottom of the camera.

2. Pull the rewind lever out and turn it slowly until it is released
from the take-up spool.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 53

3. Turn the lever a few more times and then open the back of
the camera and remove canister.

The film is protected from light during loading and unloading

because the film is contained in a cartridge, or a cassette having a
velvet ‘light-trapped’ feed slot. Roll film is just tightly rolled up on a
spool together with opaque backing paper (Langford, Fox, & Smith,
2010).

Choosing Film Types

Taking a good picture is not always easy and requires some skill
and the right type of film. Films may be classified based on speed,
depending on their sensitivity to light. Film speed is also a factor in
determining the correct exposure. The film controller is usually located
on the top of the camera or on the top left side.
Film speed figures follow strict test procedures laid down by
standardizing authorities. Most film manufacturers use an ISO
(International Standards Organization), a combination of the previous
U.S. based ASA ratings and European DIN ratings (Langford, Fox, &
Smith, 2010).
Slow films (e.g., ISO 32) are best for scenes where the light is
bright. They often have a brighter detail and give the sharpest image.
This film is ideal for subjects that need to be enlarged while still
retaining a lot of detail and a fine-grained image. Even if light is poor,
the camera can be set up on a tripod and a long exposure given.
A medium-speed film (e.g., ISO 200) is suitable for a wide range of
different subjects and lighting conditions. It can also be used in less
light earlier or later in the day when the sun is much lower in the sky.
Fast films (e.g., ISO 400) are used for low-light situations where a
less-sensitive, slower film may result in underexposure. The quality,
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 54

however, is not as good as the slower film speeds. When light levels
are really low such as in dimly lit interiors or outdoors at dusk, the
sensitivity of faster films (e.g., ISO1000) can give acceptable results
(Hedgecoe, 2005).
Some films, including slide films, are made specifically for
shooting in well-lighted situations. Others are made for artificial light,
incandescent lighting and stage lighting. High speed transparency
film allows the operator to shoot a roll of film at a speed higher than
recommended because the processing of the film can make up for the
difference in light. The photograph will not be as clear or precise, but
it can be useful where additional speed is needed.
Aside from film speed, films can also be categorized as either
black-and-white or color film. A black-and-white film records the
actual intensity of light as shades of gray. The developing stage of
the photographic process turns the silver halide crystals that have
been exposed to light into minute grains of metallic silver. Light from
a bright area of the subject will affect more silver halide crystals than
light from a dark area when these are developed. They are converted to
grains of metallic silver, forming a dark area on the negative. When the
film is printed to a positive, it becomes a light area again. Black and
white films have anti-halation backing, a coating at the back of the film,
usually gelatin containing a dye or pigment, to absorbing light rays
and prevent the light from reflecting back from the film base through
emulsion.
A color film is more complex and consists of three layers of light-
sensitive emulsion -- red, green or blue -- with layer sensitive to a
particular color. During exposure, blue light from a subject will affect
the silver halide crystals in the blue-sensitive layer of the film and so
on. During development, a colored dye forms in the relevant layer of
a complementary or opposite color to the layer in which it is formed;
that is, yellow dye forms in the blue-sensitive layer, magenta dye in
the green-sensitive layer, and cyan dye in the red-sensitive layer. The
silver crystals are then bleached out, leaving just the complementary
colors. Various combinations of the same colors produce all the other
colors in the photograph.
When a color negative is printed, a similar process takes place
in the three layers of the printing paper: the complementary colors
of those in the negative form in the relevant layer of the paper. This,
therefore, reverses the colors on the negative back into the colors of the
original image. Color transparency film goes through a reversal process
during film processing so that the image on the film is a positive; that
is, the color of the original image is the same as the colors on the
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 55

processed film. The three layers of color film include the blue-sensitive
layer, the green-sensitive layer and the red-sensitive layer.

Chemical Processing
Film processing involves a sequence of consistent and controlled
steps whereby a latent image (which is formed by the action of light
on the emulsion while in the camera) is converted into a visible image
through chemical means. The gelatin of the emulsion absorbs liquid
chemicals, which react with those within the film, differentiating
between exposed and unexposed parts of the image. Essentially,
the latent image is developed; its chemical make-up is changed into
something more permanent. When fixed and washed, the chemical by-
products are removed and changes make it no longer sensitive to light
(Langford, Fox, & Smith, 2010).
Photographic processing requires concentration and care over
detail. It is important to avoid contaminating one chemical with
another, wash by-products out of the emulsion thoroughly, closely
monitor times and temperatures, and prevent scratches and dust from
ruining the very soft and vulnerable film. The process itself is easy
but carelessness can result in the loss of unrepeatable pictures. Color
processing, in particular, can be quite tricky to do by hand because
it requires very accurate time and temperature controls and often
requires many solutions. Most professionals therefore choose to have
photos developed commercially so that the most accurate processing
is carried out by expensive automatic machinery with automatically
controlled time, temperature and solution replenishment rate.
Individual hand processing requires essential items of equipment,
chemicals which may require mixing or diluting for use, and a suitable
place to work. The most important equipment is the processing tank
that can hold 120 or 35mm films in open coils or sheet films suitably
separated. Chemicals or wash water can then circulate over the
emulsion surfaces to affect them evenly. Other items needed include
photographic-grade thermometer, various graduated measures for
measuring and mixing solutions, an electronic timer, a plastic mixing
rod, chemical storage bottles, a funnel to return solutions to containers,
a hose for washing, and photographic clips for hanging up films to dry.
Processing chemicals can be bought either as complete kits containing
all stages (as for color film processing) or as individual items (such as
black and white chemicals), either in concentrated liquids or premixed
powders which need dissolving.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 56

Film processing begins with the loading of the film, which involves
a few simple steps:
1. Remove the protective cover.
2. Cut the film leader.
3. Roll the film into the reel.
4. Cut off the end of the film.
5. Place the reel in the tank.

Next is the developing process using the stainless steel

tank and reel:
1. Take the temperature of the developer, and determine the
correct developing time (usually 68 degrees Fahrenheit or
20 degrees Celsius);
2. Pour the developer into the processing tank. Start the timer
as soon as the developer is in the tank;
3. Gently tap the bottom of the tank against a table or give the
tank a sharp tap with the heel of your hand to remove any
air bubbles trapped in the developer;
4. Agitate the tank for the first 30 seconds of development.
Agitation is a darkroom term that refers to the movement of
a processing liquid over the material that is being processed
(e.g., the inversion of the developing tank or the movement
of the tray to ensure constant movement of the fluids) so
that fresh chemicals come in contact with the negative,
film, or print. To agitate, gently rotate the tank in a circular
direction then invert it. A typical method is to invert the
tank three times every 30 seconds. A lack of agitation can
reduce the development and excessive agitation can over
develop the film;
5. At the end of the development time, open the lid of the
drainage opening of the developing tank and pour the
developer away and pour in a stop bath for about 30 seconds
and don’t forget to agitate. A stop bath is an acid rinse used
to stop development by neutralizing unwanted developer
when processing black & white film or paper. This prevents
carryover of one chemical into another during development;
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 57

6. After pouring the stop bath, pour the fixing solution into
the tank and agitate. The fixing process usually takes 5
to 10 minutes in a regular fixer and 2 to 4 minutes in a
rapid fixer. A fixer is a chemical solution that dissolves
unexposed silver halide crystals, leaving the developed
silver image on the film or print and making it stable in
white light. Fixation is the process of removing, unexposed
silver halides remaining in the emulsion after first stage of
development of the latent image;
7. Pour out the fixer and save it for reuse;
8. Wash the film in clean running water for a minimum of 20
minutes (20 to 30 minutes);
9. Rinse the film in wetting agent. A wetting agent is a mild
form of detergent that reduces water surface tension,
thereby helping the water to flow off the surface of the film
without leaving drying marks;
10. Gently wipe it through a special film squeegee or even two
fingers applied with the wetting agent; and
11. Lastly, hang the film and attach a weight to prevent it from
curling during drying.

The final process involves printing, as enumerated below:

1. Place the negative on the negative carrier then insert the
negative carrier in the enlarger head. The negative should
be placed side up, but with the image upside down;
2. Turn off the light inside the darkroom;
3. Adjust the height of the enlarger head to get the desired size
of print by moving the adjuster up and down. As the head
moves up the rail, the projected image becomes bigger; as it
moves down, the image becomes smaller;
4. Focus the image by adjusting the focusing knob or focus
control at the enlarger lens’ biggest aperture. This procedure
not only makes the image brighter and easier to see initially,
it ensures that the image will be sharp;
5. Set the appropriate diaphragm by closing down two or three
stops before the exposure, or close down the aperture to
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 58

a smaller f-stop, (f-8 or f-11) this is to obtain the greater

depth of field;
6. Set the timer with an appropriate enlarging time;
7. Turn off the enlarger with the safelight on;
8. Take a sheet of photographic paper out of its sealed plastic
bag and place it on the easel with the emulsion side facing
up;
9. Align the photo paper correctly with the guides of the easel
mask and close the mask gently. The easel has size scale
on its top, bottom, or sides for setting the image size; and
10. Lastly switch on the enlarger and expose the photographic
paper at the appropriate exposure time.

Equipment for Film Processing

A. Tank or Tray
B. Developing Reel
C. Opener for Film Cartridge
D. Scissors
E. Thermometer
F. Timer
G. Funnel
H. Photographic Sponge
I. Film Clips for Drying
J. Glass or Plastic Bottles (Gallon Size) for Storing Mixed
Solutions
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 59

Digital Photography
Many photographers think the image has replaced the photograph
in the digital age. What really makes a distinction between photograph
and image, between picture and print? A photograph is what comes
out of the camera based on the primary definition of photography
(drawing with light). It would still be a photograph even if five or fifty
negatives are used to make the print in the darkroom, by the definition
of the darkroom enlarger as an optical (not digital) instrument that
utilizes light. It is still a photograph even after undergoing standard
editing in the computer. Standard editing can range from minor
exposure tweaks to heavy digital dodging and burning, just like in the
wet darkroom. Non-critical details like electrical wires and trash can
be removed from a photograph without changing the meaning of the
original photograph. So at what point in the editing does it cease to be
a photograph?
An image is created when critical elements are added or deleted,
changing the scene as it was seen by the eye or camera, or when visual
effects introduced are not possible with the camera or in the darkroom.
It is also considered an image if it is a digital illustration or digital
printing created in the computer from scratch. The defining property
that differentiates it from a photograph is that the image is not made
or remade using light.
A picture is a print of a photograph – what we get from the lab,
darkroom or desktop printers. It is something we can hold in our
hands, hang on the wall, or see in a magazine. We can’t point to a
photograph on a computer monitor and call it a picture; neither can
we say that we have pictures stored in our camera, flash cards, or hard
disks.
If a picture is a print of a photograph, what do we call the print of
an image? A computer printout of an image is best called a print. This
is based on historical and traditional precedent. Before the digital age,
art works not created by camera were called prints, not pictures.

Digital Cameras
The principal attraction with digital cameras is the immediacy of
the results. As soon as the picture is taken, the shot can be viewed
instantly on screen as well as on the computer or TV screen. There
is no processing stage; the image can be printed at home using a
standard desktop printer or professionally using photographic paper,
and the memory can be re-used. Digital cameras use an electronic
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 60

light-sensitive CCD or CMOS chip that converts the focused image

into an electrical signal, which then converts into a digital form using
the same binary code in which all computer files are stored (Hedgecoe,
2005).
Digital cameras can vary in terms of the number of pixels or the
individual elements used by the imaging sensor. More pixels mean
higher maximum resolution. The higher the resolution, the bigger the
file size.

Below are some types of digital cameras.

1. View Camera
This is a large-format camera, using individual
pieces of 5x4 inch (12.7 x 10cm) film or larger (5x7,
8x10, 11x14), with a lens panel mounted on a flexible
bellows and a ground-glass screen at the image plane
for viewing and focusing. They are also known as a
technical camera.
This type of large and cumbersome camera is
normally mounted on a sturdy tripod. They are used
most often by professionals, either in the studio or on
location for subjects such as buildings. They tend to be
slow and cumbersome to use, but give superb results.

2. Polaroid Camera or Instant-print Camera

This type of camera can produce a black-and-white
or colored print in less than a minute after the picture
has been snapped. The photograph is self-developed
either within or outside the camera.
Instant cameras are very useful on social occasions
such as parties. They are also employed by people like
the police or insurance investigators who may require
an instant record of a crime scene.
Professional photographers often use instant film
in medium or large format cameras so that they can
judge the exposure or lighting quality of a shot before
shooting on conventional film.
They lack detail, the print can fade, and there are
no negatives for duplicates.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 61

3. Spy Camera
This usually refers to a camera disguised as a
matchbox, card case, pocket watch, or other small item
and used surreptitiously.

4. Infrared Camera
This is a camera with detectors that respond to
infrared energy radiated by any heat. It is used to take
photographs without the presence of light, and works as
well by day or night. It is commonly used in surveillance
during night time.

5. Pinhole Camera
This is a simple camera consisting of a light-tight
box with a piece of film at one end and a tiny pinhole
in the other (instead of a lens) through which light is
transmitted. This camera has no lens, and its aperture
is controlled by a paper flap.

6. Disposable Cameras
These are cameras that are supplied with pre-
loaded film. When the film has been exposed, the whole
camera is taken into the processing laboratory.

7. Cellphone Cameras
More people now have cameras and take more
pictures due largely to the popularity of the mobile
phone with built right in digital cameras of up to 8 MP
on the CCD chip. Some even have zoom functionality,
ability to record, and come with a flash or light source.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Digital Photography

A digital SLR has the same handling and features as the 35mm
SLR but offers the advantages of digital recording. Digital cameras
offer the following advantages and disadvantages:
ADVANTAGES:
1. It allows shooting in both color and black and white;
there is no need to change film.
2. There is no need to worry about running out of film.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 62

3. It allows you to see the image directly through the lens

using a prism and moving mirror arrangement.
4. It has an LCD monitor that can be used for framing
shots or reviewing pictures already taken.
5. It also provides a high degree of control over exposure,
focusing, color balance, and other creative functions.
6. An added feature on many digital cameras is the ability
to shoot video.
7. It offers an automatic exposure bracketing (AEB).
The digital camera’s exposure bracketing system
automatically varies exposures in a series of three shots.
8. You can take as many photographs in one go as the
memory card will allow.
9. You can conveniently share your pictures.

DISADVANTAGES:
1. Digital cameras are not as sensitive to light as the film-
based cameras.
2. They require more light to make an exposure.
3. The shutter lag or the delay between pressing the shutter
button and actually capturing of the image can lead to
missed opportunities.
4. The LCD viewfinder can sometimes be hard to see on a
bright day.
5. Camera battery life is limited due to the abundance of
computerized parts.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 63

Digital Photography in Police Work

The use of digital cameras is an excellent means of recording
for crime scene investigations. By viewing the image recorded on a
small screen set within the digital camera, the forensic photographer
can ensure that the image has been recorded accurately. With digital
cameras, the image recorded can be electronically transferred between
sites for the purpose of briefing or searching against databases. Some
police forces invest heavily in digital imaging equipment with large
image recording ability, such as over 5 million pixels so that the image
is not compressed as in smaller cheaper cameras with only 3 million
pixels. Compression of the image results in information being removed
to allow storage (Pepper, 2005).
But the important issue regarding the use of digital cameras
refers to the security and integrity of the electronic image from the time
it was taken at the crime scene to the investigative process and the
presentation in court. It seems relatively easy to enhance the digital
image or remove an object from it, thus raising the issue of digital
image manipulation.
In Crime Scene Investigations: Methods and Procedures, Ian K
Pepper (2005) cites the suggestion of the Police Scientific Development
Branch2 regarding this issue. An audit trail should be initiated as
soon as a digital image is recorded that will remain with the image
from its beginning until its final disposal. Such a trail should include
details of the case, description of images recorded, any downloading
of the images, creation of master files, their storage, any access to
them, copying of the image, viewing of the image, and their use in a
court of law. Pepper further suggests that as soon as possible, the first
digital recording of the image should be burned in an uncompressed
format to a writable CD in a Write Once, Read Many (WORM) format.
Information about the date and time the CD should be recorded and
the details of the person making the recording should be included.
Future alterations or enhancements of every image should also be
recorded in the sequence they are performed.

2 The Police Scientific Development Branch (PSDB) is a Home Office Unit composed
of scientists and technologists providing technical advice and guidance to ensure
the effectiveness and efficiency of police service in England.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 64

Student’s Name:
Year/ Section:
Instructor:
School:

Review Questions:
1. What is a film-based camera?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. How is film loaded and unloaded in a camera?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3. What are the different film types?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
4. How are photographs converted from latent to visible images?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 65

5. What is the difference between a photograph and an image?

_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
6. What are the different types of digital cameras?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
7. What are the advantages and disadvantages of digital
photography?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
8. What are the issues regarding the use of digital photography
in police work?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 66

CHAPTER 5
ESSENTIALS OF PHOTOGRAPHY

Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:
• Define exposure and explain the adjustments that
control exposure;
• Enumerate the steps to obtain proper exposure;
• Explain the importance of focus in crime scene
photographs;
• Explain how to get depth of field in photographs; and
• Enumerate ways to capture better crime scene
photographs.

This chapter will discuss several crucial elements for exercising

greater creative control over the final photographic image.

Exposure
Exposure is defined as the amount of light received by a
photographic emulsion or imaging chip. Overall exposure is the
product of the intensity of the light, the aperture size, and the shutter
speed (Hedgecoe, 2005).
A properly exposed photo is neither too light nor too dark. On the
other hand, in incorrectly exposed photos, the details are hidden by
dark shadows or washed out by being overexposed.
The photographer must always remember that a camera makes
adjustments to light much like the human eye. You might say that
the eye has a built-in light meter. That same light meter is imperative
for getting usable shots with a camera. A light “meter” will tell the
photographer what camera settings will give the best results.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 67

Exposure Controls
Below are two adjustments in the camera that can control the
amount of light that reaches the film.
1. Shutter Speed Control
The shutter speed control determines the length of time
that the film is exposed to light. The numbers found on the
control correspond to fractions of a second.
2. Lens Opening
The size of the lens opening in your camera is the other factor
that determines the amount of light that reaches the film. The
indicator on the camera for the degree of light passing through
the camera lens is called the “f” number. The smaller the “f”
number, the smaller the opening and vice versa. Much like
fast films and slow films, there are fast and slow lenses. A fast
lens, for instance, is one that transmits a lot of light. The user
should be cautious, however, since fast lenses do not produce
the sharpest images.

Available Light Photography

Below are steps to obtain proper exposure using available light
(no flash):
1. When inserting a roll of film in the camera, always set your
ASA or ISO dial according to the film speed as stated on the
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 68

film cartridge. This adjusts the built-in light meter to the

film’s light sensitivity.
2. For crime or accident scenes, the shutter speed on the
camera should be set at 1/125 sec. This is usually a good
starting point for the shutter speed. Your shutter speed
could change from a slower speed to a faster one depending
on the light intensity at the time the photograph is taken.
3. Adjust the light meter needle as seen in the viewfinder
by turning the aperture ring located on the barrel of the
lens until the needle is properly lined up. When the needle
is properly lined up, this tells the photographer that the
light entering the camera will produce a properly exposed
photograph.
4. Use a shutter speed faster than 1/30 of a second for all
hand held photographs. The camera must be supported
(such as through a tripod) for shutter speeds of 1/30 of a
second or slower.
5. The final step in available light photography is to compose
your shots and focus.

Exposure Using Flash (Artificial Light)

Your flash will be so important to you that it deserves special
consideration. The flash is your light. It is with you at all times. You
can, therefore, learn to control it more predictably than you can the
available light that you happen to find on the spot. With experience,
you may be able to learn to use the flash to duplicate almost any type
of natural lighting.
Even without experience, the flash can help improve crime scene
photography a great deal. You normally need front lighting and the
flash mounted on the camera will provide that automatically.
Below are steps to follow to obtain properly exposed photographs
in artificial light, i.e., using flash. Note that when using a flash as the
light source, adjustment must be done to both the camera and the
flash unit in order to obtain a properly exposed photograph.
1. Your flash unit, now being your main light source, must
be adjusted to the proper ASA/ISO setting according to
the speed of the film being used for the same reasons you
adjusted the camera light meter to the film speed being
used.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 69

2. The Vivitar 283, a popular flash unit with removable sensor,

has four automatic settings as well as a manual mode.
3. These automatic settings are indicated via color codes
(yellow, red, blue, mauve) on the flash scale dial on the
side of the flash unit. These color codes will indicate the
maximum distance capability as well as the required
corresponding “f” stop (lens aperture setting).
4. Once you have decided on the most appropriate setting, note
the color. You must now adjust the Thyristor Sensor on the
front of the flash so that the color code on it corresponds to
the one on the flash scale.
5. When choosing a setting you must keep in mind both the
distance requirement and the desired depth of field (DOF).
That is, color code yellow used to shoot objects about 40
feet away requires f/2.8, but there is little DOF. Color code
mauve which requires an f/stop setting of f/11 will give
you the greatest DOF, but the light from the flash will only
properly expose objects up to ten feet. You will have to come
to some sort of compromise here.
6. When using the manual mode, always ensure your aperture
setting corresponds with the distance indicated on your
flash scale. Also, check the Thyristor Sensor to ensure that
you have set it “M” position.

Focus
Focus is defined as the physical point at which rays of light from
a lens converge to form a properly defined image of the subject. The
sharpness or focus of a photograph will make a difference in a court of
law. If the jury can see exactly what has taken place through a series
of photographs that are clear and concise, the evidence will be much
easier to understand.
In the book Crime Scene Photography, Edward M. Robinson (2010)
highlights the difference of crime scene photos with others not used in
law enforcement. When taking photographs of family, friends, pets,
birthday cakes, trophies, and other interesting items, the focus is on
these subjects. In crime scene photography, medium and large crime
scenes as well as individual items need to be captured. Focusing the
foreground and background details are just as important as focusing
on all items of evidence. Focusing is therefore critical to the work of
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 70

a forensic photographer so that they can be admissible in court as

evidence.
Below are some points to consider in ensuring the photographed
images are in focus.
1. Sharp images
Getting sharp images may be difficult when close-up
photography is required. Although the film speed and the
depth of field is not critical in a close-up photograph, the
crime scene specialist must always find a focal point that
can serve as a visual reference point and be understood in
court. In other words, the photographer must decide how
much meaning he would lose for any particular focal choice.

2. Tripod
Since the depth is so shallow, the photographer must
concentrate on the most important part of the photograph.
The tripod is used for a close-up photograph as described.
Remember that the sharp area of the photograph
extends to about one-third in front and two-thirds beyond
the subject of the photograph. Also remember that the lens
used has a significant effect on the way that the photograph
will look when processed.

3. Type of lens
Sometimes the photographer may want to highlight a
particular part of the photograph. To do so may require
a different lens. Wide-angle lenses, for instance, make
objects look smaller and distances between look greater.
Conversely, zoom lenses can be adjusted to acquire a close-
up photograph that can be taken from some distance.

Depth of Field
Depth of field is the distance measured from the nearest to the
farthest object in apparent sharp focus when the lens is set or focused
at particular distance. The term, also known as the zone of focus, is
used to describe how much of what the camera sees in focus.
Depth of field is usually misunderstood and thought to be the
sharpness in front and at the back of the subject of the photograph.
The term is really used, however, to describe the distance that the
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 71

investigator can move away from the subject and still maintain a sharp
image. Depth is the area in front and at the back of the photograph.
To get depth, remember the following:
1. Use small lens - To get depth, the photographer will use
a small lens with a large “f” number. Understanding this
concept will control the sharpness of every photograph.

2. Change in depth – Increasing depth can be accomplished

by moving further away from the subject of the
photograph, but this often distorts the photograph
by changing the size of the subject’s image. A more
plausible way to change depth is to set the aperture
(lens opening) to a higher number. The shutter
speed, however, must also be adjusted because of the
corresponding light restriction that will naturally occur
when going to a higher “f” number. When depth is an
important element of the photograph, use the smallest
aperture possible to keep the picture sharp.

3. Moving subject – When you are photographing a moving

subject, a fast shutter speed will be needed to stop the
action.
Keep in mind that moving away from the subject of the photograph
will give a greater depth. Also remember that telephoto lenses will
have considerably less depth than normal lenses and you can’t move
back to achieve depth.

TAKING BETTER PHOTOS

General Photography Tips
In Advanced Crime Scene Photography, Christopher D. Duncan
(2010) provides some general photography tips for the crime scene
photographer, as summarized below.
1. Make sure that all the necessary equipment is available.
Ensure that batteries are charged and that the equipment
is in good working order.

2. Ensure that the camera settings are correct. Double

check if the lens is set for auto-focus or manual-focus
mode, whether the ISO is accurately selected, and if the
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 72

flash settings correspond to the camera settings. Read the

camera’s instruction manual completely and thoroughly.

3. Double check the ISO values from time to time to ensure that
they are recording the scene as intended. A photographer
can use an ISO 100 film speed when recording colorful
bloodstains on clothing, switch to an ISO 400 setting to
capture a flash exposure of the bedroom where the clothes
were found, and switch again to ISO 800 or 1600 to
document latent bloodstains treated with Luminol.

4. Check the white balance setting prior to beginning every

new photographic assignment. To eliminate the yellow
stain caused by high-pressure sodium street lights, set the
white balance to incandescent lighting. Set the camera to
a daylight setting and when capturing images in natural
sunlight or with electronic flash to prevent very distracting
blue staining on the recorded image.

5. Do not limit the number of photographs recorded during

any investigation. Take a shot that you feel is the best and
then take several more shots at different exposures just to
make sure you have what you need. This is called bracketing
and it is a crucial step in the complete documentation of a
crime scene.

Top Ten Tips for Better Photos

Duncan also adapted Kodak’s “Top Ten Tips” to take better crime
scene photos, as enumerated below (Duncan, 2010 and Kodak, 2013).
1. Get down on the subject’s level.
This is usually applied to photographing kids and
pets by holding the camera to their eye level to unleash the
power of their magnetic gazes. That eye level angle creates a
personal and inviting feeling that pulls you into the picture.
In crime scene photography, this means going down
to capture evidence lying on the ground. Positioning the
camera at the same level as the evidence can produce an
image that can give the investigator an important and
informative perspective. However, be sure to also capture
different perspectives that provide investigators the best
opportunity to understand the crime scene and give
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prosecutors the opportunity to select the most optimum

image to illustrate the crime scene for the court.

2. Use a plain background.

Before taking a picture, check if the background
behind the subject is cluttered and distracting. A plain
background shows off the subject better. Force yourself to
study the area surrounding your subject.
When the goal for capturing an image is to direct
the viewer’s eyes directly to a single piece of evidence,
a cluttered crime scene could make for a distracting
background. In such cases, large apertures and longer
focal lengths can cause the background of the subject to
be unrecognizable. Distracting elements in a crime scene
also include other investigators, patrol officers, medical
emergency responders and other curious onlookers. Such
unnecessary distractions should be controlled so as not to
reduce the value of evidentiary photographs.
When photographing evidence inside the laboratory,
use plain background to eliminate distracting elements.

3. Use flash outdoors.

Using flash outdoors eliminate the unattractive deep
facial shadows caused by the bright sun. On sunny days,
turn the flash on. On cloudy days, the flash will brighten
up people’s faces and make them stand out, but also take
photos without flash because the soft light of overcast days
can give pleasing results.
The same principle applies in outdoor crime scenes
during daytime. Using flash can provide a balance between
shadows and highlights caused by the bright sun. However,
be sure to bracket the exposures by recording with and
without flash.

4. Move in close.
Moving close to the subject to fill the viewfinder
eliminates background distractions and shows off details in
the subject. The result could be photos with higher impact.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 74

The closest focusing distance for most cameras is about

three feet, or about one step away from the camera.
In crime scene photography, it is necessary to progress
from an overall perspective to a close-up view of the evidence.
But the value of close-focused images is of great value
when photographing evidence. Capturing in detail even
the smallest piece of evidence or information is extremely
important, especially when used in court presentation in
place of bloody, nauseating and decomposing bodies. The
key is to use a stable camera, proper illumination, and a
desirable depth of field.

5. Take some vertical pictures.

Sometimes, a photographer gets locked into the
classical horizontal position for each and every photograph.
Turning the camera sideways to take vertical pictures make
subjects look more interesting. It also adds variety into the
photographers work.
However, for crime scene photographers, taking vertical
shots is not just for the sake of variety. Changing the cameras
orientation is actually necessary, especially when capturing
mid-range photographs such as passageways, doorways
and staircases. It may also be necessary when filling the
viewfinder with close-up evidence that is vertically oriented.
The crime scene photographer should keep his eyes open
to the environment or location of the evidence that dictates
whether a camera is held horizontally or vertically.

6. Lock the focus.

Most auto-focus cameras focus on whatever is in the
center of the picture. But if your subject is not at the center
of the picture, you need to lock the focus so it doesn’t turn
out blurry. To do this, Kodak suggests three steps: (a)
center the subject and press and hold the shutter button
halfway down; (b) reposition the camera while still holding
the shutter button so the subject is away from the center;
(c) finish by pressing the shutter button all the way down
to take the picture.
Other cameras have multiple focal points. The camera
will seek the nearest subject on which to lock its focus. In
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a cluttered crime scene, the nearest object in the image

might not be the subject that needs focus. A crime scene
photographer must be careful to lock the focus exactly
where it needs to be, and not rely on the camera to
establish the true subject or the most important part of
an overall image. One way to do this is as explained above:
find the subject to focus and lock that point by pressing the
shutter button halfway down, then recompose the image to
a desired position and capture the image. Other ways to do
this is by manually focusing the camera or controlling the
depth of field.

7. Move it from the middle.

Simply placing the subject off center can bring the
picture to life. Imagine a tic-tack-toe grid in your viewfinder
then place the subject at one of the intersections of lines.
Remember to lock the focus though when reframing the
shot.
This technique can also be applied in crime scene
photography and allows a little creativity into your image
composition, thus creating more interest in the subject.

8. Know your flash’s range.

Some photographers make the usual mistake of taking
pictures beyond the flash’s range. This results in an image
that is too dark. The flash range for many cameras is ten
feet or about four steps away. Check your camera manual
to be sure.
More sophisticated cameras can also take into
consideration the ISO setting to maximize the flash range,
particularly during nighttime. An ISO setting of 400 to 800
will be able to record light from greater distances, but be
careful not to overexpose the foreground when trying to
reach something in the far background of an image.

9. Watch the light.

Study the effect of light on the subject. Do objects
cover the subject with darkening shadow? Does the bright
sunlight enhance unflattering features? Great light can
make great pictures. Move the subject or move yourself to
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avoid harsh shadows, capture images during cloudy days,

or use the long shadows and color of early and late daylight.
A crime scene photographer should observe how light
falls onto a scene and individual items of evidence. He
should also observe the shadows not only in daylight but
also in nighttime. He must also understand the properties
of light such as color, intensity, and directionality. The
color of the light becomes important during nighttime crime
scenes, when photographing with alternate light sources.

10. Be a picture director.

Don’t be just a passive picture-taker. Pick the location,
add props, arrange people or try different viewpoints. Taking
control of the picture-taking results in better photos.
This is especially important for crime scene
photographers. The area could be busy with other
investigators, patrol officers and family members who
attempt to speed up the process. The photographer must be
able to take command and control of the crime scene in order
to take true and accurate photographic documentation. If
pictures turn out poorly exposed or specific photographs
of evidence were forgotten, he cannot simply return to the
crime scene and find it in the exact condition as it was
when first examined.

Tips for Optimizing the Quality of Crime Scene Photographs

In Crime Scene Photography, Edward M. Robinson (2010)
emphasizes the need to optimize the quality of crime scene photographs
by enumerating what he calls the “Cardinal Rules.”
1. Fill the frame.
Robinson recommends getting close to the primary
subject. Whether it is a single item of evidence or an entire
crime scene. If it is important enough to photograph, fill
the frame with it. Don’t let the primary subject get lost in
the background by minimizing or eliminating unnecessary
background elements. Choose a viewpoint that shows
a “cleaner” background. If anything appears in the
background, it should be there because you wanted it there.
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2. Maximize depth of field.

As already explained in this chapter, depth of field is
the variable range, from foreground to background, of what
appears to be in focus. The depth of field can encompass a
small area of the scene, with the foreground and background
being noticeably out of focus, or it may encompass the
entire crime scene seen through the viewfinder.
Robinson highlights the criticality of skill in maximizing
the depth of field for crime scene photographers. While other
professional photographers may prefer that backgrounds
are out of focus to force the viewer to look directly at the
subject, the crime scene photographer should strive to
ensure everything in their images is in focus so that the
image becomes a fair and accurate representation of the
scene.

3. Keep the film plane parallel.

The best angle of view is usually having the film plane
parallel to the main subject. This means keeping the back of
the camera or the front of the lens parallel to the subject or
keeping the length of the lens perpendicular to the subject.
Exterior overall photographs such as building facades
and walls are best photographed with the film plane parallel
to those surfaces. Exceptions to this may include a highly
reflective mirrored wall.
With mid-range photographs, arrange the subject and
the fixed feature of the scene so they are the same distance
from you as is possible. Robinson illustrates this through
an isosceles triangle: the photographer at one point of the
triangle, and the evidence and the fixed feature of the scene
at the end of the two equal length sides of the triangle.
With close-up photographs, having the film plane
parallel to the evidence is critical. This is because if the film
plane is not parallel to the subject, the close-up cannot be
used for comparison purposes.
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Student’s Name:
Year/ Section:
Instructor:
School:

Review Questions:
1. What is exposure? How do you make adjustments in the
camera to control exposure?
_____________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________
2. What are the ways to obtain proper exposure when capturing
images?
_____________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
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3. What is focus? Why is it important in crime scene

photography?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
4. What is depth of field? How can you control depth of field?
_____________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
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5. How can you capture better crime scene photos?
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CHAPTER 6
DOCUMENTATION OF THE CRIME SCENE

Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:
• Enumerate and explain the three methods of
documenting a crime scene;
• Enumerate and explain the ranges of photographs to
be captured in the crime scene;
• Identify the methods of photographing the crime
scene;
• Identify the sequential photographs to be taken in the
crime scene;
• Enumerate the essential items to be included during
note taking;
• Enumerate the information to be included in a crime
scene sketch; and
• Identify the types and methods of sketching.

A crime scene can be defined as a location at which an offense

was committed and where the potential evidence of that crime may
exist. This may include a home, automobile or a remote location in
the woods.
There are three most common methods of documenting a crime
scene, namely note taking, sketching and photography. A detailed
record of the crime scene and of the actions taken during the search
can help the investigator to accurately recall events and to identify
items of evidence later in a court of law. The notes taken, sketches
made and the photographs captured during the search for evidence
also serve as valuable reference concerning the details uncovered
during the search.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 81

Photographing the Crime Scene

The purpose of crime scene photographs is to give a documented
record of the scene as it is observed. The photographers should begin
taking photographs of the scene as soon as possible upon arriving on
the area. This will assure that the scene is depicted as it is observed
in its original uninterrupted state. Nothing should be touched, moved,
or initiated into the scene until it has been thoroughly photographed
and documented.
The goal is to record useful information in a series of photographs
which will enable the viewer to understand where and how the crime
was committed. The crime scene not only refers to the immediate
locality in which the crime took place, but also to adjacent areas where
important acts took place immediately before or after the crime was
committed.
Photographs of the broad area of the crime scene should be
supplemented by closer shots of sections containing important detail.
Each area or object should be photographed so that it can be located
readily in the overall pictures, which will enable the viewer to gain a
clear concept of its position with reference to other objects at the scene.

Ranges of Photographs
An important aspect to consider regarding the various ranges of
photographs is the general point-of-view established by the camera
locations. These locations will enable the viewer of the pictures to
orient the crime scene in a logical manner.

1. General View or
Long-Range
General view or
long-range photographs
of the overall scene are
fundamentally taken
to portray the areas as
if a person viewing the
scene is seeing it from
the standing position.
To obtain this result,
the photographer takes
the photograph with the
camera at eye level. Figure 6.1 General View or Long Range
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 82

2. Medium View or Mid-range

Medium view or mid-range photographs are taken in a manner
which portrays the scene from approximately ten to twenty feet
of distance from the subject matter. In order that the viewer be
permitted to associate the crime scene with separate areas of the scene
photographed, these areas should contain sufficient detail to permit
the viewer this association.

Figure 6.2
Medium
View or
Mid-range

3. Close-up View/Range
Close-up range photographs are normally taken approximately
five feet or less from the subject matter. The attention of close-up
photography is directed to objects which could not effectively be seen
in the long-range and mid-range photographs. Take necessary extreme
close-up shot of the subject to show the extent of damage.

Figure 6.3
Close-up
View/ Range
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 83

Methods of Photographing the Crime Scene

There are two general methods of photographing the crime
scene.
1. Overlapping Method
— A photographic method of taking a series of photographs
in a circular or clockwise direction, overlapping each
other slightly to show the entire crime scene. If a single
photograph cannot show the entire crime scene, apply this
method.

2. Progressive Method
— A photographic method of taking crime scene photographs
starting from a fixed point, photographing each piece of
evidence from general to specific as the photographer moves
toward it, and progressively getting closer.

Sequential Photographs of the Crime Scene

Each crime has individual features that should be photographed.
Keep in mind the nature of the offense and try to show those features
that establish the elements of the offense. The following photographs
should be taken.
1. Views of the exterior of the building/vehicle, with relation
to other buildings/vehicles, roads, streets, etc.
2. Point of entry, outside and inside
3. Point of exit, outside and inside
4. Condition (s) of the crime scene
5. Area from which valuable articles were removed
6. Articles left at the scene
7. Trace evidence, such as hairs, fibers, and cigarette butts
8. Tool marks and impressions of shoes or tire tracks
9. Fingerprints and footprints, as well as articles on which
these prints may be found
Specific situations and instances to be photographed in the crime
scene is discussed in further detail in the next chapter.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 84

Standard Operating Procedures in

Photographing the Crime Scene
The PNP’s forensic photographers follow these basic rules for
Scene of Crime Operation (SOCO) and Field Laboratory Work (FLW):
1. Photograph the entire scene or the general view to include
nearby surroundings pertinent to the case, indicating the
case number, time, date, and initial of the photographer.

2. Take an overlapping shot of the immediate scene from four

different angles.

3. Photograph the entrance and exit of the crime scene.

4. Photograph the body (victim/s or suspect/s) showing the

exact location, direction where it tends. After removal of the
body, take a photograph of the scene with the white outline
to indicate the place where the victim was lying.

5. Take close-up photographs of the body showing the face for

proper identification.

6. Take mid-range and close-up photographs of all pieces of

evidence found at the crime scene with a measuring tool or
scale, if necessary, including the case number, date and
initial of the photographer.

7. Take close-up photographs of the bullet hole if there is any,

and photograph the area showing the appropriate distance
of fire by making a straight line on the direction of the bullet
hole.

8. The crime scene should be sketched in the presence of the

investigator or other authorized person. The investigator
should sign in the rough sketch to attest the authenticity
of the crime scene sketch. Record on the photographic log
book the weather condition, type of lens, film and camera
used.

9. Negatives and photographs should be placed in a plastic

holder and put inside a white mailing envelope with proper
case identification such as case number, time and date
before filing in a steel cabinet.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 85

Issuance/ Release of Photographic Evidence

A written request addressed to the Director, Crime Laboratory is
required from the investigating units having jurisdiction over the case
prior to the release/issuance of photographic evidence.
Upon receipt of the approved request, photographs and other
photographic evidence should be released within minimum period
of one day. Likewise, requests for court presentation should be
attended without delay. Forensic Photographer subpoenaed by court
should personally print the negatives as soon as possible and prepare
the materials, photo log and crime scene sketch for court presentation.

Note Taking
The investigator/photographer’s notes are personal records of the
search for evidence. The objective of note taking at a crime scene is
to make detailed notes that will remain fully meaningful even months
after the event. Oftentimes, a note that is completely clear to the writer
a short time after being made later becomes unintelligible.
Notes are valuable not only as an aid to an accurate recall of
events to be testified in court, but also to furnish the raw material
needed in the written formal report of the case. The notebooks should
be kept permanently in a safe place.
The notes taken should begin with the investigator’s name and
assignment to the case. Notes should be supplemented by sketches
and photographs of the scene. Notes should be recorded in the order
that the observations they pertain to are made, and will not necessarily
be in logical order. During the initial stage of the recording process, it
is important only that the notes are complete, as the investigator will
later reorganize the information during the writing of the formal report.

Essential Items of Information to Be Included

During Note Taking
1. Dates, times, and locations
The date and time of the investigator’s assignment
to the case should be noted. Include also the exact time
of arrival, the exact location of the crime scene, light and
weather conditions, the names of any officers contacted,
and names of other persons on the scene of the crime.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 86

2. Detailed description of the victim and his/her clothing

The name, age, height, weight, complexion, and color of
hair and eyes of the victim need to be included in the notes.
Outer garments worn by the victim should be described in
terms of the type of garment and color.

3. Wounds the victim has received

The exact location of a wound or injury, its type, size,
and, in the case of a bruise, its color need to be included in
the notes.

4. A general description of the crime scene

The investigator should note any damage to items,
any apparent disturbance of the normal arrangement of
furniture or other objects, and the presence of objects that
seem unusual in the context of the scene.

5. The type of camera and film used in photographing the

crime scene
As each photograph is taken, a note should be made
that includes the f/stop of the camera, shutter speed,
distance focused, direction in which the camera was faced,
flash unit used, object or area photographed, and the time
that the photograph was taken. The disposition of the film
(the location that it was sent for processing) should also be
noted.

6. Discovery of each significant item of evidence

Included here are the description of the item, the time
it was discovered, by whom, the exact place of its discovery,
how it was marked, the type of container it was placed
in, how the container was sealed and marked, and the
disposition of the item after it was collected.

7. The failure to locate items

Note the absence of items that would normally be
associated with the crime being investigated, the area of
the crime scene, or items missing from a deceased victims
such as items of clothing that could not be located at the
scene of the crime.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 87

PHOTOGRAPHER’S NOTE
CASE NUMBER: SOCO 038-2013
TYPE OF CASE: Robbery with Homicide
LOCATION’S ADDRESS: #13 Molave St., San Isidro, QC
DATE: July 4, 2013
TIME RCVD THE CALL/RQST: 1600H
TIME LEAVE BASE: 1605H
TIME ARRIVE CS: 1700H
INVEST ON CASE: PO3 Juan Dela Cruz, NCR, CIU
VICTIM / WITNESS: _______________________
FILM USED: Kodak colored 400 ASA, 36 exposure
NUMBER OF EXP: 24 shots
CAMERA USED: Nikon FM 10 SLR
WEATHER CONDITION: Hazy
CHAIN OF CUSTODY: Turned in to (name of person),_(date & time)
ITEMS PHOTOGRAPHED: Itemized
TIME LEAVE THE CS: 2300H July 4, 2013
TEAM COMPOSITION: Name of Team Members

Crime Scene Sketching

The final phase in documenting the scene is making a crime
scene sketch. The drawback of the photographs is that they are
two-dimensional representations of three-dimensional objects. As
a result, most photographs can distort the spatial relationships of
the photographed objects causing items to appear closer together or
farther apart than they actually are. If spatial relationships of the
evidence are important or if something needs to have proportional
measurements included in it for calculations (such as bullet trajectory
angles, accident reconstructions, etc.) then a sketch must be made of
the crime scene.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 88

Photographs alone are not sufficient for the adequate recording of

a crime scene. A crime scene sketch will complement the photographs
and notes made during the crime scene search. The purpose of a sketch
is to portray the information accurately, not necessarily artistically. It
is not required that the crime scene sketcher have any artistic ability
in order to construct an adequate sketch of a crime scene. Crime
scene sketches clarify the appearance of the scene and make it easier
to comprehend.
A sketch is usually made of the scene as if one is looking straight
down (overhead sketch) or straight ahead (elevation sketch) at a crime
scene. A rough sketch at the scene is usually made first on graph paper
in pencil with so many squares representing square feet or inches.
Directionality of the overhead view is determined by using a compass.
Using a tape measure or other measuring devices, measurements of
the distances between objects and/or structures at the crime scene
are taken. These measurements are proportionally introduced on the
rough sketch and the objects are drawn in. Two measurements taken
at right angles to each other or from two reference points will usually
suffice in placing the objects where they belong in a sketch. Double
measurements should also be taken to make sure they are correct.
This is especially true where calculations will later be used. A final
sketch can be made later using inks, paper and ruler, or a computer.
The original rough sketch should be retained and preserved in case
it is needed at a later date. Once the scene has been thoroughly
documented then the evidence collection can commence.
Use a measurement table for the evidence in your sketch. The
table is adaptable to any coordinate system (triangulation, rectangular,
baseline or even radial). The table may help in reminding you to measure
the height, which is frequently overlooked. Eliminating needless
measurement lines will rid confusion by making your sketch look
cleaner.
Instead of the walls you can use corners for triangulation. You
are not limited to two reference points. Note the above “relationship”
measurements. These measurements cannot accurately be made on a
“scale” drawing at a later time. 
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Information to be Included in the Sketch

The sketch should include at least the following information:
1. The crime scene sketcher’s full name and assignment.

2. The date, time, crime classification, and case number.

3. The full name of any person who assists in taking

measurements.

4. Address of the crime scene, its position in a building,

landmark, and compass direction.

5. The scale of the drawing, if a scale drawing has been made.

6. The major discernible items of physical evidence and the

critical features of the crime scene. The location of such
items is indicated by accurate measurements from at least
two fixed points, or by other methods discussed below.
The measurements shown on sketch should be as accurate as
possible and they need to be made and recorded uniformly. Steel tapes
are the best means of taking measurements. It is difficult to explain
an erroneous measurement on a drawing, and can introduce doubt in
minds of others as to the competence of the entire search of the crime
scene.

Types of Sketches
1. Rough Sketch – A rough sketch is drawn free-hand by the
sketcher at the crime scene. Changes should not be made
to it after the sketcher has left the scene. This sketch will
not normally be drawn to scale, but will indicate accurate
distances, dimensions, and relative proportions.

2. Smooth Sketch – A smooth sketch is one that is finished

and is frequently drawn to scale from the information
provided in the rough sketch. If a sketch is drawn to scale,
the numbers concerning the distances can be eliminated.
However, if the sketch is not drawn to scale, the distances
need to be shown.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 95

Methods of Sketching
1. Coordinate Method
The coordinate method measures the distance of an
object from two fixed points. One form of this method uses
a baseline which is drawn between two known points. The
baseline could be a wall, or drawn as a mathematical center
of a room. The exact dimensions of which are known. The
measurements of a given object are then taken from left to
right along the baseline, to a point at right angles to the
object which is to be plotted. The distance will be indicated
in the legend with a number in parentheses following the
name of the object.

2. Triangulation Method
The triangulation method is useful in an outdoor
situation where there are no easily identifiable edges of
roads or fields to use as reference points. Two or more
reference points are located and should be widely separated
if possible. The item of interest is located by measuring
along a straight line from the reference points.

3. Cross-Projection Method
The cross-projection method is useful when the items
or locations of interest are on or in the wall surfaces as well
as elsewhere in an enclosed space. The walls, windows and
doors in a cross-projection sketch are drawn as though the
walls had been folded flat on the floor. Then a sketch is
drawn of the measurements from a given point on the floor
to the wall.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 96

General Rules of Sketching

 Decide what is to be sketched.
1. Indicate the direction of the compass.
2. Locate the objects exactly and represent distances between
them accurately.
3. Include only the essentials.
4. Correction should be made while in the area.
5. Draw to scale and indicate them.
 Types of scale:
• small room – 1/2 inch : 1 foot
• large room – 1/4 inch : 1 foot
• small buildings – 1/8 inch : 1 foot
• large buildings or large buildings with garden –
1/2 inch : 10 feet
• large area with several buildings – 1/8 inch : 10
feet
• an area with a length of at least one mile in each
direction – 1/8 inch: 100 feet
7. Identify all objects in the sketch
8. Show position of camera on the sketch - where photographs
were taken
9. Time/ date/ weather condition/ degree of light/ witness/
person making the sketch
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 97

Figure 6.9
Photo Log Form

Republic of the Philippines

NATIONAL POLICE COMMISSION
NATIONAL HEADQUARTERS PHILIPPINE NATIONAL POLICE
CRIME LABORATORY
Camp Crame, Quezon City

July 4, 2016
Date
SOCO FORM #4
RE SOCO REPORT NR: SOCO-038-13

SCENE OF THE CRIME EXAMINATION WORKSHEET

SPECIMEN ENTRIES-PHOTOGRAPHS TEKAN

FRAME SHUTTER
APERTURE SUBJECT LIGHTING REMARKS
NR SPEED
With
1-4 5.6 60 Coordination of SOCO T.L. to the I.O.C. Artificial For Info
Light
5 5.6 60 Way to Main Crime Scene -DO- -DO-
Medium Shot of Evidence in the Crime
6-35 5.6 60 -DO- -DO-
Scene
36-37 5.6 60 SOCO Team Searching Possible Evidence -DO- -DO-
35-63 5.6 60 Overlapping Shot of the Crime Scene -DO- -DO-
64-67 5.6 60 SOCO Team on Final Search -DO- -DO-
66-71 5.6 60 The Crime Scene without Evidence -DO- -DO-

USE EXTRA SHEET FORM IF NECESSARY

CAMERA USED: Nikon D90 FILM TYPE: ASA:
LENS USED: FLASH UNIT:
DEVELOPING TIME: DEVELOPED BY:
FIX TIME: LOCATION:
PRINT PAPER:
COMMENTS: DATE AND TIME:
PHOTOGRAPHER:
INCIDENT: TIME BEGAN:
REQUESTING PARTY: TIME ENDED:
OFFICERS ON CASE:
PLACE OF INCIDENT: LIGHTING CONDITION:

Prepared by: Certified and corrected by: Noted by:

Photographer Team Leader Chief SOCO

FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 98

Student’s Name:
Year/ Section:
Instructor:
School:

Review Questions:
1. What are the three methods of documenting a crime scene?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. What are the ranges of photographs to be captured in the
crime scene?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3. What are the methods of photographing the crime scene?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 99

4. What are the sequential photographs to be taken in the crime

scene?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
5. What are the essential items to be included during note
taking?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
6. What information should be included in a crime scene sketch?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
7. What are the types and methods of sketching?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 100

CHAPTER 7
PHOTOGRAPHING THE CRIME SCENE

Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:
• Enumerate the procedures for photographing physical
evidence;
• Explain the importance of capturing specific images
when photographing bodies and wounds;
• Enumerate the procedures for photographing bodies
and wounds;
• Enumerate the procedures for road and traffic
accidents; and
• Enumerate the angles captured in mug shot
photography.

Recording everything as it was found is the first task in a crime

scene, and this is undertaken by the forensic photographer. He should
be careful about comprehensively documenting the details of the crime
without disturbing or contaminating evidence types. As explained in
the previous chapter, these should include the overview, mid-range
and close-up photographs at the crime scene.
Each crime scene will be different but John Horswell (2004)
recommends that the following should be considered when
photographing the crime scene.
• The photographic record should be comprehensive and
should include the general layout of premises or features
of an area. This will depend on the seriousness and
circumstances of the crime.
• The photographic record should illustrate the relative
position of rooms, the state of those rooms and the position
of houses in streets in relation to the crime scene.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 101

• Footprints, shoe marks, tire tracks and tool marks should

be photographed with a scale before casting. A close-up
and positioning photograph should be taken.
• Photographs should be taken from a number of angles or
positions including those described by witnesses.
• A series of photographs should be taken from the point of
entry to the point of exit.
• Detailed photographs should be taken of potential
evidentiary material, such as, the body; injuries, weapons;
trace material; cartridge case/s; damage and other relevant
items.
• As the scene examination progresses, further photographs
should include new potential evidentiary material found and
visualized, or areas of importance which were previously
concealed.

Photographing Evidence
The PNP forensic photographers follow standard operating
procedures in photographing evidence. Many valuable articles of
evidence can be found in the scene of the crime. Each object should
be photographed individually in relation to other objects at the scene.
Three purposes are served by this procedure.
1. A permanent record is made of the original appearance of
the object.

2. The photographed subject can be used in place of physical

evidence to supplement the case report.

3. Each article is preserved from unnecessary handling,

which might cause the evidence to deteriorate or otherwise
become altered.
As a general rule, some or all of the evidence are brought to
the crime laboratory for examination where photomicrography and
photomacrography is available, if needed.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 102

Procedures
Three photographs of each item of evidence should be made. One
photograph should be captured from a distance sufficient to show the
object against the background of its setting so that it can be located
and referred to in the over-all crime scene photographs. The other
two photographs should be taken close-up and with a fairly large
image size to clearly show the nature of the object and its identifying
characteristics. A small ruler should be include in one of those close-
up shots and omitted on the other. Extreme close-ups may be needed
where specialized techniques should be used.
• For foot or shoe impressions, the imprints of shoes, foot
slippers or sandals are often found at or near crime scenes.
Before and after reproductions are made by plasters casts
or dental stone, the impressions should be photographed.
• Evidence of all kinds must be photographed in close-up
range to show details.
• The procedure for tire impression is quite similar to the
described shoe impressions. A length of the tire track that
shows a clear pattern should be shot several times in close-
up range to give maximum detail of the pattern.
• In murder and homicide cases, it is necessary to photograph
in detail the pattern and color of bloodstains. The location
area and tapering of the stains may indicate the positions
and action of the assailant or the victim.
• Small quantities of clue materials such as glass fragments,
paint flakes, soil particles, fibers, hair and other substances
and small specimens are often carried unknowingly to and
from the scene of the crime. Their location on the suspect’s
clothing and at the crime scene should be documented
carefully by close-up photograph for comparison purposes.
• Conduct mug-shot photography to the victim/s and
suspects while undergoing paraffin casting.
• Photograph other physical evidence submitted to the
laboratory before examination such as suspected drugs,
chemicals, explosive substances and others.
• Photograph vehicle/s submitted as evidence to show the
trajectory of bullet holes, entrance, exit and the extent of
damage, as well as the body serial number and chassis
number order to show any sign of tampering.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 103

• For firearms identification, conduct macro-photography

on the serial numbers, nomenclature and other small part
of the firearm/s submitted as evidence before the actual
examination of the firearms examiner.
• Conduct close-up photography on the firearm for
identification and documentation purposes prior to the
examination of the firearm examiner.
• Take other photographs with ballistics value upon request
of the firearm examiner.
• For fingerprint identification, fine grain panchromatic
film of medium contrast, along with some high contrast
panchromatic film, may be used to photograph latent prints.
• When photographing black powdered latent prints in
colored objects, the photographer must make the colored
background appear as light as possible in order to provide
the greatest possible contrast with the black fingerprint.
• When photographing fingerprint on wood, it is best to develop
latent prints on dark stained wood with white powder and
to photograph them with high contrast panchromatic film
with blue filter.
• When photographing visible latent print found on glass, it
must be photographed before and after applying powder
on it.
• Latent prints found on paper and plastic should be treated
with powders, fumes or liquid reagents to bring out the
prints clearly enough to photograph.
• Dusted and lifted latent prints that have been lifted should
be photographed as soon as possible. The lifting material
bearing the prints should be used as transparent positive
to make an enlarged negative.
• When it is necessary, fingerprint should be photographed
while still on the original surface.
• In identification photography, employ the four basic ways
of shooting identification photographs:
1. the front and side views
2. the front and two three-quarter face views
3. the front, side and standing view
4. the color front and still views
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 104

The forensic photographer should remember that in certain types

of crime, particularly those involving physical violence, the crime scene
and the location of all relevant objects within it are of vital importance
in establishing points of proof.

Figure 7.1 Evidence

FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 105

Photographing Bodies and Wounds

The forensic photographer should remember that evidence of
resistance of the criminal act is of particular importance in sex offenses.
Photograph indications of the victim’s effort to resist include bruises
or black and blue marks and evidence of the presence of either or both
parties at the scene. It is critical to verify the head, neck the condition of
specifically affected parts, the presence of foreign hair strands, fibers,
biological stains, as well as marks and discoloration of the body. After
the stains have been photographed, specimens should be carefully
preserved for submission to the medical doctor or other specialists
whose duty is to identify them and prepare microphotographs for use
as evidence.
The suspect’s body may show evidence of physical struggle such
as scratches or bruises, foreign hair strands or fibers that may be
discovered by the physician. The garments of the suspect may reveal
bloodstains, semen, hair strands, etc.
For autopsic photography, photograph the front and rear views in
the nude to clearly reveal the conditions in detail.
Forensic photographers must also follow standard operating
procedures when photographing bodies and wounds.
• If the body is taken to the morgue, it should be photographed
there as directed by the pathologist. The body should be
photographed with any clothing that is on the body when
the body was found, and then without clothing. Colored
film and strobe unit should be used.
• To photograph the cadaver from head to foot, stand as high
as you can on it, then shoot straight down on the subject
and try to avoid shooting from any angle other than vertical.
• Take photographs from head to foot before and after the
body has been stripped. Full-length photographs should
be taken from front and back of the subject.
• Mug-shot photography of unidentified cadaver/s, skeletal
remains should include identifying marks, particularly
tattoos and scars
• Conduct close-up photographs on the entrance and exit
wounds as well as other external wound inflicted on or
suffered by the victims upon the direction of the medico-
legal officer.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 106

• Genital organs should be covered before taking photographs

during post-mortem examination.
• In sexual abuse cases, there must be a written permission
from the victim, and if the victim is a minor, the photographs
must be taken in the presence of a witness who should be
of the same sex as the victim and must work with courtesy
and professionalism.
• All photographs should be taken with data sheet/case
number to be provided by the medico-legal officer or the
photographer himself. The data sheet should include the
case number, date, and the photographer’s name.
• All photographs, if necessary, should be taken with
measuring scale/device, especially on exit and entrance
wounds.
• Take other photographs as per request of the medico-legal
officer assigned to the case.

Figure 7.2 Bodies and Wounds

FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 107

Accident Photography
The following are the basic rules in photographing road/traffic
accidents for SOCO and Field Laboratory Work (FLW).
• Avoid unnecessary surrounding/objects that are not
pertinent to the case.
• Photographs should be taken from the eye level of the driver.
If there are witnesses, photographs should be taken at their
level from the spot where they have seen the incident.
• Shots should be taken from the four points of the compass
and 25 feet from the point of impact to show the approach
and terrain.
• Take close-up shots of the damaged area in two angles from
a distance of eight to ten feet.
• Take shots in order and properly note at the photograph
notes in order to guide the investigator on how the accident
occurred.
• Special care should be taken when photographing a hit and
run case.
• What to photograph:
1. All vehicles in their original position
2. All victims
3. Debris that indicate where the first impact
occurred
4. License plate of vehicles (at least one photograph
of each vehicle)
5. All skid and tire marks, patches of oil or water
6. If the vehicle has gone off the road and has made
marks in soil, these should be photographed.
They may give indication of the speed of the
vehicle.
7. A close mark made in asphalt roadway should
be taken to indicate the texture of the road.
8. The vicinity of the accident that does not include
the accident itself (for reference point)
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 108

Mug-Shot Photography
For taking mug shots of suspects, photograph the subject in front
of the height scale without footwear to determine his/her exact height.
Let the subject hold the case verifier. Mug shots should be done in the
following angles with the case number displayed at each shot.
1. Front view, whole body
2. Front view (half body-head to elbow)
3. Left Side view (half body-head to elbow)
4. Right Side view (half body-head to elbow)
The PNP also has a compilation of facial features called the
Composite Criminal Illustration, which is taken from photographs with
descriptive details provided. This serves as an aid in an investigation
where evidence is limited and the suspect is unknown. It has been
found to be useful in obtaining descriptions of unknown suspects. It
also gets the public involved in the identification of suspects.

Figure 7.3 Mug-Shot Photography

FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 109

Figure 7.4 Sample of Name Tag Board

FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 110

Student’s Name:
Year/ Section:
Instructor:
School:

Review Questions:
1. What are the procedures for photographing physical evidence?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. Why is it important to capture specific images when
photographing bodies and wound?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 111

3. What are the procedures for photographing bodies and

wounds?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
4. What are the procedures for photographing road and traffic
accidents?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
5. What angles need to be captured in mug shot photography?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 112

CHAPTER 8
ULTRAVIOLET AND INFRARED PHOTOGRAPHY

Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:
• Define ultraviolet light;
• Explain the uses of ultraviolet photography in crime
scene investigations;
• Define infrared photography; and
• Explain the uses of infrared photography in law
enforcement.

As humans, our understanding of the world largely depends upon

how we see, smell, hear, taste or feel. Imagine if we can sense beyond
our human capabilities, such as being able to smell like a dog whose
nose is thousands of times more sensitive than ours.
Our eyesight also has limits. We can only see electromagnetic
wavelengths that extend only from those characteristic of violet-blues to
those of the deep reds. We cannot see the ultraviolet and infrared areas
of the spectrum. But photography can extend our vision through the
use of special lights sources, filters and other photographic materials.
Energy residing between 400 and 700 nanometers is detectable
by the human eye and is perceived as visible light. Residing below
400 nanometers is ultraviolet light or energy, and residing above 700
nanometers is infrared light or energy. Photography in these regions
of the electromagnetic spectrum is very useful in recording evidentiary
photographs of subjects not easily seen by the naked eye.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 113

Ultraviolet Photography
Ultraviolet (UV) light is defined as part of the electromagnetic
spectrum from about 400nm down to 1nm. UV light is invisible to
the human eye but strongly affects photographic materials. Adding
ultraviolet light enhances contrast through fluorescence, a process in
which radiant energy of a certain wavelength is absorbed, then instantly
re-emitted at another, typically longer wavelength. Adding ultraviolet
energy to the subject causes excitation of its electrons and creates
fluorescence. Fluorescence creates contrast because the higher state
of energy of the subject’s electrons makes potential evidence visible.
The purpose of using ultraviolet light is therefore to make unseen
properties in a subject visible. For example, the unseen property could
be a fingerprint in a small drug capsule (Duncan, 2010).
Although unseen by the naked eye, ultraviolet light is present in
nearly all light sources including the sun, incandescent light bulbs,
flashlights and electronic flash units. Ultraviolet radiation can be felt
in number of ways like causing the skin to tan or develop skin cancer.
It can also deteriorate photographs and other documentary evidence.
Utilizing ultraviolet light is an essential tool to crime scene
investigators who need to show details unseen in natural light. Its
application can be useful, for example in forgeries and document
alterations, fingerprint enhancements, and tracing bodily fluids or
gunpowder residue.
In document alterations, forgers may have used solvents, alcohols
and cleansing liquids to obliterate, erasing or obscure important
documents such as checks or contracts. By utilizing ultraviolet light
between 350 and 415 nm, it is possible to produce and photograph a
visualization of such alterations.
The visibility of trace evidence such as small threads, hairs and
fibers can also be enhanced with ultraviolet light. Fabrics, in particular,
can be detected because they are color-treated to remain bright and
vibrant. Laundry detergents also infuse “brighteners” in fabrics, thus
creating contrast when threads tear away from the garment and
detected through ultraviolet light.
Bleach, milk products, and bodily fluids including semen, blood,
saliva and mucus can fluoresce under ultraviolet light. A crime scene
investigator should seek to collect any of these unknown substances
for further evaluation and, prior to its recovery, the surface should be
photographed.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 114

Infrared Photography
Infrared photography is the recording of images formed by
infrared radiation. Because infrared radiation is invisible, some special
techniques may be needed. But, in general, most of the commonly
required methods are as simple as those of ordinary photography.

Uses in Law Enforcement:

1. Questioned documents
2. Aerial photography
a. Infrared photography can enhance the contrast
of the terrain.
b. Coniferous (darker) and deciduous (lighter)
growth is differentiated.
3. Surveillance photography
4. Detection of gunshot-powder burns, stains and irregularities
in cloth
5. Detection of certain types of secret writings

Equipment
1. Camera – The 35mm camera is the most convenient to use
in most cases.
2. Lenses – Most good lenses can be used in infrared
photography. It is helpful if the lens has an infrared focusing
scale.

Film
1. Black-and-White Infrared Film
a. Records infrared luminescence from subjects
b. Requires an infrared filter on the camera lens (Try a
Kodak Wratten Filter #87.)
2. Color Infrared Film
a. This is usually not a good choice for law enforcement
use because color infrared film is a “false color” film.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 115

It is sensitive to blue radiation in all its film layers so a

yellow filter must be used to filter out the blue.
b. Color infrared film can be used to emphasize differences
between objects that are visually quite similar. Color
infrared-sensitive films emphasize differences in
infrared reflectance.

3. Loading Film
a. Infrared film is sensitive to heat and should be
refrigerated. Allow sufficient time for the film to reach
room temperature before opening the package.
b. Kodak High Speed Infrared Film must be loaded and
unloaded in total darkness because the felt-lined slots
of the magazines are not “light-tight” to infrared. Both
exposed and unexposed film can be safely stored in the
sealed film container.

Lighting
1. Use tungsten lamps or electronic flash units for black-and-
white infrared photography.
2. Use electronic flash illumination for color infrared
photography. Other light sources (except daylight) require
special filtering.

Exposure
1. Exposure is determined by test shots.
2. Using Kodak High Speed Infrared Film with a Kodak
Wratten Filter #87, try an ISO 25 for daylight and an ISO
64 for tungsten lighting.

Focusing
1. Focus in a normal manner without the filter in place.
2. The distance that appears opposite the normal index mark
on the lens should then be moved to the red (infrared) index
mark. This will usually result in a lengthening of the lens.
3. Replace the filter for the exposure.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 116

Macro Photography – the process of obtaining a magnified photograph

of a small object with the use of macro lens or close-up attachments;
the process of photographing an object at greater than 1:1 ratio or up
to nine times magnification.

Figure 8.1 Macro Photography

Micro Photography – the process of obtaining photographic magnifi-

cation of minute objects by using a camera attached to a compound
microscope; the art or process of photographing minute objects magni-
fied by means of microscope and enlarged from 10 times up.

Figure 8.2 Micro Photography

FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 117

Student’s Name:
Year/ Section:
Instructor:
School:

Review Questions:
1. What is ultraviolet light?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. What are the uses of ultraviolet photography in crime scene
investigations?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 118

3. What is infrared photography?

_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
4. What are the uses of infrared photography in law
enforcement?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 119

CHAPTER 9
APPLICATION OF PHOTOGRAPHY TO
LAW ENFORCEMENT

Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:
• Enumerate the uses of photographs in law
enforcement;
• Explain the legal implications of photographic
evidence; and
• Enumerate the basic requirements for the
admissibility of photographs as evidence in court.

As already explained in the introduction of this textbook, crime

scene photography is important in law enforcement for several reasons.
It serves as a permanent record of the crime scene and is considered
indispensable to a successful presentation of the case in court. A crime
scene that is altered through carelessness and haste can never be
restored to its exact original condition.
Also, in the initial stages of an investigation, the significance of
certain aspects of the crime scene may not be evident, although later
they may vitally affect the issues in the case. The first step in the
investigation of any crime is to photograph all aspects of the crime
scene completely and accurately before any of the objects of evidence
are removed or otherwise disturbed. Photographs should also be taken
after the body or bodies have been removed. It is always better to take
too many photographs than too few.
Photography is also helpful in the reconstruction of the crime
scene. A study of photographs can assist the trained investigator in
reconstructing the crime scene and developing conclusions about how
the crime occurred. In addition, the photographs will make the job of
the prosecutor much easier when a case is presented in a court room.
When necessary, photographs can be coordinated with crime scene
sketches or drawings that are made to scale.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 120

Uses of Photographs
1. Identification of the Subject
The first step in the investigation in any crime is to
photograph all aspects of the crime scene completely and
accurately before any of the objects of evidence is removed or
otherwise disturbed. The forensic photographer produces a
pictorial record of everything regarding the crime to include
the nearby surroundings. It is always better to take too many
photographs than too few then select the best.

2. Preservation of Evidence
Prevent from necessary handling of physical evidence thus
preserving the integrity of the physical evidence.

3. Description of the Crime Scene

It proves statement. In some instances, investigators are
compelled to reconstruct or describe in court the details of the
crime scene they have investigated several months ago but
with the bulk of cases they have handled perhaps they may not
exactly recall. With the aid of photographs, investigators will
not find it hard to describe things in detail.

4. Substitution to original documents/evidence

A photograph can be made as a representation of any
evidence or document.
• The photographs can be used in place of physical
evidence to supplement the case report.
• It is classified as secondary evidence.
• It is not a legal substitute of the original object.
• It is a silent witness.

Legal Implications of Photographic Evidence

In court proceedings, judges, fiscals, and defense lawyers have
generally never visited the scene of the crime. Photographs greatly
facilitate them in interpreting the scene.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 121

A permanent record of the crime scene is considered indispensable

to a successful presentation of the case in court. A crime that is altered
through carelessness and haste can never be restored to its exact
original condition.
The cases enumerated below demonstrate the usefulness of
photographic evidence in court.
• People vs. Sacab, 57 SCRA 707 and People vs. Ison, 173
SCRA 118 – Physical evidence is evidence of the highest
order. It speaks more eloquently than a hundred witnesses.
• People vs. Uycoque, 246 SCRA 769 and People vs.
Nepomuceno,Jr. , 298 SCRA 450 – Physical evidence is
mute but an eloquent manifestation of truth and they rate
high in our hierarchy of trustworthy evidence.
• Sison vs. People, 250 SCRA 58 – Photographs can be
identified by the photographer or by any other competent
witness who can testify to its exactness and accuracy.
• CALDE vs. CA, 52 SCAD 453, 233 SCRA 382 – Autopsic
preference is the acquisition of knowledge from direct self-
perception or autopsy. It is one of three accepted sources
from which a tribunal may properly acquire knowledge for
making its decisions (the other two being circumstantial
evidence and testimonial evidence).

Categorizing Photographic Evidence

The investigator must make a written record of what is captured
on film. The first frame of the crime scene photographs should be a
photograph of chalk slate or a piece of paper, preferably the size of
a piece of notebook paper that contains information identifying the
case. This information should include the name of the photographer,
the name of the victim, the address, date, case number and time. By
including this information, misdirection at the photo laboratory will be
lessened.
The following information should be recorded in the photographer’s
note:
1. Location’s address, date and time
2. Type of incident & objects photographed
3. Type of film used and number of exposure
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 122

4. Type of camera used

5. Name of investigator on-case/photographer
6. Names of victims and witnesses
7. Chain of custody
8. Weather condition
The chain of custody of the photographs must be maintained.
The film should be removed from the camera and taken directly to
processing unless some secure facility is available for overnight storage.
If this does not occur, the judge may disregard this most important
evidence under the theory that the film may have been tampered with.

Preservation of Fingerprints Through Photographs

When possible, fingerprints found at the crime scene should be
preserved by photography before any attempts are made at preserving
them. The photographer must be skilled in photographic techniques
and understand how to obtain a reproduction of a fingerprint as accurate
and true to the original as possible. Photographing a fingerprint leaves
the object intact so that further photos can be taken if the first are
unsuccessful. It also makes it easier to produce the evidence in court.
If prints are lifted, the object on which they were discovered can be
seen in the picture.

Markings in the Field of View

Measuring devices such as rulers, yardsticks, and tape measures
should be used to show the relative size of, and distances between
objects, or the degree of magnification of the enlargement. The markers
should be placed beside the object in a manner that will not obscure
any important piece of the evidence. In document and small object
photographs, a six-inch ruler placed at the bottom or just below the
item of evidence will enable the photographer to determine the degree
of enlargement quickly and also show the relative size of objects in the
photographic exhibit.
Many times, courts object to the use of rulers and marking devices
that appear in photographs of a crime scene. Therefore, photographs
should be taken in two ways. First, without markers so as not to tamper
the evidence. Second, with marker to show its size or its continuity.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 123

Basic Requirement for the Admissibility of

Photographs as Evidence in Court
No matter how extensive the photographic efforts are at the crime
scene, photographs must stand the test of legal admissibility. The
general standards used to review the credibility of the photographs
include:

1. Faithful representation or accurate representation of the original

object or subject
The photograph must be free from distortion and must
not misrepresent the scene or object. Faithful representation
means the same likeness as the original or as seen by the naked
eye. What is required by law is the likeness of the original.
A mere shadow of an object is not a faithful and accurate
representation of that object.
In the case of the City of Manila vs. Cabangis, 10 Phil.151,
it was held that photographs are admissible as evidence when
shown to be a true and faithful representation of the object
as seen by the naked eye (upon proof of their exactness and
accuracy).
Photographs that have been identified and found relevant
must be shown to be the accurate reproduction of the matter
they depict. This essential element in qualifying photographs
for admission is usually supplied by a witness who testifies
that the photograph is a fair and accurate representation of the
scene as he observed it firsthand.
Proof of accuracy is the preliminary evidence that it is
a correct representation or reproduction of what is required
before admission as evidence (Cabangis vs. City of Manila)
It is an error to admit a photograph as evidence when there
is no evidence identifying it or proving its accuracy (Hammond
Packing Co. vs. Dickey 106, California Court of Appeals, 317)
It is a constant practice of courts to receive evidence
pictures, drawings, and photographs of objects that cannot be
brought inside the courtroom, upon proof of their exactness
and accuracy as representation of the original subject or object
(Jones on Evidence, Vol. 2, Sec. 597, cited in city of Manila vs.
Cabangis, 10 Phil. 155)
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 124

Photographs are, therefore, relevant materials qualified

for admission by the supportive testimony of a witness,
usually persons who witness the matter being photographed.
The verifying witness is often the photographer who took
the photograph, but it may be anyone who can identify the
subject matter and state that the reproduction is accurate. A
photograph standing alone, without authentication or verifying
testimony cannot become part of the evidence.

2. Relevant/material and competent

Rule 128, Sec. 3 of the Rules of Evidence states that
evidence is admissible when it is relevant to the issue and is
not excluded by the law or rules of court. Material refers to
the probative value of the evidence; relevant relates to the case
under investigation; and competent means sanctioned by the
rules of court.
Photographs are relevant if they either assist witnesses
in presenting and explaining their testimony or aid the court
in understanding the issues in the suit. All photographs must
relate to the matter at hand. They must be appropriate and
must not show anything that has nothing to do with the case.
One of the most frequent faults in crime scene photographs is
the presence of many police officers in the photograph. These
men are not relevant. The crime scene should be photographed
empty of everything that was not used there when the police
arrived.

3. No inflammatory content/unbiased
Another issue to avoid in police photography is the
inclusion of emotional matters that might be classed by the
court as inflammatory, or tending to affect the emotions of the
viewer. An example of this would be photograph of a murder
scene with hysterical female relatives of the victim crying in
the background, or a photograph of the wounds on the corpse
including the exposed sexual organ of the victim. If these
private parts are not relevant, they should be decently covered.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 125

Student’s Name:
Year/ Section:
Instructor:
School:

Review Questions:
1. What are the uses of photographs in law enforcement?
_____________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________
2. What are the legal implications of photographic evidence?
_____________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
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FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 126

3. What are the basic requirements for the admissibility of

photographs as evidence in court?
_____________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________
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FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 127

A.M. NO. 01-7-01-SC -

RE: Rules on Electronic Evidence 

EN BANC
RESOLUTION
    
Acting on the Memorandum dated 18 June 2001 of the Committee
on the Revision of the Rules of Court to Draft the rules on E-Commerce
Law [R.A. No. 8792] submitting the Rules on Electronic Evidence
for this Court’s consideration and approval, the Court Resolved to
APPROVED the same. 
The Rules on Electronic Evidence shall apply to cases pending
after their effectivity. These Rules shall take effect on the first day of
August 2001 following their publication before the 20th of July in two
newspapers of general circulation in the Philippines. 
17th July 2001. 
        
RULES ON ELECTRONIC EVIDENCE
RULE 1
COVERAGE
SECTION 1. Scope. - Unless otherwise provided herein, these
Rules shall apply whenever an electronic data message, as defined in
Rule 2 hereof, is offered or used in evidence. 

SEC. 2. Cases covered. - These Rules shall apply to all civil actions
and proceedings, as well as quasi-judicial and administrative cases. 

SEC. 3. Application of the other rules on evidence. - In all matters

not specifically covered by these Rules, the Rules of Court and pertinent
provisions of statues containing rules on evidence shall apply. 
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 128

RULE 2
DEFINITION OF TERMS AND CONSTRUCTION
SECTION 1. Definition of Terms. - For purposes of these Rules, the
following terms are defined, as follows: 
(a) “Asymmetric or public cryptosystem” means a system
capable of generating a secure key pair, consisting of a
private key for creating a digital signature, and a public key
for verifying the digital signature.
(b) “Business records” include records of any business,
institution, association, profession, occupation, and calling
of every kind, whether or not conducted for profit, or for
legitimate purposes. 
(c) “Certificate” means an electronic document issued to
support a digital signature which purports to confirm the
identity or other significant characteristics of the person
who holds a particular key pair. 
(d) “Computer” refers to any single or interconnected device
or apparatus, which, by electronic, electro-mechanical or
magnetic impulse, or by other means with the same function,
can receive, record, transmit, store, process, correlate,
analyze, project, retrieve and/or produce information, data,
text, graphics, figures, voice, video, symbols or other modes
of expression or perform any one or more of these functions. 
(e) “Digital Signature” refers to an electronic signature
consisting of a transformation of an electronic document
or an electronic data message using an asymmetric or
public cryptosystem such that a person having the initial
untransformed electronic document and the signer’s public
key can accurately determine:
(i) whether the transformation was created using
the private key that corresponds to the signer’s
public key; and 
(ii) whether the initial electronic document had
been altered after the transformation was made. 
(f) “Digitally signed” refers to an electronic document or
electronic data message bearing a digital signature verified
by the public key listed in a certificate. 
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 129

(g) “Electronic data message” refers to information generated,

sent, received or stored by electronic, optical or similar
means. 
(h) “Electronic document” refers to information or the
representation of information, data, figures, symbols or
other modes of written expression, described or however
represented, by which a right is established or an obligation
extinguished, or by which a fact may be proved and
affirmed, which is received, recorded, transmitted, stored
processed, retrieved or produced electronically. It includes
digitally signed documents and any print-out or output,
readable by sight or other means, which accurately reflects
the electronic data message or electronic document. For
purposes of these Rules, the term “electronic document”
may be used interchangeably with electronic data message”. 
(i) “Electronic key” refers to a secret code which secures and
defends sensitive information that crosses over public
channels into a form decipherable only with a matching
electronic key. 
(j) “Electronic signature” refers to any distinctive mark,
characteristics and/or sound in electronic form.
Representing the identity of a person and attached to or
logically associated with the electronic data message or
electronic document or any methodology or procedure
employed or adopted by a person and executed or adopted
by such person with the intention of authenticating, signing
or approving an electronic data message or electronic
document. For purposes of these Rules, an electronic
signature includes digital signatures. 
(k) “Ephemeral electronic communication” refers to telephone
conversations, text messages, chatroom sessions, streaming
audio, streaming video, and other electronic forms of
communication the evidence of which is not recorded or
retained. 
(l) “Information and Communication System” refers to a
system for generating, sending, receiving, storing or
otherwise processing electronic data messages or electronic
documents and includes the computer system or other
similar devices by or in which data are recorded or stored
and any procedure related to the recording or storage of
electronic data message or electronic document. 
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 130

(m) “Key Pair” in an asymmetric cryptosystem refers to the

private key and its mathematically related public key such
that the latter can verify the digital signature that the
former creates. 
(n) “Private Key” refers to the key of a key pair used to create a
digital signature. 
(o) “Public Key” refers to the key of a key pair used to verify a
digital signature.

SEC. 2. Construction. – These Rules shall be liberally construed

to assist the parties in obtaining a just, expeditious, and inexpensive
determination of cases. 
The Interpretation of these Rules shall also take into consideration
the international origin of Republic Act No. 8792, otherwise known as
the Electronic Commerce Act.

RULE 3
ELECTRONIC DOCUMENTS
SECTION 1. Electronic documents as functional equivalent of paper-
based documents. – Whenever a rule of evidence refers to the term
of writing, document, record, instrument, memorandum or any other
form of writing, such term shall be deemed to include an electronic
document as defined in these Rules.

SEC. 2. Admissibility. – An electronic document is admissible in

evidence if it complies with the rules on admissibility prescribed by the
Rules of Court and related laws and is authenticated in the manner
prescribed by these Rules.

SEC. 3. Privileged communication. – The confidential character of

a privileged communications is not solely on the ground that it is in
the form of an electronic document.
     
RULE 4
BEST EVIDENCE RULE
SECTION 1. Original of an electronic document. – An electronic
document shall be regarded as the equivalent of an original document
under the Best Evidence Rule if it is a printout or output readable by
sight or other means, shown to reflect the data accurately. 
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 131

SEC. 2. Copies as equivalent of the originals. – When a document is

in two or more copies executed at or about the same time with identical
contents, or is a counterpart produced by the same impression as
the original, or from the same matrix, or by mechanical or electronic
re-recording, or by chemical reproduction, or by other equivalent
techniques which is accurately reproduces the original, such copies or
duplicates shall be regarded as the equivalent of the original. 
Notwithstanding the foregoing, copies or duplicates shall not be
admissible to the same extent as the original if: 
(a) a genuine question is raised as to the authenticity of the
original; or 
(b) in the circumstances it would be unjust or inequitable to
admit a copy in lieu of the original.   

RULE 5
AUTHENTICATION OF ELECTRONIC DOCUMENTS
SECTION 1. Burden of proving authenticity. – The person seeking
to introduce an electronic document in any legal proceeding has the
burden of proving its authenticity in the manner provided in this Rule. 

SEC. 2. Manner of authentication. – Before any private electronic

document offered as authentic is received in evidence, its authenticity
must be proved by any of the following means: 
(a) by evidence that it had been digitally signed by the person
purported to have signed the same; 
(b) by evidence that other appropriate security procedures or
devices as may be authorized by the Supreme Court or by
law for authentication of electronic documents were applied
to the document; or 
(c) by other evidence showing its integrity and reliability to the
satisfaction of the judge.

SEC. 3. Proof of electronically notarized document. - A document

electronically notarized in accordance with the rules promulgated
by the Supreme Court shall be considered as a public document
and proved as a notarial document under the Rules of Court. 
    
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 132

RULE 6
ELECTRONIC SIGNATURES
     SECTION 1. Electronic signature. – An electronic signature or a
digital signature authenticate din the manner prescribed hereunder is
admissible in evidence as the functional equivalent of the signature of
a person on a written document. 
SEC. 2. Authentication of electronic signatures. – An electronic
signature may be authenticate in any of the following manner: 
(a) By evidence that a method or process was utilized to
establish a digital signature and verity the same; 
(b) By any other means provided by law; or 
(c) By any other means satisfactory to the judge as establishing
the genuineness of the electronic signature. 

SEC. 3. Disputable presumptions relation to electronic signature.

– Upon the authentication of an electronic signature, it shall be
presumed that: 
(a) The electronic signature is that of the person to whom it
correlates; 
(b) The electronic signature was affixed by that person with
the intention of authenticating or approving the electronic
document to which it is related or to indicate such person’s
consent to the transaction embodied therein; and 
(c) The methods or processes utilized to affix or verity the
electronic signature operated without error or fault. 

SEC. 4. Disputable presumptions relating to digital signatures. –

Upon the authentication of a digital signature, it shall be presumed,
in addition to those mentioned in the immediately preceding section,
that:
(a) The information contained in a certificate is correct; 
(b) The digital signature was created during the operational
period of a certificate; 
(c) The message associated with a digital signature has not
been altered from the time it was signed; and 
(d) A certificate had been issued by the certification authority
indicated therein 
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 133

RULE 7
EVIDENTIARY WEIGHT OF ELECTRONIC DOCUMENTS
SECTION 1. Factors for assessing evidentiary weight. - In assessing
the evidentiary weight of an electronic document, the following factors
may be considered: 
(a) The reliability of the manner or method in which it was
generated, stored or communicated, including but not
limited to input and output procedures, controls, tests and
checks for accuracy and reliability of the electronic data
message or document, in the light of all the circumstances
as well as any relevant agreement; 
(b) The reliability of the manner in which its originator was
identified; 
(c) The integrity of the information and communication system
in which it is recorded or stored, including but not limited
to the hardware and computer programs or software used
as well as programming errors; 
(d) The familiarity of the witness or the person who made the
entry with the communication and information system; 
(e) The nature and quality of the information which went into
the communication and information system upon which
the electronic data message or electronic document was
based; or 
(f) Other factors which the court may consider as affecting
the accuracy or integrity of the electronic document or
electronic data message. 

SEC. 2. Integrity of an information and communication system.

– In any dispute involving the integrity of the information and
communication system in which an electronic document or electronic
data message is recorded or stored, the court may consider, among
others, the following factors: 
(a) Whether the information and communication system or
other similar device was operated in a manner that did not
affect the integrity of the electronic document, and there
are no other reasonable grounds to doubt the integrity of
the information and communication system; 
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 134

(b) Whether the electronic document was recorded or stored by

a party to the proceedings with interest adverse to that of
the party using it; or 
(c) Whether the electronic document was recorded or stored in
the usual and ordinary course of business by a person who
is not a party to the proceedings and who did not act under
the control of the party using it. 

RULE 8
BUSINESS RECORDS AS EXCEPTION TO THE HEARSAY RULE
SECTION 1. Inapplicability of the hearsay rule. – A memorandum,
report, record or data compilation of acts, events, conditions, opinions,
or diagnoses, made by electronic, optical or other similar means at
or near the time of or from transmission or supply of information by
a person with knowledge thereof, and kept in the regular course or
conduct of a business activity, and such was the regular practice
to make the memorandum, report, record, or data compilation by
electronic, optical or similar means, all of which are shown by the
testimony of the custodian or other qualified witnesses, is excepted
from the rule or hearsay evidence.

SEC. 2. Overcoming the presumption. – The presumption provided

for in Section 1 of this Rule may be overcome by evidence of the
untrustworthiness of the source of information or the method or
circumstances of the preparation, transmission or storage thereof. 
     
RULE 9
METHOD OF PROOF
SECTION 1. Affidavit of evidence. – All matters relating to the
admissibility and evidentiary weight of an electronic document
may be established by an affidavit stating facts of direct personal
knowledge of the affiant or based on authentic records. The affidavit
must affirmatively show the competence of the affiant to testify on the
matters contained therein.

SEC. 2.  Cross-examination of deponent. – The affiant shall

be made to affirm the contents of the affidavit in open court and
may be cross-examined as a matter of right by the adverse party. 
    
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 135

RULE 10
EXAMINATION OF WITNESSES
SECTION 1. Electronic testimony. – After summarily hearing the
parties pursuant to Rule 9 of these Rules, the court may authorize
the presentation of testimonial evidence by electronic means. Before
so authorizing, the court shall determine the necessity for such
presentation and prescribe terms and conditions as may be necessary
under the circumstance, including the protection of the rights of the
parties and witnesses concerned.

SEC. 2.  Transcript of electronic testimony. – When examination

of a witness is done electronically, the entire proceedings, including
the questions and answers, shall be transcribed by a stenographer,
effectivity or other recorder authorized for the purpose, who shall
certify as correct the transcript done by him. The transcript should
reflect the fact that the proceedings, either in whole or in part, had
been electronically recorded.

SEC. 3. Storage of electronic evidence. – The electronic evidence

and recording thereof as well as the stenographic notes shall form
part of the record of the case. Such transcript and recording shall be
deemed prima facie evidence of such proceedings. 
      
RULE 11
AUDIO, PHOTOGRAPHIC. VIDEO AND EPHEMERAL EVIDENCE
SECTION 1. Audio, video and similar evidence. – Audio,
photographic and video evidence of events, acts or transactions shall
be admissible provided is shall be shown, presented or displayed to the
court and shall be identified, explained or authenticated by the person
who made the recording or by some other person competent to testify
on the accuracy thereof.

SEC. 2.  Ephemeral electronic communication. – Ephemeral

electronic communications shall be proven by the testimony of a person
who was a party to the same or has personal knowledge thereof. In the
absence or unavailability of such witnesses, other competent evidence
may be admitted. 
A recording of the telephone conversation or ephemeral electronic
communication shall be covered by the immediately preceding
section. If the foregoing communications are recorded or embodied in
an electronic document, then the provisions of Rule 5 shall apply. 
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 136

RULE 12
EFFECTIVITY
SECTION 1. Applicability to pending case. – These Rules shall
apply to cases pending after their effectivity. 
SEC. 2. Effectivity. – These Rules shall take effect on the first day
of August 2001 following their publication before the 20th day of July
2001 in two newspapers of general circulation in the Philippines.

(Sgd.) HILARIO G. DAVIDE JR.

Chief Justice

(Sgd.) JOSUE N. BELLOSILLO

Associate Justice

(Sgd.) REYNATO S. PUNO

Associate Justice

(Sgd.) SANTIAGO M. KAPUNAN

Associate Justice

(Sgd.) ARTEMIO V. PANGANIBAN

Associate Justice

(Sgd.) BERNARDO P. PARDO

Associate Justice

(Sgd.) MINERVA P. GONZAGA-REYES

Associate Justice

(Sgd.) SABINO R. DE LEON, JR.

Associate Justice

(Sgd.) JOSE C. VITUG

Associate Justice

(Sgd.) VICENTE V. MENDOZA

Associate Justice

(out of town on official business)

LEONARDO A QUISUMBING
Associate Justice

(Sgd.) ARTURO B. BUENA

Associate Justice

(Sgd.) CONSUELO YNARES-SANTIAGO

Associate Justice

(on leave)
ANGELINA SANDOVAL GUTIERREZ
Associate Justice
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 137

Primer on the Anti-Photo and Video

Voyeurism Act of 2009 (RA 9995)
There’s an alarming rise in reported complaints of nude photos,
mostly of women, being posted without the consent of the subjects in
social networking sites such as facebook. There’s also a proliferation of
sex scandals and sex videos. One of the usual complaints filed against
the offenders is under Republic Act No. 9995, also known as the
“Anti-Photo and Video Voyeurism Act of 2009“. Here’s a primer on
this anti-voyeurism law.

What is the definition of “photo or video voyeurism”?

It is the act of taking photo or video coverage of a person or
group of persons performing sexual act or any similar activity or of
capturing an image of the private area of a person or persons without
the latter’s consent, under circumstances in which such person/s
has/have a reasonable expectation of privacy, or the act of selling,
copying, reproducing, broadcasting, sharing, showing or exhibiting the
photo or video coverage or recordings of such sexual act or similar
activity through VCD/DVD, internet, cellular phones and similar
means or device without the written consent of the person/s involved,
notwithstanding that consent to record or take photo or video coverage
of same was given by such person’s.

That’s a very long definition. Please enumerate the specific

acts prohibited and punished under the “Anti-Photo and Video
Voyeurism Act of 2009″.
1. To take photo or video coverage of a person or group of
persons performing sexual act or any similar activity
or to capture an image of the private area of a person/s
such as the naked or undergarment clad genitals, pubic
area, buttocks or female breast without the consent of the
person/s involved and under circumstances in which the
person/s has/have a reasonable expectation of privacy.
2. To copy or reproduce, or to cause to be copied or reproduced,
such photo or video or recording of sexual act or any similar
activity with or without consideration. It is immaterial if
consent to record or take photo or video coverage of the
same was given by such person/s.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 138

3. To sell or distribute, or cause to be sold or distributed, such

photo or video or recording of sexual act, whether it be the
original copy or reproduction thereof. It is immaterial if
consent to record or take photo or video coverage of the
same was given by such person/s.
4. To publish or broadcast, or cause to be published or
broadcast, whether in print or broadcast media, or show
or exhibit the photo or video coverage or recordings of
such sexual act or any similar activity through VCD/DVD,
internet, cellular phones and other similar means or device.
It is immaterial if consent to record or take photo or video
coverage of the same was given by such person/s.

The first act speaks of “circumstances in which a person has a

reasonable expectation of privacy”, what does this mean?
It means circumstances in which a reasonable person would
believe that:
1. he/she could disrobe in privacy, without being concerned
that an image or a private area of the person was being
captured; or
2. a private area of the person would not be visible to the
public, regardless of whether that person is in a public or
private place.

What do you mean by “private area of a person”?

It means the naked or undergarment clad genitals, pubic area,
buttocks or female breast of an individual.

If there’s an undergarment (e.g., brief or panty) covering the

private parts, is this still covered by the law?
Yes. Based on the definition above, the genitals, pubic area,
buttocks or female breast of an individual may be naked or clad with
undergarment.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 139

What is the meaning of “capture”?

With respect to an image, it means to videotape, photograph, film,
record by any means, or broadcast.

What if the other person was aware of and consented to the

taking of the photograph?

Even if there was consent to the taking of the photo, if there is no

consent to the sharing or exhibition, then the offending party would
still be liable.

What do you mean by “broadcast”?

“Broadcast” means to make public, by any means, a visual image
with the intent that it be viewed by a person or persons.

What if the photo shows the breasts of a man, is

this covered by the law?
No. The law only covers female breasts.

If the photo shows only the side of a female breast, without the
nipple, is this still covered by the law?
Yes. The term “female breast” includes “any portion of the female
breast”.

What is the penalty for committing any of the prohibited acts?

The court has the discretion to impose:
1. Imprisonment of not less that three (3) years but not more
than seven (7) years, or
2. A fine of not less than P100,000 but not more than
P500,000, or
3. Both.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 140

Are these materials admissible in evidence?

As a general rule, no. The record, photo or video, or copy thereof,
obtained or secured by any person in violation of this law shall not
be admissible in evidence in any judicial, quasi-judicial, legislative or
administrative hearing or investigation.
However, any peace officer may secure an order of the court to
use the record or any copy thereof as evidence in any civil, criminal
investigation or trial of the crime of photo or video voyeurism. The
written order shall only be issued or granted upon written application
and the examination under oath or affirmation of the applicant and
the witnesses he/she may produce, and upon showing that there
are reasonable grounds to believe that photo or video voyeurism has
been committed or is about to be committed, and that the evidence to
be obtained is essential to the conviction of any person for, or to the
solution or prevention of such, crime.
Ref. : http://jlp-law.com/blog/primer-on-the-anti-photo-and-video-
voyeurism-act-of-2009-ra-9995/
Look also here: www.law.aboutphilippines.ph

PRIMER ON CYBERCRIME
This primer, outlined in a question and answer format, aims to
make the Filipino public aware of the nature, history and extent of
cybercrime occurrence in the country. It also makes the people informed
of the latest development in anti-cybercrime efforts and activities by the
Philippine Government.

1) What is a cybercrime?
A cybercrime is a crime committed with or through the use of
information and communication technologies such as radio, television,
cellular phone, computer and network, and other communication
device or application.

2) How is a cybercrime different from a real-world crime?

The main difference between a cybercrime and crime committed
in the physical world is that cybercrime is committed with or through
the use of information and communication technology. Furthermore,
cybercrimes are punishable under special cybercrime laws and subject
to distinct law enforcement provisions.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 141

3) What are the types of cybercrime?

There are various types and kinds of cybercrimes. The 2001
Budapest Convention on Cybercrime categorizes cybercrime offenses
into four: (1) offences against the confidentiality, integrity and availability
of computer data and systems; (2) computer-related offences; (3)
content-related offences; and (4) offences related to infringements of
copyright and related rights.

4) What is the global trend of cybercrime?

Cybercrime is one of the fastest growing crimes globally. According
to Norton Cyber Crime Report, 431 million adults worldwide were
victims of cybercrimes in 2011. The costs that cybercrimes caused in
2011 amounted to $114 billion. Globally, the top cybercrimes in 2011
were (1) computer viruses or malware - 54% overall; (2) online
Scams - 11% overall; and (3) phishing - 10% overall.

5) What is the trend of cybercrime in the Philippines?

In a 2010 report of the security software firm Symantec, 87%
of Filipino internet users were identified as victims of crimes and
malicious activities committed online. The following activities were: (1)
malware (virus and Trojan) invasion; (2) online or phishing scams;
(3) sexual predation; and (4) services in social networking site like
Facebook and Twitter.
The Anti-Transnational Crime Division (ATCD) of the Criminal
Investigation and Detection Group (CIDG) of the Philippine National
Police (PNP) has encountered 2,778 referred cases of computer crimes
from government agencies and private individuals nationwide from
2003 to 2012.

6) What are the cybercrime-related laws in the Philippines?

The cybercrime-related laws in the country are: (1) RA 10175
– Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012, which is currently suspended
due to a TRO issued by the Supreme Court; (2) RA 9995 - Anti-Photo
and Voyeurism Act of 2009; (3) RA 9725 - Anti-Child Pornography
Act of 2009; (4) RA 9208 - Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act of 2003;
(5) RA 8792 - E-Commerce Act of 2000; (6) RA 8484 - Access Device
Regulation Act of 1998; and (7) RA 4200 or Anti- Wiretapping Law.

7) What and when was the first recorded cybercrime in the

Ref. : http://www.doj.gov.ph/files/2012/Primer_on_Cybercrime.pdf
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 142

International Association for Identification

1997 Resolutions & Legislative Committee

James Gettemy, Chairperson

RESOLUTION 97-9

WHEREAS the members of the International Association for

Identification assembled at their 82nd Annual Training Conference in
Danvers, Massachu- setts on August 1, 1997, wish to formally recognize
that just as color film was a normal progression of the technological
evolution of imaging from black and white film, electronic/digital
imaging is a normal progression of the technologi- cal evolution of
imaging from silver-halide based film, therefore be it
RESOLVED, that the International Association for Identification
recog- nizes that electronic/digital imaging is a scientifically valid and
proven technol- ogy for recording, enhancing, and printing images
and like conventional silver- halide based photography, it is accepted
by professional commercial photogra- phers, law enforcement
photographers, and the identification community. Further, like silver-
halide based photography, the quality and reliability of an electronic/
digital image is dependant upon the technical specifications of the
equipment, the quality control procedures, and the training, experience
and ability of the photographer or imaging specialist.
and be it further
RESOLVED, that a copy of this resolution be published in the
Associa- tion’s official publication.

Robert C. Sanders
Recording Secretary

Ref. : https://www.theiai.org/pdf/res97_9.pdf
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 143

GLOSSARY

Aberration- The inability of a lens to produce a true image. Generally,

the more expensive the lens, the less its aberrations. No lens is
technically perfect.

Air Bells- Small bubbles of air that attach to the film’s emulsion. If these
bubbles remain attached, the negatives will have undeveloped
spots. Agitation will remove air bubbles on the film.

Agitation- Keeping the developer, stop bath, or fixer in uniform motion

while processing film or paper. Agitation helps to achieve even
development and prevent spotting or staining.

Ambient Light- The available light surrounding a subject.

Angle of View- The amount of area visible when looking through a

lens. Angle of view is determined by the focal length of the lens.
The angle of view for a standard 50 mm lens is approximately
47 degrees; for a 28 mm wide angle lens, it is 75 degrees; for a
135 mm telephoto lens, it is 18 degrees.

Anti-Halation Backing- A thin coating containing a dye or pigment

to prevent light rays from reflecting back to the film’s emulsion
once it passes through.

Apochromatic- Having the ability to bring all colors of the visible

spectrum to a common plane of focus within close tolerances.
Also, this is a lens which is most completely corrected for
chromatic aberration.

Aperture- A lens opening. The hole or opening in a camera lens through

which light passes to expose the film. The size of aperture is
either fixed or adjustable. Aperture size is marked in f-stops.

Astigmatism- A lens aberration in which both the horizontal and

vertical lines in the edge of the field cannot be accurately
focused at the same time.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 144

ASA- American Standards Association. An early organization or group

that determined numerical ratings for film speed. A number
which represents a film’s sensitivity to light. At present, the
organization which rates film speed is the ISO (International
Standards Organization).

B (Bulb) Setting- A shutter speed setting a camera that allows for time
exposures. When set on B, the shutter will stay open as long as
the shutter release button remains depressed.

Backlighting- Light coming from behind the subject toward the

camera. Sometimes it produces a silhouette effect. When
taking photographs, the photographer generally wants the light
falling onto the subject.

Beer’s Law- The optical density of a colored solution is proportionate

to the concentration of light absorbing material.

Bracketing- A series of photographs taken at different exposures to

insure the correct exposure. Useful when shooting a situation
in which normal metering is difficult to obtain. Crime scene
photographers generally bracket arson scenes since it is difficult
to get accurate meter readings in burned out buildings.

Burning-In- A darkroom procedure in which additional exposure is

given to part of the image projected on photographic paper to
make that area of the print darker. This is accomplished by
blocking out light falling on other areas of the photo.

Chromatic aberration- A lens aberration producing an overall blurred

image. The inability of a lens to bring all wave lengths of light
into the same plane of focus.

Color temperature- The color of a light-source measured by comparing

it with the color of light emitted by a theoretical perfect radiator
at a particular temperature expressed in Kelvin (K). Thus
“photographic daylight” has a color temperature of about
5500K. Photographic tungsten lights have color temperatures
of either 3400K or 3200K depending on their rating.

Contact Print- A print made by placing a photographic negative in

direct contact with a piece of photographic paper then passing
light through the negative to make the exposure. The contact
print is the same size as the negative.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 145

Contrast- The range of difference in the light and dark areas of a

negative. Also, referred to as tonal difference or tonal values in
a negative.

D-76 Developer- a Kodak film developer.

Dektol Developer- a Kodak print developer.

Density- The dark area in a negative or print.

Depth of Field- When the camera is focused on a subject, it is the zone

of acceptable sharpness in front of and behind the subject.
The depth of field distance is approximately one-third of the
focusing distance in front of and two thirds of the focusing
distance behind the subject in sharp or critical focus. The
depth of field is different with each f-stop.

Depth of Focus- The distance which the focusing can be racked back
and forth and still have the subject appear in focus. Sometimes
depth of focus is confused with depth of field.

Developer- A solution used to make latent images visible on film

or paper. The basic ingredient in a developing agent causes
the silver halide particles to change to metallic silver in the
emulsion. There are many developers on the market, and they
are designed for different types of film. Generally, different
developers are used for film and prints.

Developing Tank- A light tight container used for processing film.

Developing tanks are made of stainless steel or plastic. Most
have a light tight lid that solutions can be poured through. This
permits processing film in a room with the lights on.

Diaphragm- An adjustable device inside the lens used to control the

amount of light passing through the lens to expose the film.

Diffusing- A translucent material used scatter light rays. Diffuse

lighting will produces a low to moderate amount of contrast.

DIN- A numerical rating used to describe the emulsion speed or light

sensitivity of German made films. Deutsch Industries Norm
(DIN). Some film manufactures give the DIN with the ASA or
ISO numbers.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 146

Diopter- A measure of lens power.

Dodging- A darkroom procedure in which the projected image is

reduced by blocking the light.

Double Exposure- Two pictures taken in the same frame of film or two
images printed on the same piece of photographic paper.

Easel- A device used to hold the photographic paper in place during

exposure.

Emulsion- A thin layer of gelatin containing a suspension of light

sensitive silver salts. The light sensitive compounds are referred
to as silver halides. The speed of the film will determine the size
of the silver halide particles. The faster the speed of the film,
the larger the particles.

Emulsion Side- The side of the film coated with light sensitive silver
salts.

Enlargement- A print that is larger than the negative.

Enlarger- A device consisting of a light source, a negative holder, a

lens, and means of adjusting these to project an image from a
negative onto a sheet of photographic paper. An enlarger can
make the print larger by increasing the distance between the
negative and the easel.

F-Stop- A numbers on the lens aperture ring that indicates the

relative size of the lens opening. The f-stop series is a geometric
progression based on changes in the aperture size. The standard
numbers are 1.0, 1.4, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, 32, etc., and
each change results in a doubling or halving of the amount of
light transmitted to the film. Just remember 1.0 and 1.4. Each
is doubled every other time in the progression to produce the
scale.

Film Speed- The sensitivity of a film to light. The higher the number
the more sensitive to light or faster the film. The speed of the
film is indicated by the numerical rating designated as the ASA,
ISO or DIN rating.

Fixer- A chemical solution usually containing sodium thiosulphate.

Films or prints are immersed in this solution after development
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 147

to convert the unexposed silver halides in the emulsion to

soluble products that can be washed out. This prevents
subsequent deterioration of the image.

Flatness of Field- The ability of a lens to produce a sharp image at the

center and edges of a negative.

Focal Length- The distance between the film and the optical center of
the lens when the lens is focused at infinity. In 35 mm format
cameras, 50 to 58 mm are called normal or standard lenses.
Lenses with a focal length less than

Forensic Photography deals with the study of notion of photography,

its application to law enforcement work and the preparation of
photographs for court presentation.

Infra-red photography is the art or process of photographing or

recording unseen objects by the naked eye by means of infra-
red light. An ultra-violet photography, the result can only be
seen after the photograph is developed.

Macro Photography is photographing of object at greater that 1:1

ratio up to nine (9) times magnification. It is the making of
enlarged copies of prints such as photographs of tampered
serial number of firearms, engine number and chassis number
of motor vehicle and the like.

Micro Photography is the art or process of photographing minute

objects and magnified by means of the microscope and enlarges
from 10 times up.

Mug-shot is the process of taking photographs of the suspect/s in full

length, half body, right and left side views, and two quarter
views. To unidentified cadavers, include marks on the victim’s
body especially tattoo / scar for identification.

Reciprocity Effect- Most films are designed to be exposed within a

certain range of exposure times. When exposure times exceed
this range, the film’s characteristics may change. Loss of film
speed, contrast, and color shifts are typical changes. These
changes are referred to as the “reciprocity effect.”

Reticulation- Film that has a wrinkled or leather like appearance. It is

generally caused by excessive expansion and contraction of the
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 148

gelatin while processing often due to temperature or chemical

changes.

Sharpness- A term used to describe the ability of a lens to render

detail clearly.

Single-Lens-Reflex (SLR) Camera- A type of camera that allows the

photographer to see through the camera’s lens when viewing
through the viewfinder.

Skylight Filter- A light pink filter used to eliminate some of the blue
caused by haze. This filter does not affect the exposure. Most
photographers keep a skylight filter on the lens to protect the
lens from dust and fingerprints.

Stop Bath- A weak solution of acetic acid used in the second step of
processing black and white film or paper. It stops the developing
process. Kodak stop bath turns purple when it is used up or
exhausted.

Photography is the art of process of producing images of objects by

action of light on sensitized surface with the aid of an image-
forming device known as camera and the chemical process
involved therein.

Ultra-violet photography is the art or process of photographing

unseen objects by the naked eye with the use of ultra-violet
rays and filters. The main purpose of photographing ultra-
violet photography is to provide information about an object
or materials, which cannot be obtained by ordinary photo
methods.

Underexposure - A condition in which too little light reaches the film.

It produces a thin negative or a dark slide. A black and white
negative will also produce a dark print.

Vignette- Underexposure of the edges of a photograph. Sometimes it

is a desired effect for portraits.

Wetting Agent- A chemical that reduces the surface tension of water

and allows the film to dry faster. It also helps prevent water
spots. Photo flow is a wetting agent.

Zoom lens- Lenses which allow the user to continuously vary the focal
length without changing the focus.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 149

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Brenner, J. C. (2004). Forensic Science: An Illustrated Dictionary. New

York: CRC Press LLC.

Duncan, C. D. (2010). Advanced Crime Scene Photography. New York:

CRC Press.

Finn, J. (2009). Capturing the Criminal Image: From Mug Shot to

Surveillance Society. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota
Press.

Francis, K. (2007). Identification Photography. In M. R. Peres (Ed.),

Focal Encyclopedia of Photography: Digital Imaging, Theory
and Applications, History, and Science (4th ed., pp. 330-332).
Burlington, MA: Elsevier Inc.

Hedgecoe, J. (2005). The book of Photography. London: Dorling

Kindersley Limited.

Horswell, J. (2004). Crime Scene Photography. In J. Horswell (Ed.),

The Practice of Crime Scene Investigation (pp. 153-163). New
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Kodak. (2013, October 17). Top Ten Tips. Retrieved from Kodak: http://
www.kodak.com/global/en/corp/top10tips/

Langford, M., Fox, A., & Smith, R. S. (2010). Langford’s Basic

Photography: The Guide for Serious Photographers (9th ed.).
Oxford: Elsevier Ltd.

Lerner, K. L., & Lerner, B. W. (Eds.). (2006). World of Forensic Science

(Vol. 1). Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson Gale.

Lynch-Johnt, B. A., & Perkins, M. (2008). Illustrated Dictionary of

Photography. New York: Amherst Media, Inc.
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY third EDITION 150

Miller, L. S. (2007). Police Photography. In M. R. Peres (Ed.), Focal

Encyclopedia of Photography: Digital Imaging, Theory and
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Pepper, I. K. (2005). Crime Scene Investigation: Methods and

Procedures. New York: McGraw-Hill Open University Press.

Peres, M. R. (Ed.). (2007). Focal Encyclopedia of Photography: Digital

Imaging, Theory and Applications, History, and Science (4th
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Robinson, E. M. (2010). Crime Scene Photography (2nd ed.). San Diego,

CA: Elsevier Inc.

Sanders, R. C. (2010). History of Forensic Imaging. In E. M. Robinson,

Crime Scene Photography (2nd ed., pp. 1-18). San Diego, CA:
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Spring, G. (2007). Forensic Photography. In M. R. Peres (Ed.), Focal

Encyclopedia of Photography: Digital Imaging, Theory and
Applications, History, and Science (4th ed., pp. 535-537).
Burlington, MA: Elsevier Inc.

Staggs, S. (2005). Crime Scene and Evidence Photographer’s Guide

(2nd ed.). California: Staggs Publishing.

Wright, T. (1999). The Photography Handbook. New York: Routledge.